SECOND SEMESTER BSc.

MATHEMATICS

Foundations of Mathematics
Module III

Foundations of Vector Calculus

Rectangular Coordinate System

1. 2-space

2. 3-space

3. x-axis, y-axis, z-axis.

4. xy plane, yz plane, xz plane.

5. Distance formula: Distance between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in 2-space
is p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
Distance between two points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in 3-space is
p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

6. Equation of a sphere with centre (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and radius r is

(x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 = r2

Problems
1. Find the distance d between the points (2, 3, −1) and (4, −1, 3).

2. Show that (4, 5, 2), (1, 7, 3) and (2, 4, 5) are vertices of an equilateral triangle.

3. Show that (2, 1, 6), (4, 7, 9) and (8, 5, −6) are the vertices of a right triangle.

4. Find the center and radius of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x − 4y + 8z + 17 = 0.

5. Find the standard equation of the sphere with center (7, 1, 1) and radius 4.

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Vectors
1. Quantities having both magnitude and direction are called vectors.
Example : Dispalcement, velocity etc.

2. Vectors can be represented geometrically by arrows in 2-space or 3-space; the direc-

tion of the arrow specifies the direction of the vector, and the length of the arrow
describes its magnitude.

3. The tail of the arrow is called the initial point of the vector, and the tip of the
arrow the terminal point.

4. We will denote vectors with lowercase boldface type such as a or ⃗a.

5. When discussing vectors, we will refer to real numbers as scalars. Scalars will be
denoted by lowercase italic type such as a.

6. Two vectors, ⃗v and w,

⃗ are considered to be equal (also called equivalent) if they
have the same length and same direction, in which case we write ⃗v = w.
⃗

7. If ⃗v and w
⃗ are vectors, then the sum ⃗v + w
⃗ is the vector from the initial point of ⃗v
to the terminal point of w⃗ when the vectors are positioned so the initial point of w⃗
is at the terminal point of ⃗v .

8. If ⃗v is a nonzero vector and k is a nonzero real number (a scalar), then the scalar
multiple k⃗v is defined to be the vector whose length is |k| times the length of ⃗v and
whose direction is the same as that of ⃗v if k > 0 and opposite to that of ⃗v if k < 0.
We define k⃗v = 0 if k = 0 or ⃗v = ⃗0.

9. If a vector ⃗v is positioned with its initial point at the origin of a rectangular co-
ordinate system, then its terminal point will have coordinates of the form (v1 , v2 )
or (v1 , v2 , v3 ), depending on whether the vector is in 2-space or 3-space. We call
these coordinates the components of ⃗v , and we write ⃗v in component form using
the bracket notation

⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ or ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩

10. Two vectors are equivalent if and only if their corresponding components are equal.

11. If ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 are vectors in 2-space and k is any scalar, then

⃗ = ⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 ⟩
⃗v + w
⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨v1 − w1 , v2 − w2 ⟩
k⃗v = ⟨kv1 , kv2 ⟩

2
12. Similarly, If ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ and w
⃗ = ⟨w1 , w2 , w3 ⟩ are vectors in 2-space and k is
any scalar, then

⃗ = ⟨v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , v3 + w3 ⟩
⃗v + w
⃗v − w
⃗ = ⟨v1 − w1 , v2 − w2 , v3 − w3 ⟩
k⃗v = ⟨kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ⟩

−−→
13. If P1 P2 is a vector in 2-space with initial point P1 (x1 , y1 ) and terminal point
P2 (x2 , y2 ), then
−−→
P1 P2 = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ⟩
−−→
Similarly, if P1 P2 is a vector in 3-space with initial point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and terminal
point P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), then
−−→
P1 P2 = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩

14. For any vectors →

−
u, →
−
v and →
−
w and any scalars k and l, the following relationships
hold:

(a) →
−u +→−
v =→ −v +→
−u
(b) ( u + v ) + w = →
→
− →
− →
− −u + (→
−
v +→
−
w)
(c) →
−
u +0=0+→ −u =→
−
u
(d) →
−
u + −→
−
u =0
(e) k(l→
−u ) = (kl)→
−
u
(f) k( u + v ) = k →
→
− →
− −
u + k→
−
v
(g) (k + l)→
−
u = k→
−
u + l→
−
u
(h) 1→
−u =→ −
u

15. The distance between the initial and terminal points of a vector →
−
v is called the
→
−
length, the norm, or the magnitude of v and is denoted by ∥v∥.
In 2-space, if →
−
v = ⟨v , v ⟩, then norm of →
1 2
−
v is given by
q
∥→
−
v∥= v12 + v22

In 3-space, if →
−
v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩, then norm of →
−
v is given by
q
→
−
∥ v ∥ = v12 + v22 + v32

16. If →
−
v is a vector and k is a scalar, then

∥k →
−
v ∥ = |k| ∥→
−
v∥

3
 17. A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.
In an xy-coordinate system the unit vectors along the x - axes and y-axes are
denoted by î and ĵ, respectively; and in an xyz-coordinate system the unit vectors
along the x, y and z-axes are denoted by î, ĵ and k̂, respectively.

18. A unit vector in the direction of a vector →

− −
→
v
v is given by ∥−
→
v∥
.
The process of obtaining a unit vector by this process is known as normalizing.

Problems
1. If ⃗v = ⟨−2, 0, 1⟩ and w
⃗ = ⟨3, 5, −4⟩, then find ⃗v + w ⃗ − 2⃗v .
⃗ and w

2. Find the vector joining the points (2,3) and (4,1) in 2-space.

3. Find the vector joining the points (1,2,3) and (7, 3, −4) in 3-space.

4. Find the norms of →

−
v = ⟨−2, 3⟩ and 10→
−
v.

5. Find the norm of the vector →

−
v = −3î + 2ĵ + k̂.

6. Find the unit vector that has the same direction as →

−
v = 2î + 2ĵ − k̂.

7. If →
−
u = î − 3ĵ + 2k̂, →
−
v = î + ĵ, and →
−
w = 2î + 2ĵ − 4k̂, find ∥u + v∥, ∥u∥ + ∥v∥, ∥ −
2u∥, ∥3u − 5v + w∥

8. Find a unit vector in the same direction of −î + 4ĵ.

9. Find a unit vector in the opposite direction of 6î − 4ĵ + 2k̂.

10. Find a unit vector in the same direction as the vector from the point A(−1, 0, 2) to
the point B(3, 1, 1).

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Dot Product of Two Vectors
1. If ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ and⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ are vectors in 2-space, then the dot product of ⃗u
and ⃗v is written as ⃗u · ⃗v and is defined as

⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2

If ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ are vectors in 3-space, then the dot product
of ⃗u and ⃗v is written as ⃗u · ⃗v and is defined as

⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3

2. Algebraic Properties of Dot Product

If ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ are vectors in 2- or 3-space and k is a scalar, then:

(a) ⃗u · ⃗v = ⃗v · ⃗u
(b) ⃗u · (⃗v + w)
⃗ = ⃗u · ⃗v + ⃗u · w
⃗
(c) k (⃗u · ⃗v ) = (k⃗u) · ⃗v = ⃗u · (k⃗v )
(d) ⃗v · ⃗v = ∥⃗v ∥2
(e) 0 · ⃗v = 0

3. Angle Between Two Vectors

If ⃗u and ⃗v are nonzero vectors in 2-space or 3-space, and if θ is the angle between
them, then
⃗u · ⃗v
cos θ =
∥⃗u∥∥⃗v ∥
4. Result :If θ is the angle between two vectors ⃗u and ⃗v , then the dot product of ⃗u
and ⃗v can also be defined as

⃗u · ⃗v = ∥⃗u∥∥⃗v ∥ cos θ

5. If two vectors ⃗u and ⃗v are perpendicular, then

⃗u · ⃗v = 0

6. If ⃗u and ⃗v are two vectors, then ⃗u · ⃗v = ⃗v · ⃗u.

7. î · î = ĵ · ĵ = k̂ · k̂ = 1

8. î · ĵ = ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · î = 0

9. If α, β and γ are the angle between a vector ⃗v = v1 î + v2 ĵ + v3 k̂ and the unit vectors
î, ĵ and k̂ respectively, then direction cosines of the vector ⃗v are
v1 v2 v3
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ =
∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥ ∥⃗v ∥

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10. If α, β and γ are the angle between a vector ⃗v = v1 î + v2 ĵ + v3 k̂ and the unit vectors
î, ĵ and k̂ respectively, then

cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

11. Decomposing Vectors into Orthogonal Components

In many applications it is desirable to “decompose” a vector into a sum of two
orthogonal vectors with convenient specified directions.
In 2-space, suppose eˆ1 and eˆ2 are two orthogonal vectors. Then, a given vector ⃗v
can be expressed as sum of two vectors of the form

⃗v = k1 eˆ1 + k2 eˆ2

where the scalar k1 = ⃗v · eˆ1 and k2 = ⃗v · eˆ2 .

That is
⃗v = (⃗v · eˆ1 ) eˆ1 + (⃗v · eˆ2 ) eˆ2
Here (⃗v · eˆ1 ) eˆ1 is known as the vector component of ⃗v in the direction of eˆ1
and (⃗v · eˆ2 ) eˆ2 is known as the vector component of ⃗v in the direction of eˆ2 .
Similarly ⃗v · eˆ1 is known as the scalar component of ⃗v in the direction of eˆ1
and ⃗v · eˆ2 is known as the vector component of ⃗v in the direction of eˆ2 .
π
If θ denotes the angle between ⃗v and eˆ1 , and the angle between ⃗v and eˆ2 is 2
or
less, then the scalar components of ⃗v can be written in trigonometric form as

⃗v · eˆ1 = ∥⃗v ∥ cos θ and ⃗v · eˆ2 = ∥⃗v ∥ sin θ.

Therefore, the decomposition of ⃗v can also be expressed as

⃗v = (∥⃗v ∥ cos θ) eˆ1 + (∥⃗v ∥ sin θ) eˆ2

12. Orthogonal Projection : If ê is a unit vector and ⃗v is a vector, then the orthog-
onal projection of ⃗v on ê is defined as

projê⃗v = (⃗v · ê)ê.

If ⃗b is an arbitrary nonzero vector and ⃗v is a vector, then the orthogonal projec-

tion of ⃗v on ⃗b is defined as
!
⃗b ⃗b
proj⃗b⃗v = ⃗v · .
∥⃗b∥ ∥⃗b∥
This can also be written as
⃗v · ⃗b ⃗
proj⃗b⃗v = b.
∥⃗b∥2

⃗v − proj⃗b⃗v is known as vector component of ⃗v orthogonal to ⃗b.

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 13. We know that the work done W by a constant force F acting on an object that
moves a distance d along a line is

W = F × d = Force × distance.

If we let F⃗ denote a force vector of magnitude ∥F⃗ ∥ = F acting in the direction of

motion, then we can write the above work done as

W = ∥F⃗ ∥ d.

Also, if we assume that the object moves along a line from point P to point Q, then
−→
d = P Q, so that the work can be expressed entirely in vector form as
−→
W = ∥F⃗ ∥ ∥P Q∥.
−→
The vector P Q is called the displacement vector for the object. In the case where
a constant force F is not in the direction of motion, but rather makes an angle θ
with the displacement vector, then we define the work W done by F to be
  −→ −→
W = ∥F⃗ ∥ cos θ ∥P Q∥ = F⃗ · P Q.

Problems
1. Find the dot product of the vectors ⃗u = î + 2ĵ and ⃗v = 6î − 8ĵ.

2. Find the dot product of the vectors ⃗u = î − 3ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗v = 8î − 2ĵ − 2k.

3. Find the dot product of the vectors ⃗u = ⟨−3, 1, 2⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨4, 2, −5⟩.

4. Find the angle between the vector ⃗u = î − 2ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗v = −3î + 6ĵ + 2k̂

5. Find the angle between the vector ⃗u = 2î + 7ĵ and ⃗v = −3î + 6ĵ − 6k̂

6. Determine whether ⃗u and ⃗v make an acute angle, an obtuse angle, or are orthogonal:

(a) ⃗u = 7î + 3ĵ + 5k̂ and ⃗v = −8î + 4ĵ + 2k.

(b) ⃗u = 6î + ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗v = 4î − 6k.

7. Find the direction cosines of the vector ⃗v = 2î − 4ĵ + 4k̂, and approximate the
direction angles to the nearest degree.

8. Find the angle between a diagonal of a cube and one of its edges.

9. Use vectors to show that A(2, −1, 1), B(3, 2, −1), and C(7, 0, −2) are vertices of a
right triangle. At which vertex is the right angle?

10. Find r so that the vector from the point A(1, −1, 3) to the point B(3, 0, 5) is or-
thogonal to the vector from A to the point P (r, r, r).

7
11. Let ⃗v = ⟨2, 3⟩, eˆ1 = ⟨ √12 , √12 ⟩ and eˆ2 = ⟨− √12 , √12 ⟩. Find the scalar components of
⃗v along eˆ1 and eˆ2 and the vector components of ⃗v along eˆ1 and eˆ2 .

12. Find the orthogonal projection of ⃗v = î + ĵ + k̂ on ⃗b = 2î + 2ĵ, and then find the
vector component of ⃗v orthogonal to ⃗b.

13. Find the vector component of ⃗v along ⃗b and the vector component of ⃗v orthogonal
to ⃗b in the following cases:

(a) ⃗v = 2î − ĵ, ⃗b = 3î + 4ĵ

(b) ⃗v = ⟨4, 5⟩, ⃗b = ⟨1, −2⟩
(c) ⃗v = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.

14. Express the vector ⃗v = 4î−2ĵ +6k̂ as the sum of a vector parallel to ⃗b = −2î+ ĵ −3k̂
and a vector orthogonal to ⃗b.

15. (a) A wagon is pulled horizontally by exerting a constant force of 10 lb on the

handle at an angle of 600 with the horizontal. How much work is done in
moving the wagon 50 f t?
(b) A force of F⃗ = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂ lb is applied to a point that moves on a line from
P (−1, 1, 2) to Q(3, 0, −2). If distance is measured in feet, how much work is
done?

16. A box is dragged along the floor by a rope that applies a force of 50 lb at an angle
of 600 with the floor. How much work is done in moving the box 15 f t?

17. Find the work done by a force F⃗ = −3j pounds applied to a point that moves on
a line from (1, 3) to (4, 7). Assume that distance is measured in feet.

18. A force of F⃗ = 4î − 6ĵ + k̂ newtons is applied to a point that moves a distance of
15 meters in the direction of the vector î + ĵ + k̂. How much work is done?

8
Cross Product of Two Vectors
1. If ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ are vectors in 3-space, then the cross product
of ⃗u and ⃗v is written as ⃗u × ⃗v and is defined as

î ĵ k̂
⃗u × ⃗v = u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

2. For any vector ⃗u, ⃗u × ⃗u = 0.

3. Algebraic Properties of Cross Product

If ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ are vectors in 3-space and k is a scalar, then:

(a) ⃗u × ⃗v = −(⃗v × ⃗u)

(b) ⃗u × (⃗v + w)
⃗ = (⃗u × ⃗v ) + (⃗u × w)
⃗
(c) k (⃗u × ⃗v ) = (k⃗u) × ⃗v = ⃗u × (k⃗v )
(d) ⃗v × ⃗v = 0
(e) 0 · ⃗v = 0

4. î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0

5. î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ · k̂ = î, k̂ · î = ĵ

6. ⃗u and ⃗v are vectors in 3 space, then

⃗u · (⃗u × ⃗v ) = 0 and ⃗v · (⃗u × ⃗v ) = 0.

That is ⃗u × ⃗v is orthogonal to both ⃗u and ⃗v .

7. If ⃗u and ⃗v are nonzero vectors in 3-space, and if θ is the angle between them when
they are positioned so that initial points coincide. Then

(a) ∥⃗u × ⃗v ∥ = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v ∥ sin θ.

(b) Area of the parallelogram that has ⃗u and ⃗v are adjacent sides is

A = ∥⃗u × ⃗v ∥

(c) ⃗u × ⃗v = 0 if and only if they are parallel vectors.

8. Scalar Triple Product : Let ⃗u, ⃗v and w⃗ be three vectors. Then scalar triple
product of these vectors are defiend as

u1 u2 u3
⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3

9
 9. Let ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ be three vectors. Then

⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = ⃗v · (w
⃗ × ⃗u) = w
⃗ · (⃗u × ⃗v ).

10. Let ⃗u, ⃗v and w

⃗ be three vectors. Then

⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = (⃗u × ⃗v ) · w.
⃗

That is the dot and cross in a scalar triple product can be interchanged.

11. Let ⃗u, ⃗v and w

⃗ be three non-zero vectors in 3 space. Then

(a) The volume V of the parallelopiped that has ⃗u, ⃗v and w

⃗ as adjacent edges is

V = |⃗u · (⃗v × w)|

⃗

(b) If ⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ = 0, then ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ lies in the same plane.

Problems
1. If ⃗u = ⟨1, 2, −2⟩ and ⃗v = ⟨3, 0, 1⟩, find ⃗u × ⃗v and ⃗v × ⃗u.

2. Find a vecor that is orthogonal to both the vectors ⟨2, 1, −3⟩ and ⟨−7, 2, −1⟩.

3. Find a vecor that is orthogonal to both the vectors ⃗v = −7î+3ĵ + k̂ and ⃗u = 2î+4k̂.

4. If ⃗u = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗v = −î − 3ĵ + k̂, then find ⃗u × ⃗v . Also check whether it is
orthgonal to ⃗u and ⃗v .

5. If ⃗u = ⟨2, −1, 3⟩, ⃗v = ⟨0, 1, 7⟩ and w

⃗ = ⟨1, 4, 5⟩, find (⃗u ×⃗v )×(⃗u × w)
⃗ and (⃗u ×⃗v )× w.
⃗

6. Find the area of the triangle that is determined by the points P1 (2, 2, 0), P2 (−1, 0, 2)
and P3 (0, , 4, 3).

7. Find the area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides ⃗u = î−jj +2k̂ and ⃗v = 3ĵ + k̂.

8. Calculate ⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ if ⃗u = 3î − 2ĵ − 5k̂, ⃗v = î + 4ĵ − 4k̂ and vecw = 3ĵ + 2k̂.

9. Calculate ⃗u · (⃗v × w)
⃗ if ⃗u = 2î − 3ĵ + k̂, ⃗v = 4î + ĵ − 3k̂ and vecw = ĵ + 5k̂.

10. Find the volume of the parellelopiped that has ⃗u = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗v = 4î + 5ĵ + k̂ and
w
⃗ = î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ as edges.

11. Check whether the vectors ⃗u = 5î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗v = 4î − ĵ + k̂ and w
⃗ = î − 2ĵ are
co-planar or not.

10
Parametric Equations of Lines
1. The line in 2-space that passes through the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and is parallel to the
nonzero vector⃗v = ⟨a, b⟩ = aî + bĵ has parametric equations

x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt

2. The line in 3-space that passes through the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is parallel to
the nonzero vector⃗v = ⟨a, b, c⟩ = aî + bĵ + ck̂ has parametric equations

x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct

3. Vector equation of a line is passing through the point r⃗0 and parallel to the non
zero vector ⃗v is
⃗r = r⃗0 + t⃗v .

4. Symmetric Form : The equation of a line that passes through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 )
and is parallel to the vector ⃗v = ⟨a, b, c⟩, where a, b and c are nonzero is
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c

Problems
1. Find parametric equations of the line

(a) passing through (4, 2) and parallel to ⃗v = ⟨−1, 5⟩

(b) passing through (1, 2, −3) and parallel to ⃗v = 4î + 5ĵ − 7k̂
(c) passing through the origin in 3-space and parallel to ⃗v = ⟨1, 1, 1⟩.

2. (a) Find parametric equations of the line L passing through the points P1 (2, 4, −1)
and P2 (5, 0, 7).
(b) Where does the line intersect the xy-plane?

3. Let L1 and L2 be the lines

L1 : x = 1 + 4t, y = 5 − 4t, z = −1 + 5t

L2 : x = 2 + 8t, y = 4 − 3t, z = 5 + t

(a) Are the lines parallel?

(b) Do the lines intersect?

4. Find parametric equations describing the line segment joining the points P1 (2, 4, −1)
and P2 (5, 0, 7).

11
 5. Find an vector equation of the line in 3-space that passes through the points
P1 (2, 4, −1) and P2 (5, 0, 7).
6. Find parametric equations for the line whose vector equation is given by

⟨x, y, z⟩ = ⟨−1, 0, 2⟩ + t⟨−1, 3, 0⟩

7. Find parametric equations for the line whose vector equation is given by

xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = k̂ + t(î − ĵ + k̂)

8. Find the vector form of the equation of the line

x = −3 + t, y = 4 + 5t

9. Find the vector form of the equation of the line

x = 1 + t, y = −7 + 3t, z = 4 − 5t

10. Find the parametric form of the line through (0, 3) that is parallel to the line
x = −5 + t, y = 1 − 2t.
11. Find the parametric form of the line through (−2, 0, 5) that is parallel to the line
given by x = 1 + 2t, y = 4 − t, z = 6 + 2t.
12. Find the intersections of the lines with the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane
(a) x = −2, y = 4 + 2t, z = −3 + t
(b) x = −1 + 2t, y = 3 + t, z = 4 − t
13. Show that the lines L1 and L2 intersect, and find their point of intersection:

L1 : x = 2 + t, y = 2 + 3t, z = 3 + t

L2 : x = 2 + t, y = 3 + 4t, z = 4 + 2t

14. Determine whether the lines L1 and L2 are parallel:

L1 : x = 3 − 2t, y = 4 + t, z = 6 − t

L2 : x = 5 − 4t, y = −2 + 2t, z = 7 − 2t

15. Determine whether the points P1 (6, 9, 7), P2 (9, 2, 0) and P3 (0, −5, −3) lie on the
same line.
16. Find the parametric form of the line whose symmetric equations are
x−1 y+3
= =z−5
2 4

12
Plane in 3-Space
1. Equation of the plane passing through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and perpendicular to the vector
⃗n = ⟨a, b, c⟩ is
⃗n · (⃗r − r⃗0 ) = 0
where ⃗r = ⟨x, y, z⟩ and r⃗0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩.
This equation can also be expressed as

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0

This form is called point normal form of a plane.

2. A vector perpendicular to a plane is called normal to the plane.

3. If a, b, c and d are constants, and a, b, and c are not all zero, then the graph of the
equation
ax + by + cz + d = 0
is a plane that has the vector ⃗n = ⟨a, b, c⟩ as a normal.

4. Two distinct intersecting planes determine two positive angles of intersection - an

(acute) angle θ that satisfies the condition 0 ≤ θ π2 and the supplement of that angle
If n⃗1 and n⃗2 are normals to the planes, then depending on the directions of n⃗1 and
n⃗2 , the angle θ is either the angle between n⃗1 and n⃗2 or the angle between n⃗1 and
−n⃗2 . In both cases, the following formula for the acute angle θ between the planes
is
|n⃗1 · n⃗2 |
cos θ =
∥n⃗1 ∥ ∥n⃗2 ∥

5. The distance D between a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is

|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|

D= √
a2 + b2 + c2

Problems
1. Find an equation of the plane passing through the point (3, −1, 7) and pendicular
to the vector ⃗n = ⟨4, 2, −5⟩.

2. Determine whether the planes 3x − 4y + 5z = 0 and −6x + 8y − 10z − 4 = 0 are

parallel.

3. Find an equation of the plane through the points P1 (1, 2, −1), P2 (2, 3, 1), and
P3 (3, −1, 2).

4. Determine whether the line x = 3 + 8t, y = 4 + 5t, z = −3 − t is parallel to the

plane x − 3y + 5z = 12.

13
 5. Find the intersection of the line x = 3 + 8t, y = 4 + 5t, z = −3 − t and the plane
x − 3y + 5z = 12.

6. Find the acute angle of intersection between the two planes 2x − 4y + 4z = 6 and
6x + 2y − 3z = 4.

7. Find an equation for the line L of intersection of the planes 2x − 4y + 4z = 6 and

6x + 2y − 3z = 4.

8. Find the distance D between the point (1, −4, −3) and the plane 2x−3y +6z = −1.

9. Find the distance between the parallel planes x + 2y − 2z = 3 and 2x + 4y − 4z = 7.

10. Find an equation of the plane that passes through the point (2, 6, 1) and has the
vector ⃗n = ⟨1, 4, 2⟩ as a normal.

11. Find an equation of the plane that passes through the given points:

(a) (−2, 1, 1), (0, 2, 3) and (1, 0, −1).

(b) (3, 2, 1), (2, 1, −1) and (−1, 3, 2).

12. Determine whether the planes are parallel, perpendicular, or neither:

(a) 2x − 8y − 6z − 2 = 0, −x + 4y + 3z − 5 = 0.
(b) 3x − 2y + z = 1, 4x + 5y − 2z = 4.

13. Determine whether the line and plane are parallel, perpendicular, or neither:

(a) x = 4 + 2t, y = −t, z = −1 − 4t; 3x + 2y + z − 7 = 0

(b) x = 1 − 2t, y = t, z = −t; 6x − 3y + 3z = 1

14. Find the acute angle of intersection of the planes x+2y−2z = 5 and 6x−3y+2z = 8.

14
Quadric Surfaces
1. The graph of the second degree equation

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

are called quadric surfaces or quadrics.

2. Different types of quadric surfaces are as follows (a > 0, b > 0, c > 0):

Sl No. Name Equation

x2 y2 z2
1 Ellipsoid a2
+ b2
+ c2
=1

x2 y2 z2
2 Hyperboloid of One Sheet a2
+ b2
− c2
=1

z2 x2 y2
3 Hyperboloid of Two Sheet c2
− a2
− b2
=1

x2 y2
4 Elliptic Cone z2 = a2
+ b2

x2 y2
5 Elliptic Paraboloid z= a2
+ b2

y2 x2
6 Hyperbolic Parabolic z= b2
− a2

3. (a) Ellipsoid - The traces in the coordinate planes are ellipses, as are the traces in
those planes that are parallel to the coordinate planes and intersect the surface
in more than one point.
(b) Hyperboloid of One Sheet - The trace in the xy-plane is an ellipse, as are
the traces in planes parallel to the xy-plane. The traces in the yz-plane and
xz-plane are hyperbolas, as are the traces in those planes that are parallel to
these and do not pass through the x- or y-intercepts. At these intercepts the
traces are pairs of intersecting lines.
(c) Hyperboloid of Two Sheet - There is no trace in the xy-plane. In planes parallel
to the xy-plane that intersect the surface in more than one point the traces are
ellipses. In the yz- and xz-planes, the traces are hyperbolas, as are the traces
in those planes that are parallel to these.
(d) Elliptic Cone - The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the traces
in planes parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses. The traces in the yz and xz
planes are pairs of lines intersection at the origin. The traces in planes parallel
to these are hyperbolas
(e) Elliptic Paraboloid - The trace in the xy-plane is a point (the origin), and the
traces in planes parallel to and above the xy-plane are ellipses. The traces

15
 in the yz- and xz-planes are parabolas, as are the traces in planes parallel to
these.
(f) Hyperbolic Parabolic - The trace in the xy-plane is a pair of lines intersecting
at the origin. The traces in planes parallel to the xy-plane are hyperbolas.
The hyperbolas above the xy-plane open in the y-direction, and those below
in the x-direction. The traces in the yz- and xz-planes are parabolas, as are
the traces in planes parallel to these.

Problems
1. Describe the surface 4x2 + 4y 2 + z 2 + 8y − 4z = −4

2. Describe the surface y 2 = x2 + z 2

3. Describe the surface z = −(x2 + y 2 )

4. Identify the surface 3x2 − 4y 2 + 12z 2 + 12 = 0

5. Identify the surface 4x2 − 4y + z 2 = 0

6. Idenify the surface 4x2 − y 2 + 16(z − 2)2 = 100

7. Idenitify the surface 9x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 − 18x + 2y + 16z = 10.

16
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
1. Rectangular coordinates - x, y, z

2. Cylindrical coordinates - r, θ, z; r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

3. Spherical coordinates - ρ, θ, ϕ; ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π

4. In cylindrical coordinates the surfaces represented by equations of the form r =

r0 , θ = θ0 , and z = z0 are constants, then

(a) The surface r = r0 is a right circular cylinder of radius r0 centered on the

z-axis.
(b) The surface θ = θ0 is a half-plane attached along the z-axis and making an
angle θ0 with the positive x-axis.
(c) The surface z = z0 is a horizontal plane.

5. In spherical coordinates the surfaces represented by equations of the form ρ =

ρ0 , θ = θ0 and ϕ = ϕ0 where ρ0 , θ0 and ϕ0 are constants then

(a) The surface ρ = ρ0 consists of all points whose distance ρ from the origin is
ρ0 . Assuming ρ0 to be nonnegative, this is a sphere of radius ρ0 centered at
the origin.
(b) As in cylindrical coordinates, the surface θ = θ0 is a half-plane attached along
the z-axis, making an angle of θ0 with the positive x-axis.
(c) The surface ϕ = ϕ0 consists of all points from which a line segment to the
origin makes an angle of ϕ0 with the positive z-axis.

6. Conversion formula for coordinate systems

Coordinate system Formula

Cylindrical to rectangular x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z

p
Rectangular to cylindrical r= x2 + y 2 , tan θ = xy , z = z

Spherical to cylindrical r = ρ sin ϕ, θ = θ, z = ρ cos ϕ

√ r
Cylindrical to spherical ρ= r2 + z 2 , θ = θ, tan ϕ = z

Spherical to rectangular x = ρ sin ϕ cos θ, y = ρ sin ϕ sin θ, z = ρ cos ϕ

p
Rectangular to spherical r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 , tan θ = xy , cos ϕ = √ z
x2 +y 2 +z 2

17
Problems
√
1. Convert from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates: (4 3, 4, −4), (−5, 5, 6).

2. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point with cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) =
(4, π2 , −3)

3. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point with spherical coordinates (ρ, θ, ϕ) =
(4, π2 , π4 ).
√ √
4. Convert from rectangular to spherical coordinates: (1, 3, −2), (1, −1, 2).

5. Find the√spherical coordinates of the point that has rectangular coordinates (x, y, z) =
(4, −4, 4 6).
√
6. Convert from cylindrical to spherical coordinates: ( 3, π6 , 3), (1, π4 , −1).

7. Convert from spherical to cylindrical coordinates: (5, π4 , 2π

3
), (1, 7π
6
, π).

8. Find equations of the paraboloid z = x2 +y 2 in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.

9. An equation of a surface is given in rectangular coordinates. Find an equation of

the surface in cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates:
p
(a) z = x2 + y 2
(b) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
(c) x2 + y 2 = 1
(d) x2 + y 2 − z 2 = 1
(e) z = 3
(f) y = 2
(g) z = 3x2 + 3y 2
p
(h) z = 3x2 + 3y 2
(i) x2 + y 2 = 4
(j) x2 + y 2 − 6y = 0
(k) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2

18