Islamic Radicalization in UK

ISLAMIC RADICALIZATION IN THE UK: INDEX OF
RADICALIZATION
Anna Wojtowicz, (Research Assistant, ICT)

Sumer 2012
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the process of radicalization amongst British Muslims
in the United Kingdom. It begins with a review of the Muslim population, demographics and
community structure. Further presenting several internal and external indicators that
influenced and led to radicalization of Muslim youth in Britain. The paper concludes that
there is no one certainty for what causes radicalization amongst Muslims in United Kingdom.
However, it is certain that Islamic radicalization and the emergence of a homegrown threat is
a growing trend that jeopardizes the countries security, peace and stability. Radicalization in
the United Kingdom is an existing concern that needs to be addressed and acted upon
immediately. Misunderstanding or underestimating the threat may lead to further and long
term consequences.
* The views expressed in this publication are solely those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Institute
for Counter-Terrorism (ICT).
2
I. Introduction
4
II. Background 5
History of the Muslim Community in the United Kingdom 5
Population 7
Geographical Concentration of Muslims 8
Ethnic Background 10
Age Estimate 11
Occupation and Socio-Economic Conditions 11
Religious and Cultural Aspects 13
Multiculturalism 17
Islamophobia 20
Converts 21
Case Studies –London, Birmingham, Bradford, Leeds, Leicester 22
III. Organizations 28
Organizations within the United Kingdom 28
Mosques, Koranic Schools and Islamic Centers 34
Student Groups 40
Islamic Websites and TV 43
IV. Radicalization in Britain 43
Theoretical Background and Causes of Radicalization 43
Recruitment and Radicalization: Overlook 47
Radicalization Process 49
Forms of Financing 51
Radical Groups and Movements in the UK 53
Influential Leaders in the UK 60
Inspiration and Influence from Abroad 67
Sunni 67
Shia 70
3
V. Islamic Terrorist Activity in the UK (2000-2012) 71

Terrorist Attacks and Plots: Case Studies 71
List of Arrests, Charges and Extraditions of Terrorist Suspects 88
VI. United Kingdom Responses 96
VII. Conclusion 98
Bibliography 100
Appendix
4
I. Introduction
The September 11th 2001 terrorist attack on American soil triggered an international
discussion regarding terrorism as a new global security threat. As a result of the attack many
countries adopted new domestic and international counter-terrorism laws and raised concerns
regarding the Muslim presence in the United States and Europe. Before 9/11, the United Kingdom
was not on major alert regarding possible terrorist attacks nor was it focused on the issue of Islamic
radicalization until the 7 July 2005 bombings in London. The attack had not only an enormous
impact on the country’s perception of domestic security, but further influenced the continuation of
the rise of radicalization amongst the British Muslim community. There is no one reason or
explanation for why certain individuals are prone to radicalization. However, the fundamental
factor in the recruitment and radicalization process is the organizations ideology and the
individual’s belief that violence is the legitimate tool towards solving problems. Islamic ideologies
create security risks and cause tensions between communities. Radical Islam is widely considered
to be in conflict with democratic principles and has largely overtaken British traditional values by
imposing its own. Organizations and individuals responsible for radicalization only became
apparent and emerged into the public domain after the 7/7 attacks. The attack caused psychological
distress to UK citizens. For the officials, the problem of domestic radicalization as primary trigger
of terrorism became evident. It is equally important to mention that despite the homegrown Islamic
terror threat and growing radicalization in the United Kingdom, the majority of British Muslims are
upstanding citizens, who feel a part of the British community and oppose terrorist attacks.
The following paper examines the radicalization and rise of Islamic extremism amongst a
significant number of British Muslims, whose extreme vision of Islam has led to their
disintegration and isolation from British society. Although the United Kingdom is comprised of
four different nations – England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland – the primary focus of this
paper is on England, where the main radicalization takes place. The first part of the paper presents
an overview of the history and structure of the Muslim population and approach of British society
towards the Muslim community. The second part focuses on radical social organizations that
engage or support terrorist activities and furthermore, on the internal aspects of the Muslim
community, which play an important role in Muslim radicalization. The third section details the
radicalization process and examines radical groups, movements and leaders in the United
Kingdom, as well as the international sources influencing the radicalization of Muslim society. The
forth part presents case studies of Islamic terrorist activity and plots in Britain over the last twelve
5
years. The fifth section describes the United Kingdom’s counter-terrorism steps over the past
several years. The final section concludes the paper by evaluating the implications of the main
findings.
II. Background
History of the Muslim Community in the UK
Muslim presence in the United Kingdom (UK) is not a new phenomenon. It dates back more
than one hundred years back and has deep roots in British history. However, there is little
awareness amongst today’s population that Muslims are not foreigners in British society. They
influenced the growth of Britain and contributed to the country’s growth and reconstruction of after
World War II.
The first interaction between the British and Muslims dates back to the eighth century and the
trade links between Mercia, Islamic Spain and Portugal. Former Christian territories gradually
became influenced by the Islamic world in the tenth century. This influenced the expanding
perception of Muslims as spiritually deviant and anti-Christian, which led to religious sanctions
and further to military and material Crusades against such influence.1 Intermarriages were known
to have taken place between Muslims and non-Muslim Britons during the Crusades.2 The first
Muslims to arrive to England’s shores were mainly North Africans and Turks.3 As a result of
British colonization of Muslim territories in the 1800s, many Africans, South Asians and Middle
Easterners resided in Britain.4 Although the Lebanese arrived in the 1860s, the first large groups of
Muslims to arrive, settle and form one of the country’s first Muslim communities were the Yemeni
sailors in the late 1800s to areas such as Cardiff, South Shields and Liverpool. 5 They settled in
British port towns and through the years became part of the immigrant labor force in industrial
cities.6 Furthermore, they established the first Islamic schools and the first mosques, which had
commercial and mercantile interests,7 and printed the first British Muslim-Arabic newspaper in
Western Europe, Al Salam from the Nur al-Islam Mosque.8 The first mosque created in the United
Kingdom of Britain and Ireland was Masjid-e-Abu-Harairah in Cardiff in the year 1860; the second
was the 1889 Shah Jahan Mosque in Woking. During the nineteenth century, many Brits converted
to Islam. The most prominent and early British Muslim convert was solicitor William Henry
1
Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Muslims in Britain. An introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 11
2
H. A. Hellyer, Muslims of Europe. The ‘Other’ Europeans, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, p. 145
3
4
5
Ibid., p. 148
6
Fred Halliday, Britain’s First Muslims. Potrait of an Arab Community, I.B. Tauris, 2010, p. x
7
Stefano Allievi, Why a solution has become a problem, Alliance Publishing Trust in NEF Initiative on Religion and Democracy in
Europe, 2010, p.18
8
6
Quilliam, who was directly connected to the emergence of the Muslim community in Liverpool. He
helped build the first mosque, Islamic center and orphanage in Liverpool where Christian orphans
were raised as Muslims.9 The arrival of Abdullah Ali al-Hakimi to South Shields brought the
practice of Islam into the streets and public consciousness.10 Even though at this time the Muslim
community was still small, it had an immense number of supporters and grew through local
converts, many of whom were well known in their communities and part of the expanding Yemeni
population.11 With the British Empire’s rule ending in South Asia, sections of India were divided
and Pakistan was created in 1947.12 The partition caused ongoing fights and consequently many
Muslims from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh arrived to Britain in search of a better life. 13 As a
result of World War II, Britain faced a shortage of labor due to deaths and the immigration of its
citizens. In order to restore and stabilize the economy, the British government encouraged
migration and advertised jobs in its former colonies, mainly the Indian sub-continent and the
Caribbean. The legislations of 1948, which altered the status of all colonial British migrants into
citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies, stated their right to enter, and entitled them to social,
political and economic advantages.14
Between 1940 and 1960, what is known as the “golden era” of Muslim migration, those from
East Africa and South Asia dominated the immigration to Britain. The rising number of immigrants
resulted in the government’s legislative measures and unrestricted immigration ended with the
Commonwealth Immigrants Act on 30 June 1962, which outlined the conditions for entry into
Britain.15 During the 1970s and 1980s, Arab migration expanded from North Africa and it is
estimated that half a million people of Arab descent were living in the UK.16 As a result, further
restrictions were taken by the government, which bought immigration to a stop. 17 Throughout the
1980s and the 1990s – due to political unrest, social challenges and economic hardship in the
Middle East and Africa – Britain has accepted Muslim refugees and asylum seekers. The liberal
political asylum policy (the Covenant of Security)18 guaranteed freedoms that British authorities
claimed were denied to the Islamic migrants – many of whom were convicted for crimes in their
9
H. A. Hellyer, Muslims of Europe. The ‘Other’ Europeans, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, pp. 144, 148
10
Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Muslims in Britain. An introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 29, 33
11
12
13
Fred Halliday, Britain’s First Muslims. Potrait of an Arab Community, I.B. Tauris, 2010, p. 132
14
Randall Hansen, Migration to Europe since 1945: Its history and its lessons, p. 26, Available:
http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~rhansen/Articles_files/20031.pdf, Accessed 2 August 2012
15
16
Fred Halliday, Britain’s First Muslims. Potrait of an Arab Community, I.B. Tauris, 2010, pp. 1,5
17
18
The Convenat of Security was an operation between radical Islamists in Britain and the security services. “It longstanding British
habit of providing refuge and welfare to Islamist extremists on the unspoken assumption that if we give them a safe haven here
they will not attack on these shores”. Mark Curtis, Secret Affairs: Britain’s collusion with Radical Islam, Profile Books, London,
2010, p. 257
7
native countries – who faced torture or death sentences in their countries. The British government’s
stance and guarantee of not being extradited proved to be the ideal opportunity for Islamic
extremists who freely preached their hate, plotted attacks and called to kill innocent people in other
countries. Amongst radicals who have been granted asylum despite major convictions were: Abu
Qatada, Abu Hamza al-Masri, Omar Bakri Muammad.19
Several phases of migration to the UK resulted in a visible growth of Muslims currently
living in Britain and increased the number of mosques, religious centers and Muslim communities.
The Population
As of mid-2010 the official total of the resident population in the UK was estimated to be
62.3 million20 of which 2.9 million were Muslims - an equivalent of 4.6% of the whole UK
population.21 Within the population of 62.3 million there were 52,234,000 in England; 3,006,000 in
Wales, 5,333,000 in Scotland and 1,799,000 in Northern Ireland.22 According to the Pew Research
Foundation, Britain has the third largest Muslim community in Europe, after Germany (4.1million)
and France (4.7 million) and there are more Muslims in Britain than there are in Lebanon.23 Over a
decade, there has been an increase of 74% of Muslims living in Britain based on the previous
figure of 1.6 million from the UK 2001 census.24 25
It is estimated that by 2030, with the current
rate of expansion, the size of the Muslim population will increase to 5.6 million.26 However, the
census may not have recorded the precise figures as statistics exclude unreported illegal Islamic
immigrants and converts to Islam. Although British citizens by law are obligated to complete the
census, the question regarding religious affiliation is voluntary. Furthermore, the census data did
19
United Kingdom – U.K, in Global Jihad. The 21th century’s phenomenon, Available:
http://globaljihad.net/view_page.asp?id=144, Accessed 17 July 2012
20
Annual mid-year population estimates, Office for National Statistics, 2010, pg.1, Available: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pop-
estimate/population-estimates-for-uk--england-and-wales--scotland-and-northern-ireland/mid-2010-population-
estimates/index.html, Accessed 3 August 2012
21
“The future of the global Muslim population. Projections for 2010-2030” The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 27 January
2011, Available: http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx#1, Accessed: 3 August
2012
22 Annual mid-year population estimates, Office for National Statistics 2010, pg.1, Available:
http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pop-estimate/population-estimates-for-uk--england-and-wales--scotland-and-northern-
ireland/mid-2010-population-estimates/index.html, Accessed 3 August 2012
23 “The future of the global Muslim population. Projections for 2010-2030” in The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 27
January 2011, Available: http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx#1,

Accessed: 3 August 2012
24
It is important to take into consideration the fact that at the time of writing this paper the Office for National Statistics had
released only partial publications of the 2001 census. Therefore, it should be acknowledged that data provided based on the
2001 census regarding the United Kingdom is subject to change and facts provided throughout the paper are a combination of
information from various years and surveys.
25
UK Muslim demographics (C-RE8-02527), The Telegraph, 4 February 2011, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/london-wikileaks/8304838/UK-MUSLIM-DEMOGRAPHICS-C-RE8-02527.html,
Accessed 12 August 2012
26
“The future of the global Muslim population. Projections for 2010-2030” The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 27 January
2011, Available: http://features.pewforum.org/muslim-population/, Accessed: 3 August 2012
8
not differentiate between whether a person converted to a new faith or was born into it.27
According to scholar Sophie Gilliat-Ray, the increase in the Muslim population maybe a result of
several attributes: recent immigration, growing birth rate, some conversion to Islam, and increased
willingness to self-identify as “Muslim” on account of the “war on terror.”28
Geographical Concentration of Muslims
Muslim immigration to the UK is geographically diverse and includes immigrants from

various countries. The largest British Muslim communities are found in the metropolitan/industrial
areas offering better opportunities for employment. The Muslim capital of the UK is London,
which has served as a center of immigration and a safe-haven for refugees from all over the world
since the nineteenth century. Furthermore, Muslims and other faith communities are located in the
East and West Midlands, Eastern Lancashire, Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire.29 The
Muslim population of London remains highly diverse. However in northern England, the Muslim
community mainly consists of Pakistanis with a smaller population of Indian and Bangladeshi. 30
Table 1 presents Muslim geographical concentration in the UK based on the 2001 Census. Graph 1
shows information regarding the concentration of Muslims in England’s regions in 2001.
Table 1: Muslim Geographical Concentration in the UK based on 2001 Census31
Country Principal Muslim % Muslim

Cities Population Population
ENGLAND (EN) London 607,083 38.20
EN Birmingham 140,033 8.81
EN Bradford 75,188 4.73
EN Manchester 35,806 2.25
EN Oldham 24,039 1.51
EN Sheffield 23,819 1.50
EN Leeds 21,394 1.35
EN Rochdale 19,248 1.21
EN Bolton 18,444 1.16
EN Coventry 11,686 0.74
WALES Cardiff 11,261 0.71
SCOTLAND Edinburgh 6,759 0.43
EN Bury 6,756 0.43
EN Liverpool 5,945 0,37
27
The Islamification of Britain: record numbers embrace Muslim faith, The Independent, 4 January 2011, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-islamification-of-britain-record-numbers-embrace-muslim-faith-
2175178.html, Accessed 3 August 2012
28
Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Muslims in Britain. An introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.117
29
Review of the Evidence Base on Faith Communities, Mercia Group, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, April 2006, p.
10, Available http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/corporate/pdf/143816.pdf, Accessed 5 August 2012
30
Ibid.
31
Peter Hopkins and Richard Gale, Muslims in Britain. Race, place and identities, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, p. 8
9
As demonstrated in Table 1, London holds the biggest Muslim population in the United Kingdom.
Birmingham is the biggest city with the largest Muslim population outside of London.
Graph 1: Distribution of the Muslim population by English Government Region, 2001 Census32
As shown in Graph 1, people with Muslim backgrounds in 2001 were mostly concentrated in
London with nearly 40% (607, 083 of whole London population and dispersed within the other
regions from 1.5-14 percent).33 Despite the figures, Muslims contribute a smaller percentage across
regions in comparison to Christianity, which continues to dominate in the UK. Table 2 shows the
allocation of the highest numbers of Muslim population in Local Authority Districts in which the
highest percentage of Muslims remained in two London boroughs Tower of Hamlets (36%) and
Newham (24%).
Table 2: Highest Muslim Population in Local Authority Districts34
Local authority districts Muslim population % of Muslim population

Tower Hamlets 71,000 36%
Newham 59,000 24%
Blackburn 27,000 19%
Bradford 75,000 16%
Waltham Forest 33,000 15%
Luton 27,000 15%
32
33
Ibid.
34
The Muslim Council of Britain, Available: http://www.mcb.org.uk/library/statistics.php, Accessed 5 August 2012
10
Birmingham 140,000 14%

Hackney 28,000 14%
Pendle 12,000 13%
Slough 16,000 13%
Brent 32,000 12%
Redbridge 29,000 12%
Westminster 21,000 12%
Camden 23,000 12%
Haringey 24,000 11%
Ethnic Background
The United Kingdom is characterized as a diverse, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society.

The Muslims who have settled in Britain are less ethnically homogeneous than any other of the UK
minorities.35 The majority of today’s UK Muslims are from the Indian Subcontinent (Pakistan
(43%); India (9%); Bangladesh (17%)).36 Up to 12% were White Muslims (recent converts or
descendants of fairly recent converts), 6% other Asian, 7% of Black African origin (61.9% African
born Muslims were from south and east Africa, especially Somali, Nigerian, and other North and
West African countries), 4% “Other” ethnic groups and 4% had one white parent. Other included
Turkish Cypriots, other Turks, Bosnian, Kosovan, former Yugoslav refugees, North African and
Middle Easterners.37 According to Gilliat-Ray at least 50% of the current British Muslim
population was born in the UK and a large majority, regardless of their country of origin hold
British citizenship.38
In 2007, the England and Wales Citizenship Survey data released information regarding the
percentages of British National Identity by Ethnicity, as seen in Table 3.
Table 3: Percentages reporting a British National Identity by Ethnicity39
Ethnicity All UK-born Foreign-born
White British 100% 100% 92%
Indian 73% 97% 64%
Pakistani 81% 95% 71%
Bangladeshi 80% 92% 77%
Black 88% 97% 79%
Caribbean
Black African 51% 86% 45%
35
36
Sophie Gilliat-Ray and Jonathan Birt, A mosque too far? Islam and the limits of British multiculturalism, in Stefano Allievi, Why a
solution has become a problem, Alliance Publishing Trust in NEF Initiative on Religion and Democracy in Europe, 2010, p.135
37
Review of the Evidence Base on Faith Communities, Mercia Group, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, April 2006, pp.
10, 14, Available: http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/corporate/pdf/143816.pdf, Accessed 5 August 2012
38
Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Muslims in Britain. An introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. 121-122
39
British Politics and Policy at LSE. Blog Admin, The London School of Economics and Political Science, 14 April 2011, Available:
http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/2011/04/14/multiculturalism-immigration-support-white-population/, Accessed 13 August
2012
11
As shown in Table 3, all white Brits reported their national identity to be British. However, the
percentages are lower for those from ethnic minorities. One must note that in general foreign-born
individuals are less likely than UK-born individuals to identify themselves, as British and
minorities are more likely to be foreign-born. There are very little differences between whites and
non-whites for the UK-born, and despite differences, the overwhelmingly Muslim Pakistanis and
Bangladeshis do not stand out as having much lower levels of British national identity. 40
Age estimate
British Muslims are unique in terms of age distribution in comparison with the rest of the UK
population. They are demographically young and are the most quickly expanding religion in
England.41 The UK census in 2001 showed that 34% of Muslims were under the age 16 and less
than one in ten was aged 65 or older.42 Table 4 presents the age distribution amongst the three
biggest minorities in the UK.
Table 4: Distribution of age43
0-14 years 15-29 years 30-44 years

Indian 23% 24% 27%
The 2002 data by the UK Office of National Statistics demonstrated that one third of the
Bangladeshi Muslim population was under 16, presenting the highest proportion for any age
group.44 The birth rate among Muslim immigrants in Britain was far higher than amongst white
Brits. In 2003, 33.8% of Muslims were aged 0-15 years (national average was 20.2%); 18.2% was
aged 16-24 (national average was 10.9%).45 The 2001 Census indicated that men, to some extent,
outnumbered women by a ratio of 48 % to 52 %, but among younger Muslims, there was a more
equal proportion of male and female. Approximately half of the Muslims in Britain were born in
40
2012
41
Review of the Evidence Base on Faith Communities, Mercia Group, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, April 2006, p. 17,
Available http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/corporate/pdf/143816.pdf, Accessed 5 August 2012
42
43
44
Ibid.
45
Ibid.
12
the UK, but regardless of their birthplace, the vast majority of British Muslims held UK
citizenship.46
Occupation & Socio-economic Conditions
The Muslim community is more likely than other minorities to be disadvantaged based on the
following factors: high levels of male unemployment, low levels of qualification (percentage of
working in blue-collar occupations is high), low home ownership, large families, higher percentage
in social housing, incidence of over-crowding and high percentage of residence in deprived
localities.47
Ethnic and national communities, which are of Muslim faith, are among the most deprived
groups in Britain.48 Levels of unemployment among British Muslims vary. Pakistani and
Bangladeshi communities that make up 90% of Muslims were the poorest groups in the country
and had the highest levels of unemployment in comparison to British Muslims of Indian descent. 49
The Muslim Council of Britain included the following information on its site: 37% of Bangladeshi
Muslims are from London’s poorest borough – Tower Hamlets. Pakistani and Bangladeshi men
earn £150 per week less than white men, while the difference is significantly less for other ethnic
minorities. They are three times more likely to be unemployed than Hindus and Indian Muslims.
Bangladeshis and Pakistanis are two and a half times more likely to be unemployed than
Caucasians and nearly three times more likely to be in low-paying jobs.50 In 2004, 13% of Muslim
men in Britain were unemployed, which was over three times the rate for Christian men (4%).51
Nearly 28% of Muslims aged 16-24 were unemployed compared to 11% for Christian males from
the same age group.52 In 2001 over 11% of Muslims over the age of 25 were unemployed. 53 The
2004 Annual Population Survey, the Office for National Statistics in Britain further concluded that
“men and women of working age from the Muslim faith are…more likely than other groups in
Great Britain to be economically inactive, that is, not available for work and/or not actively seeking
46
47
H. A. Hellyer, Muslims of Europe. The ‘Other’ Europeans, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, pp. 154-155 and
Review of the Evidence Base on Faith Communities, Mercia Group, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, April 2006, p. 10,
Available http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/corporate/pdf/143816.pdf, Accessed 5 August 2012
48
H. A. Hellyer, Muslims of Europe. The ‘Other’ Europeans, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, pp. 154-155
49
Islam in the United Kingdom, Euro-Islam.Info, News and analysis on Islam in Europe and North America, Available:
http://www.euro-islam.info/country-profiles/united-kingdom/#identifier_7_464, Accessed 13 August 2012
50
51
52
Ibid.
53
UK Muslim demographics (C-RE8-02527), in The Telegraph, 4 February 2011, Available:
13
work.”54 Muslim women in the UK, as a result of religious beliefs, represent a low number in the
official workforce: less than 30% aged 25+ were economically active compared with 60% for all
women that age of which many were involved in low paid home working (example: Bangladeshi
women from Tower Hamlets working in the clothing industry).55 Evidently, the strong attitude and
sense of importance towards family changes women’s and men’s perception of work. Pakistani
men are expected to support the family whereas women are perceived as caregivers and
reproducers.56 Many women have a strong belief that parenting is the main responsibility and
personal career expectations are second priority.57 In 2004, 33% of working-age Muslims had no
qualifications (highest amongst all religious groups) and 12% were least likely to have degrees or
equivalent qualifications.58 The same year, one-fifth of Muslims were self-employed, 37% of
Muslim men and a quarter of Muslim women were working in the distribution, hotel and restaurant
industry.59 Between 16-20% of Muslim women worked in sales and customer service jobs. 60 One
in seven men worked in the transport and communication industry, less than a third worked in
managerial or professional occupations, and almost one in ten worked as a taxi driver or chauffeur
in 2004.61 As revealed by the 2001 census, Muslims in the UK are disproportionately likely to live
in poor quality accommodations with the highest percentage of overcrowding in comparison with
other religious groups.62 Fifty-one percent of Muslim households in the UK were home owners (of
which two thirds were likely to own their home with a loan or mortgage) compared with 69% of
households nationally.63 Surveys further revealed that Muslims had the highest disability rates,
with 24% of men and 21% of women claiming a disability and therefore not actively seeking
employment due to illness.64 The majority of Muslims in Britain speak English. However, as a
result of the community’s enormous ethnic and cultural diversity, Muslims speak Urdu, Bengali,
54
55
56
Sophie Bowlby and Sally Lloyd-Evans, You seem very westernised to me: place, identity and othering of Muslim workers in the UK
labour market, in Peter Hopkins and Richard Gale, Muslims in Britain. Race, place and identities, Edinburgh University Press, 2009,
p. 49
57
Ibid.
58
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
62
63
Ibid.
64
UK: Wikileaks revelation: 1 in 3 British Muslims students back killing for Islam and 40% want Sharia Law, The Muslim Issue, 10
August 2012, Available: http://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2012/08/10/uk-wikileaks-revelation-1-in-3-british-muslim-
students-back-killing-for-islam-and-40-want-sharia-law/, Accessed 13 August 2012
14
Arabic, Turkish and Somali.65 Subsequently, a relative number working and living in enclosed
communities do not require English.
Religious and Cultural Aspects
Defining Islam and what it means to be a British Muslim based primarily on the basis of
observations of a Muslim community does not provide a fully accurate description as to the
existing diversity within and outside Muslim communities. Nevertheless, as stated by Gilliat-Ray,
British Muslims should be defined as a social group, based on a generally shared set of core
religious beliefs. Although the majority of Muslims in Britain share a common religious identity,
their faith is shaped by their ethnic or national origins.66
The UK welcomed Muslim immigrants and the practice of Islam in Britain was legalized by
the Trinitarian Act 1812.67 The first generations arriving in the 50s and 60s followed, and they
obtained the designation of prayer facilities in the work place, public broadcasting of their call for
prayer, time off for Muslims to enjoy their holiday, and provision of halal food in public
institutions.68 The first and second generation of Muslim immigrants became familiar with British
life and focused their political interests on British society and institutions more than their countries
of origin.69 With the abolishment of the Blasphemy law (whose purpose was to protect the beliefs
of the Church of England) by the Act of Parliament in 2008,70 the Muslim population received
more religious freedoms that led to further expansion of faith throughout the United Kingdom.
Young Muslims, unlike the majority of their parents, aimed to interpret Islam as relevant to their
lives outside of the home and ethno-religious enclave, with an emphasis placed on being British
Muslims. Such an approach however, collided with the true beliefs of first generation Muslims and
preachers who had identified Islam “as a perfect system that should not be expected to adapt to
changing situations; it is the situations that must adapt to Islam (…).” 71 The view, which continues
to be stressed by radicals that the Islamic community is “living in the land of the infidel” created a
greater gap between the societies. Furthermore, Islamic laws create confusion amongst the young
British Muslim population, who finds it difficult to relate to their parents and elders.72
65
Muslims in London. Findings and recommendations, At home in Europe project, p. 1, Available:
http://www.soros.org/sites/default/files/muslims-london-findings-recommendations-20120715.pdf, 16 August, 2012
66
Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Muslims in Britain. An introduction, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp. xii, 121
67
Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom in The Union Islamic World Students, 5 September 2008, Available:
http://www.rohama.org/en/news/48/islam-is-the-second-largest-religion-in-the-united-kingdom,
68
69
Ibid.
70
Islam in the United Kingdom, in Euro-Islam.Info, News and analysis on Islam in Europe and North America, Available:
71
Philip Lewis, Young British and Muslims, Continuum, 2007, p. 44
72
Ibid., pp. 44, 53
15
With the rise of the Muslim population, an increase in the number of mosques, religious centers
and organizations has been recorded. Mosques are closely connected to social and cultural
identities of Muslims. The number of officially registered mosques in the United Kingdom is
disputed as not all are officially registered. As of December 2011, there were a total of 1,642 active
mosques (masjids) and prayer rooms in the UK.73 Based on the finding of The Charity
Commission, approximately 600 mosques were registered as charities. 74 From the actual 1,529
mosques, 1499 were located in England; a further 40 in Wales; 57 in Scotland; 2 in Northern
Ireland; 2 Offshore Island and 30 in Republic of Ireland. 75 The majority of mosques in the UK
were established from converted houses or non-residential conversions, approximately 200 were
purpose-built. The Salaam’s mosque directory database on the 18 August 2012 had a total of 1446
mosques76 and 100 charities registered.77 Another source counts 500 mosques in the UK with
official registration granting tax benefits and rights to perform recognized marriage ceremonies. 78
The establishment of mosques in majority countries in Europe is linked to Muslim immigrant
workers as was presented earlier in the history of Muslim community in the UK. Findings of the
2010 report by the Network of European Foundation regarding mosques in Europe concluded that
in capital cities in particular, mosques and Islamic centers are built based on finance from external
resources and support of the Muslim World League under Saudi control.79 (King Fahad bin Abdul
Aziz from Saudi Arabia funded the creation of mosques, colleges, and schools in non-Islamic
countries including Britain). Cleary, based on geographical location, mosques have moreover been
located in industrial suburbs.80 In May 2008, Religious Trends reported that more than 50% of
Muslims regularly attended mosques.81 Table 5 demonstrates the concentration of mosques in
major areas in the United Kingdom. Further, for information regarding Britain’s biggest mosques
please see appendix section.
Table 5: Concentration of mosques in United Kingdom82
73
UK Mosques Statistics/Masjid Statistics, derived from data listed in the mosques.muslimsinbritain.org/maps.php Directory,
Available: http://www.muslimsinbritain.org/resources/masjid_report.pdf, Accessed 5 August 2012
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid.
76
Sala@m. Mosque directory, http://www.salaam.co.uk/mosques/index.php, Accessed 18 August 2012
77
Sala@m, Charity directory, http://www.salaam.co.uk/charities/list.php, Accessed 18 August 2012
78
79
Stefano Allievi, Why a solution has become a problem, Alliance Publishing Trust in NEF Initiative on Religion and Democracy in
Europe, 2010, p.18, Available:
http://www.alliancepublishing.org/wp-content/uploads/mosquesinEuropefullpdf.pdf, Accessed 4 August 2012
80
Ibid.
81
82
All UK & Ireland mosques, by Town, http://mosques.muslimsinbritain.org/maps.php, Accessed 11 August 2012
16
Area Number of Mosques

Accrington 8
Batley 11
Bedford 9
Birmingham 162
Blackburn 47
Bolton 22
Bradford 78
Bristol 18
Burnley 10
Cambridge 7
Cardiff 17
Coventry 10
Derby 9
Dewsbury 25
Dublin 10
Dudley 8
Edinburgh 8
Glasgow 20
Halifax 12
Huddersfield 15
Leeds 23
Leicester 53
London 352
Luton 15
Manchester 58
Newcastle Upon Tyne 14
Nottingham 23
Oldham 29
Oxford 7
17
Peterborough 7
Preston 15
Reading 10
Sheffield 33
Slough 11
Stoke-on-Trent 16
Walsall 16
The majority of mosques in the UK are Sunni and the division of mosques in 2010 was as
follows: 44.6% Deobandi, 25.4% Bareilvi, 5.8% Salafi, 3.1% Maudoodi, 4.2% Shia, 2.8% other.83
According to a report on the 2009-10 Citizenship Survey, the percentage of Muslims who actively
practiced their faith was 79% (6% increase since 2005) and the rise was especially observed
amongst the population aged 16-29 (from 68% to 80%).84 By gender, Muslim women (83%) are
more likely than men (76%) to practice their religion. 85 Immense numbers of British Muslims,
especially South Asians are influence by traditions of Islam that affects their everyday life.
Muslims primarily base their laws on the holy books the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which is believed
to be the practical example of Prophet Muhammad. Secondly, Islam is based on five basic Pillars
of Islam (faith, praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage), which are mandatory for all Muslims.86
The 2006 data by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office on the pilgrimage practices showed that a
minimum of 25,000 British Muslims travel to Mecca (sic) and Madinah (sic) every year.87
Marriage plays a very important role in Islamic culture as well. It has been suggested that arranged
marriages amongst the Muslim community form a constant growth of population in areas where
Muslims dominate.88 A high number of marriages occur especially within the South Asian Muslim
communities in UK, most likely amongst Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. Many of these are
marriages between first cousins or other relatives, as permitted by the Islamic faith, cultural
83
84
Race, Religion and Equalities: A report on the 2009-2010 Citizenship Survey, Communities and Local Government, p.8, Available:
http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/statistics/pdf/2056245.pdf, Accessed 8 August 2010
85
Ibid., p.22
86
Islamic London, in BBC Home, 11 September 2008, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2005/05/26/islam_faith_feature.shtml, Accessed 14 August 2012
87
Sean McLoughlin, Holy spaces, contested spaces: British Pakistani accounts of pilgrimage to Makkah and Madinah, in Peter
Hopkins and Richard Gale, Muslims in Britain. Race, place and identities, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, p. 133
88
18
practices and traditions.89 It is important to mention that family and group ties are a significant part
of the Muslim culture, as every individual becomes a part of a community.
Multiculturalism
The United Kingdom and several other countries implemented a policy of multiculturalism,
which has influenced how the government engages with minorities and manages cultural diversity.
There are various definitions and understandings of what multiculturalism is. However, mainly it
has been perceived as a step towards integrating immigrants, accepting all cultural differences,
achieving equality, and expanding opportunities for minorities in order to create a sense of
belonging.
Table 6: Sense of belonging by ethnicity90

Ethnicity Fairly or very strongly Fairly or very strongly Agreeing one can belong
feeling they belong to feeling they belong to to Britain and maintain a
Britain the local area separate/religious identity
White British 85% 72% 66%
Indian 89% 75% 84%
Black 84% 75% 77%
Caribbean
Black African 84% 66% 82%
As shown in Table 7, ethnic minorities in 2007 showed similar levels of belonging as white British,
to Brits and their local area. When minorities connect to Britain they feel there is no conflict
between their cultural and religious identity in incorporating into the British society (as presented
in the last table column). However, one-third of White Brits do not agree with the perception that
one can belong to Britain while having a minority religious or cultural identity. 91
89
90
2012
91
Ibid.
19
An immense number of Muslims see themselves both as British and Muslim and wish to take
active part as citizens supporting the idea of multiculturalism. The 2005 BBC/MORI
multiculturalism poll92 reported that 82% of Muslims and 62% of the majority of the British
population felt that multiculturalism made Britain a better place.93 Thirty-two percent of the
national responders thought that multiculturalism threatened the British way of life: only 8%
Muslims responded to the concern. Further, 54% stated “parts of the country don’t feel like Britain
any more because of immigration.”94 The survey suggested that the 7/7 bombings had not led to an
increase in racial intolerance and the majority of British Muslims rejected the idea that the country
was becoming less racially tolerant. This was quite surprising considering the widely held
perception of rising intolerance towards Muslims after the terrorist bombings. There was a general
agreement between groups that immigrants were obligated to learn English and accept the authority
of British institutions despite the divided answer regarding “people who come to live in Britain
should adopt the values of and tradition of British culture.” Fifty-eight percent of national
responders agreed in comparison to 28% of Muslims.95
As a result of UK policy aimed at achieving equality, minority languages, religions and
cultural practices were encouraged. With the encouragement of integration into the British
community, many mosques, Islamic organizations and schools with Islamic curriculum were
established. Before the Rushdie affair, which was a milestone in the evolution of race relations in
the UK, members of the majority population had mainly led the debate about how multiculturalism
was best achieved, while minorities were mainly passive.96 The integration of minorities was
perceived in effect as assimilation, which meant complete adjustment to the dominant society.
Subsequently, the discussion regarding Muslims, British identity and the future of multiculturalism
became a more mutual process after the Rushdie affair (the majority population needed to adapt to
the changing role of the British minorities which argued their rights). 97 Ultimately, today there is a
disagreement over the role Islam should play in the publics’ life; an example of such is the
controversial statement of Rowan Williams (Archbishop of Canterbury) who favored the
incorporation of certain Shari’a law into UK law.98 2006 polls revealed that 40% of Muslims
wanted Shari’a law as a majority of the British Muslim were becoming more radical and felt
92
The survey was based on a nationally representative sample of 1,004 Britain’s
93
UK majority back multiculturalism, 10 August 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4137990.stm, Accessed 16
August 2012
94
Ibid.
95
Ibid.
96
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid.
20
alienated from society.99 As of 2009, there were 85 Shari’a courts in operation.100 A survey
conducted by Washington-based Pew Global Attitudes Project in 2006 found that despite a
generally good relationship between British majorities and minorities, British Muslims had a more
negative view towards westerners than Islamic minorities elsewhere in Europe. 101 The British
Muslims accused westerners for problems between groups, describing them as selfish, arrogant,
greedy and immoral. Half of respondents described westerners as violent.102
Since 9/11, and especially since the July 2005 London attack (7/7 attack), multiculturalism as
a UK policy has been severely criticized and put into question. Several experts, institutions and
media have suggested that British multiculturalism created a sense of betrayal amongst the
minority. The minority realized that British culture was not prepared to fully accept Islam with its
traditions of alleged forced marriages and with the possible dominance of shari’a law over UK
law.103 It is believed that multiculturalism has been responsible for acts of terrorism in the UK, and
for accepting Muslims’ “(…) culturally unreasonable or theologically alien demands." 104 The
problem that derives from British multiculturalism is that it encourages minorities to foster their
culture and own identity, reinforcing therefore, Islamist tendencies to separateness and isolation.
This was clearly stated by British Prime Minister David Cameron who criticized the failed policy
of multiculturalism, by blaming it for Islamic extremism.105 The debate regarding the capability of
Muslim integration into British community continues.
Islamophobia
Islamophobia is society’s social apprehension towards Muslims and Islamic culture. It is
defined by the Open Society Institute as an “irrational hostility, fear and hatred to Islam, Muslims
and Islamic culture, and active discrimination towards this group as individuals or collectively.”106
99
Patrick Hennessy and Melissa Kite, Poll reveals 40pc of Muslims want sharia law in UK, 19 February 2006, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1510866/Poll-reveals-40pc-of-Muslims-want-sharia-law-in-UK.html,
100
UK: Muslim demographics (Wikileaks classified), 21 July 2012, Available:
http://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2012/07/21/muslim_demographics/, Accessed 13 August 2012
101
Julian Borger, Polls shows Muslims in Britain are the most anti-western in Europe, 23 June 2006, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jun/23/uk.religion, Accessed 16 August 2012
102
Ibid.
103
Nasar Meer and Tariq Modood, The multicultural state we’re in: Muslims, ‘Multiculture’ and the ‘Civic Re-balancing’ of British
multiculturalism, in Political Studies, Vol. 57, 2009, p. 481, Available:
http://www.nasarmeer.com/uploads/7/7/4/6/7746984/nasar_meer_and_tariq_modood_-_political_studies.pdf,
104
Nasar Meer and Tariq Modood, The multicultural state we’re in: Muslims, ‘Multiculture’ and the ‘Civic Re-balancing’ of British
multiculturalism, in Political Studies, Vol. 57, 2009, p. 474, Available:
http://www.nasarmeer.com/uploads/7/7/4/6/7746984/nasar_meer_and_tariq_modood_-_political_studies.pdf,
105
Laura Kuenssberg, State multiculturalism has failed, says David Cameron, in BBC News. UK Politics, 5 February 2011, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12371994, Accessed: 17 August 2012
106
ENGAGE Briefing note for MPs. An all party parliamentary group on islamophobia, ENGAGE, September 2010, pp. 4, 14
Available: http://www.levesoninquiry.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Second-Submission-by-Engage.pdf,
21
It creates a challenge to the Muslim community that wishes to be integrated into British society.
The term Islamophobia, which was used for the first time in a 1997 report created by the
Runnymede Trust regarding the anti-Muslim approaches in the UK,107 is negatively related to
multiculturalism. It has been suggested that hostility towards Muslims has risen amongst British
society after 9/11 and that it fully developed after the 7/7 bombings.
A 2005 survey conducted after the 7/7 attacks showed that Muslim students felt isolated and
witnessed a series of extremist acts on campus. It was revealed that 47% of Muslim students have
experienced Islamophobia.108 Before the attacks, 5% were reported to feel uncomfortable being
Muslim in Britain. However in the wake of 7/7, the number rose to 31%. Eighty-five percent of
responders condemned the attacks, 4% did not and 11% did not respond.109 The Institute of Race
Relations (IRR), in the aftermath of the bombings recorded a rise in attacks on Muslims across the
UK (at least one incident a day from 7/7 onwards).110 Data released in the Hate Crime Report
2007-2008 showed a 10% increase in crimes, involving racial or religious aggravation, from 1,300
to 13,008 (68% increase since 2005-2006).111 In 2009, 11% of Muslims surveyed (1 in 10) were
victims of an assault, threat or harassment, at least once during twelve months. A further 34% of
men and 26% of women claimed they experienced discrimination. The Muslims experiencing more
discrimination than others were aged between 16-24.112 The 2009-2010 Citizenship Survey
regarding race reported that Muslims accounted for 17% of the groups that were most likely to be
the subject of increased racial prejudice.113 The levels of concern regarding harassment based on
skin color, race and religion was highly recorded amongst Black African (32%), Indian (29%) and
other Asian groups (29%), of which religious discrimination was the highest amongst Muslim
26%.114 Data conducted by Gallup Coexist found that nearly 49% of British did not perceive
Muslims to be loyal citizens, although their loyalty and trust was the highest than other groups in
107
FAIR, Forum Against Islamophobia & Racism, Available: http://www.fairuk.org/introduction.htm,
108
Polly Curtis, Survey reveals alienation felt by Muslim students, The Guardian, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2005/sep/21/students.uk, Accessed 19 August 2012
109
Ibid.
110
The anti-Muslim backlash begins, in Institute of Race Relations, 14 July 2005, Available: http://www.irr.org.uk/news/the-anti-
muslim-backlash-begins/, Accessed 19 August 2012
111
ENGAGE Briefing note for MPs. An all party parliamentary group on islamophobia, ENGAGE, September 2010, pp. 5, 24
112
ENGAGE Briefing note for MPs. An all party parliamentary group on islamophobia, ENGAGE, September 2010, pp. 6, 26-27,
113
Race, Religion and Equalities: A report on the 2009-2010 Citizenship Survey, Communities and Local Government, p. 9,
Available: http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/statistics/pdf/2056245.pdf, Accessed 8 August 2010
114
Race, Religion and Equalities: A report on the 2009-2010 Citizenship Survey, Communities and Local Government, p. 9,
Available: http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/statistics/pdf/2056245.pdf, Accessed 8 August 2010
22
society 82%.115 Continued surveys found that attitudes towards Muslim people are based on
information provided by the media. In 2010 the YouGov poll found that 53% of Britons associated
Islam with extremism.116 Society’s negative outlook towards the minorities may have been an
outcome of the enhanced racial profiling after the 7/7 attacks that led to further alienation of the
minority groups.
British Muslims have faced more scrutiny, criticism and analysis than any other religious
community after the rise of violent Islamism. However, despite the negative depiction, thousands
of Britons are converting every year.117
Converts
There has been a growing number of Muslim converts in the United Kingdom. Data provided
by the Scottish Census in 2001 showed that there were 60,669 converts in the UK (59,445 converts
from England and Wales; 1,224 from Scotland, Northern Ireland converts were not included).
However, as result of lack of differentiation between a person being born into a religion or
adapting a new faith in the census, it is difficult to estimate the exact number of converts.118
In 2001, 55% of converts were from the White British ethnic group.119 Kevin Brice, on
behalf of the organization Faith Matters, estimated that a decade later (since 2001) the number had
risen to approximately 100,000 (4% of the British Muslim community) with 5,200 coverts in 2010
alone. Forty-four percent had converted in 2001 or before and 56% subsequently. Fifty-six percent
of Muslim converts were White British; 16% Other Whites, 29% non-Whites, 7% were actually of
Pakistani origins.120 Further research suggested that the percentage of female converts was 62%
higher than male (38%) and the average age of conversion for both was 27.5 years. Twelve percent
of converts changed their name, with the majority adopting a Muslim name. The majority of
converts see themselves as both British and Muslim; however, 39% of converts identified
115
The Gallup Coexist Index 2009: A Global Study of Interfaith Relations, Washington DC: Gallup Inc., 2009, p. 20, Available:
http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/gallup_coexist_2009_interfaith_relations_uk_france_germany.pdf,
116
ENGAGE Briefing note for MPs. An all party parliamentary group on islamophobia, ENGAGE, September 2010, p. 32 Available:
http://www.levesoninquiry.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Second-Submission-by-Engage.pdf,
117
The Islamification of Britain: record numbers embrace Muslim faith, The Independent, 4 January 2011, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-islamification-of-britain-record-numbers-embrace-muslim-faith-
2175178.html, Accessed 3 August 2012
118
Ibid.
119
Kevin Brice, A minority within a minority: a report on converts to Islam in the United Kingdom, Swansea University (UK), On
behalf of Faith Matters, December 2010, pp. 9-10, Available: http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-reports/a-minority-
within-a-minority-a-report-on-converts-to-islam-in-the-uk.pdf, Accessed 18 August 2012
120
Ibid., p. 10
23
themselves firstly as Muslims and secondly as British.121 For help and information when
converting, converts received information from books, Internet, media and Muslim acquaintances.
The following problems that individuals witnessed when converting to Islam were: lack of support
networks for converts, feeling of isolation, rejection and pressure from individuals born as
Muslims. Further, opinions made by media that converts are linked to extremism, terrorism, and
encourage the repression of women.122 In conclusion, the number of British converts from various
ethnic backgrounds has doubled in the past decade with a leading and growing number of white
women accepting the Islamic faith.
Case studies
London
London is home to the highest number of Muslims in England and the most divers of any
Muslim community in Europe in terms of history, language, ethnic origin, politics and social class.
In the mid-1800s, as a maritime port city and an international center for manufacturing, trade,
diplomacy and politics it attracted hundreds of Muslims.123 From the nineteenth century, London
became the center of immigration and a safe-haven for Central Asian refuges in the 1990s and
early twenty-first century. During this time, the city became a host to a large number of radical
Muslims who arrived to the UK after fighting the Soviets in Afghanistan. Further, Muslim
refugees, who arrived from Algeria, Chechnya and Bosnia after the Civil War in former
Yugoslavia, joined the growing Muslim community of Jihadists in London.124 In 2001 it had the
highest proportion of Muslims (38.2%), which made up nearly 8% of the overall London
population.125 As of 2001 there were 607,083 (38.2%) of Muslims living in London.126
The Muslim population of London remains highly diverse, and majorities originate from:
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India. Further from Turkey, Cyprus, Algeria, Morocco, sub-Saharan
West Africa, Horn of African, Egypt and Indonesia (Malaysia, Singapore).127 Amongst thirty-three
London boroughs the highest percentage of Muslims in 2001 remained in Tower of Hamlets and
121
behalf of Faith Matters, December 2010, p. 24, Available: http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-reports/a-minority-within-a-
minority-a-report-on-converts-to-islam-in-the-uk.pdf, Accessed 18 August 2012
122
Ibid., pp. 9,13, 20
123
124
125
UK Muslim demographics (C-RE8-02527),The Telegraph, 4 February 2011, Available:
126
127
Islam and Muslims in Britain. A guide, in Muslims in Britain, Available: http://guide.muslimsinbritain.org/guide3.html#3.3.2,
24
Newham.128 In regards to age, Muslims (of all religious groups), in London had the youngest
Muslim population: one-third below 15 years of age and 17% were aged between 16-24.129 In 2010
London accounted for almost 40% of total Muslim population in the UK, of which over 50% were
White British Muslims and Black Caribbean Muslims.130 During twelve months approximately 1,
4000 conversions took place in London in 2010 (this made up close to one-third of conversions in
whole of UK that year).131 As of 2012 there are 352 mosques, various charities, schools and
Islamic organizations.
Due to the enormous emigration of Muslims from Central Asia, the capital of England has
been described as Londonistan – the new land/country for Islamic radicals and central hub of
Islamic terror in Europe.132 The term originated in the late 1990s and was used by the French to
describe the growing presence of Islamist radicals in London. The British government through its
support of democratic values and tradition of civil liberties has failed to act towards the developing
Islamic groups in London. Over the years London has been a base for preaching extremists such as
Sheik Omar Bakri Mohammed, Abu Hamza al-Masri and masterminds of terrorist attacks in
different parts of Europe. For example Mustafa Setmarian Nasar who operated in London for years
before the Madrid bombings.
Further, a crossroad and safe haven for would-be terrorists where they could raise money, a
destination for men willing to carry out their threats, recruit members and draw inspiration towards
militant actions against the West.133
Birmingham
128
129
Muslims in London. Findings and recommendations, At home in Europe project, p. 1, Available:
http://www.soros.org/sites/default/files/muslims-london-findings-recommendations-20120715.pdf, 16 August, 2012
130
behalf of Faith Matters, December 2010, p. 11, Available: http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-reports/a-minority-within-a-
minority-a-report-on-converts-to-islam-in-the-uk.pdf, Accessed 18 August 2012
131
Ibid.
132
133
Elaine Sciolino, Don Van Natta Jr., For a decade, London
thrived as a busy crossroads of Terror, in The New York Times, 10 July 2005, Available:
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/10/international/europe/10qaeda.html?_r=1&ei=5090&en=03dee04dd2987f2b&ex=12786480
00&partner=rssuserland&pagewanted=all, Accessed 19 July 2012
25
In the early 1800s Birmingham was a maritime port and attractive manufacturing city for
Muslims.134 After the First World War, Birmingham as a result of its developing industry, attracted
former seafarers and dock laborers. After the Second World War it became an attraction for further
Muslim immigrants from Pakistan, Bangladesh, India,135 and refugees from Somalia, Afghanistan
and Bosnia-Herzegovina.136 In 2001 Birmingham was the biggest city with the largest
concentration of Muslims outside of London 140,000 (14%)137 with majority of Muslims from
Pakistan 69.6% and Bangladesh 13.8%.138 Amongst the total population of Muslims, 54.4% were
born in UK, further 28% in Pakistan and 7.2% in Bangladesh. 139 However, Pakistani minority
represented the largest single ethnic group (7% of total city population) with biggest concentration
in two wards of Birmingham – Small Heath 50.6% and Sparkbrook 40.5%.140 According to 2001
census, 5.6% of Muslims were of pensionable age, 57,2% included working age (from 16 to
pensionable age) and 37.2% were children.141
In relation to the labor market it has been noted, that there is a strong correlation between the
areas of Birmingham, which contain the highest unemployment rates. 142 In terms of occupation
27,455 people were actively employed in 2001, with majority of 20% (5,501) working in process,
plant and machine operatives, 17.9% (4,916) in elementary occupations and 11.2% (3,062) in sales
and customer services.143
Amongst the Bangladeshi minority, there was a slightly higher percentage of unemployment
22%, than amongst Pakistanis 21%.144 However, employment amongst women of both groups was
134
135
Ibid., pp. 43-44
136
Tahi Abbas, Dr., Muslims in Birmingham, UK, COMPAS, University of Oxford, pp. 4-5,
Available:
http://fatih.academia.edu/TahirAbbas/Papers/259068/Muslims_In_Birmingham_UK, Accessed 19 August 2012
137
Religious Group Profiles, 2001 Population Census in Birmingham, Birmingham City Council, p. 21, Available:
http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/, Accessed 19 August, 2012
138
Ibid.
139
Ibid.
140
Tahi Abbas, Dr., Muslims in Birmingham, UK, COMPAS, University of Oxford, pp. 5-6, 9
Available:
141
142
143
144
Alessio Cangiano, Mapping of race and poverty in Birmingham, ESRC Cetre on Migration, Policy and Society, COMPAS,
University of Oxford, p. 8, Available: http://www.extelligence.org/pdfs/Mapping-Birmingham-Report.pdf, Accessed 18 August
2012
26
very low.145 Despite the low economic level, the two largest ethnic groups had a higher level of
house ownership than the white majority.146
Currently there are nearly 200 mosques in the city. The major mosques and Islamic Centers
are: Central Jamia Masjid Ghamkor Sharif, Jami Msajid & Islamic Center, Coventry Road Mosque,
Green Lane Mosque with its headquarters of Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith UK. The number of converts in
Birmingham is estimated to be near 50% of the total Muslim population. In 2005 Birmingham was
under the medias watchful eye when a high profile arrest took place of Yasin Hassan Omar from
his Small Heath home on 27 July 2005. Omar was arrested for the failed terrorist attack in London
21 July and charged with four criminal charges.147
Bradford
Bradford is an industrial city in West Yokshire in which the majority of Muslims have roots
in rural areas.148 As a metropolitan manufacturing city, it has attracted Moroccan and Arab traders
since the 1830s.149 Further, with the developing wool textiles industry in the 1960s, it attracted
immigrants mainly from Bangladesh and Pakistan. The city was given a negative image during the
Rushdie Affair in 1989 (protest against the novel The Satanic Verses), further as results of riots in
1995 and 2001 involving the Pakistani minorities.150 During the 7 July 2001 riots the Muslims in
Bradford were presented as militant and violent as hundreds of police officers were left injured,
many citizens traumatized, further causing millions of pounds in damage.151
In 2001 it was estimated, that 25% (75,000) of whole population were Muslims, with
majority of Pakistani origin.152 In 2000, more than 80% of Muslims (mainly Pakistanis, Kashmiris
and Bangladeshis) were living in areas described as struggling (especially in inner city areas) and
only 10% in the suburban areas.153 This was a result of a collapse in Bradford main industry
145
2001 Census Topic Report: Cultural Background Executive Summary, Available:
http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/cs/Satellite?blobcol=urldata&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobheadername1=Content-
Disposition&blobkey=id&blobtable=MungoBlobs&blobwhere=1223461354316&ssbinary=true&blobheadervalue1=attachment%3
B+filename%3D79354Exec_Summary_Cultural_Background_FEB05.pdf, Accessed 19 August 2012
146
Alessio Cangiano, Mapping of race and poverty in Birmingham, ESRC Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, COMPAS,
University of Oxford, p. 8, Available: http://www.extelligence.org/pdfs/Mapping-Birmingham-Report.pdf, Accessed 18 August
2012
147
Tahi Abbas, Dr., Muslims in Birmingham, UK, COMPAS, University of Oxford, p. 16, Available:
148
Philip Lewis, Young British and Muslims, Continuum, 2007, p. 25
149
150
Philip Lewis, Young British and Muslims, Continuum, 2007, p.25
151
Ibid., p. 29
152
153
27
(textile) between the 1960-1990 that left the first and second generation of Muslims struggling.154
In 2001 the biggest ethno-religious concentration of Bradford Muslims was in the Toller district
(64%).155 The 2001 Census predicted that by 2020 there would be nearly 130,000 Muslims in
Bradford.
Riots in the 1990s and early 2000s have put into question the role of multiculturalism, which
created segregation between Pakistani and local white communities.156 Further, the gap between
the level of education between the white majority and Asian Muslims minimized the Pakistani’s
youth chances for employment.157 There are no official statistics available regarding Muslim
worshippers in Bradford, however surveys have shown that at least a quarter of Muslims attend
prayers during the week, which was double the number of Anglicans. It was estimated that Muslim
believers provided a yearly turnover of £60,000.158 The segregation in regards to race, faith,
education and employment specifically amongst the young Muslim population of Bradford created
opportunities for extreme radical Islamist groups such as Hizb ut-Tahrir.
Leeds
Leeds is a diverse city and metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire with the Muslim
community sharing a similar background as Bradford (see above). In 2011 the general population
was estimated to be 798,800, which included 17.4% of Black, Asian and minority ethnic groups.159
Detailed information regarding specified ethnic groups in 2011 was not available. Despite the
boroughs development the city has over 150,000 people living in deprived areas, amongst which
30,000 children under the age of 16 live in poverty. 160 The British Pakistani minority, which in
2001 accounted for 15, 064 people,161 was often disregarded.
With unemployment of up to 7.8%, low social status, low education and difficulties
integrating with the majority the young population became targets of Islamist terrorists who
154
Philip Lewis, Young British and Muslims, Continuum, 2007, p.25
154
Ibid.
155
ENGAGE Briefing note for MPs. An all party parliamentary group on islamophobia, ENGAGE, September 2010, p. 42, Available:
http://www.levesoninquiry.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Second-Submission-by-Engage.pdf,
156
Ibid.
157
Philip Lewis, Young British and Muslims, Continuum, 2007, pp. 25-26
158
Jonathan Petre, Facing the axe: Diocese that has twice as many Muslim worshipper as Anglicans, in Mail Online, 24 October
2010, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1323237/Facing-axe-Diocese-twice-Muslim-worshippers-Anglicans.html,
159
State of the city. Our vision to be the best city in the UK, Leeds City Council, Leeds 2011, p. 2, Available:
http://www.leeds.gov.uk/docs/State%20of%20the%20city%20report.pdf, Accessed 14 August 2012
160
Ibid., p. 3
161
Neighbourhood Statistics, Office for National Statistics, 2001 Census, Available:
http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=7&b=276810&c=leeds&d=13&e=16&g=382631
&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1351259117301&enc=1&dsFamilyId=87, Accessed 14 August 2012
28
exploited the youth’s disappointment.162 Beeston extremist mosques (Hardy Street mosque,
Stratford Street mosque and Bengali mosque), youth clubs, gyms (the Al Qaeda gym) and Islamic
bookshop served as the “extremist incubators” for three of the four 7/7 attackers, who adopted
Salafi Islam.163 Young British Pakistanis presented an identity crisis due to the generation gap
between them and their parents, who strongly held traditions and were religiously conservative. On
the other side, due to the rejection they felt from British society, which did not want them, they
would be stuck between tradition and modernization. This provided a strong grounds for extremism
in which Salafi Jihadism would become an alternative identity.164
Leicester
Leicester has a diverse ethnic minority population with one of the oldest Asian communities
in Britain. The first Muslims of Pakistani and Indian origin to settle in Leicester arrived in the late
1950s and early 1960s. The largest immigration of Asians occurred between 1961 and 1981.165
Despite the fact the Muslim community was still small, by the start of the twenty-century, the
numbers of supporters grew rapidly and Leicester became the center for Muslim community
activity. In 2001 Leicester’s population was 279, 921, of which 30,000 (11%) were Muslims with
mainly Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Somali and Turkish backgrounds.166 Despite the city’s
growing economy, the city’s status as a beacon for community cohesion and the majority of
immigrants’ strong sense of belonging to the city and country, the minorities faced socio-economic
deprivation and high levels of unemployment, particularly amongst the Muslim population.167 It
was estimated that 52% of Muslims were economically inactive in comparison to other faiths. The
main reason for this trend was limited educational qualifications, discrimination due to their
appearance (women wearing the hijab), beliefs or lack of proficiency in English.168
With the growing migration of South Asians to the UK, the Deobandi movement established
its branches in various parts of Britain including Leicester. In 2005 it was estimated that the
Deobandis influenced half the twenty mosques and three daru’l –‘ulum (house of knowledge), in
162
Assaf Moghadam, The globalization of martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad and the diffusion of suicide attacks, John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 2008, p. 197
163
Mitchell D. Silger and Arvin Bhatt, Radicalization in the West: The Homegrown Threat, Police Department City of New York,
2007, p. 33, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf,
Accessed 14 September 2012
164
Assaf Moghadam, The globalization of martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad and the diffusion of suicide attacks, John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 2008, pp. 197-198
165
Muslims in Leicester, At Home in Europe Project, Open Society Institute, New York, London, Budapest, 2010, p. 32, Available:
http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/a-muslims-leicester-20110106_0.pdf, Accessed 12 September 2012
166
Ibid., p. 28
167
Muslims in Leicester, At Home in Europe Project, Open Society Institute, New York, London, Budapest, 2010, pp. 17-18,
Available: http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/a-muslims-leicester-20110106_0.pdf, Accessed 12
September 2012
168
Ibid., pp. 69-74
29
which teachings were based strictly on Deobandi curriculum.169 In 2007, controversy surrounded
the spiritual leader of Britain’s Deobandi adherents and head of the Leicester Islamic Academy,
Riyadh ul Haq, who officially preached contempt for non-Muslims and, the West, and supported
militant Islam170 (for more information refer to Deobandism). Within the city there were three
Islamic schools and 28 mosques, two of which were Shia mosques. Muslims children accounted for
26% of the city’s school population. In regards to socio-economic status amongst all ethnic
minorities, the Pakistani and Bangladeshi population live in the highest levels of poverty and
deprivation.171
III. Organizations
Organizations within the UK
British Muslim organizations play a key role in religion and politics, as both are closely
intertwined. As a result of growing numbers of Muslims in Britain and the need for representative
bodies promoting Muslim interests, unity, coordination and the protection of minority rights, a vast
amount of organizations were created. It is estimated that there are 3,000 permanent Muslim
organizations in the UK, half of whichare involved mainly in running mosques (masjids) and
community centers.172 However, a number of organizations provide financial and political support
to various terrorist groups around the world. As revealed by journalist Melanie Phillips (author of
Londonistan), hundreds of thousands of pounds that were destined for countering Islamic
extremism, in reality went to supporting groups or individuals promoting an ideology of
intolerance, separatism and extremism.173 The following section presents the main organizations,
mosques and schools in the UK with additional information regarding potential links of the
organizations or their members to Islamic radicals.
The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)
169
170
Radical Islamic sect ‘has half of Britain’s mosques in its grip’, 7 September 2007, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-480470/Radical-Islamic-sect-half-Britains-mosques-grip.html,
Accessed 18 July 2012
171
The Diversity of Leicester. A demographic profile. Leicester City Council, May 2008, pp. 4-7, Available:
http://s3.amazonaws.com/zanran_storage/tourism.goleicestershire.com/ContentPages/46025026.pdf,
172
The mosque or masjid, Muslims in Britain, Available: http://guide.muslimsinbritain.org/guide4.html#4.9.1,
173
Melanie Phillips, I warned about this year ago. Now ministers admit I was right, in Mail Online, 8 June 2011, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2000622/Islamic-extremism-I-warned-years-ago--ministers-admit-I-right.html,
30
The MCB is an independent body that was created in 1997 and is considered to be one of the
largest Muslim organizations in the UK with over 400 affiliate organizations. It is an umbrella
body for national, regional, and local organizations, mosques, charities and schools. The
organization’s primary mandate is to help the Muslim community fully integrate and participate in
British public life and promote Muslim affairs in the UK.174 The MCB condemns indiscriminate
acts of terror, (especially the 7/7 bombings), by Muslims and non-Muslims, urging its communities
to fight against terrorism.175 Despite the anti-terrorism stance, however, the organization has
employed individuals with connections to Al Qaeda (AQ) and supporters of terrorist activities.
Yusuf Islam was a MCB treasurer in 1998 and a fundraiser for Bosnian Muslims.176 The formal
advisor on Business and Economic Affairs to the Secretary General of the MCB, Iqbal Asaria had
been a source of controversy. He was an Al Qaeda operative and webmaster of jihadi websites
(jihad.org and Ummah.org), which were associated with extremist groups such as Hizb ut Tahrir
and Al Muhajiroun. Furthermore, he served as the webmaster for the International Institute of
Islamic Political Thought – a Hamas front think tank that was associated with major Muslim
organizations in the UK.177
Muslim Aid
Muslim Aid is a UK non-governmental organization with its main headquarters in London’s

Tower Hamlet. The international relief and development agency was founded in 1985, as a
response to the famine in Ethiopia. During this time eleven leading British Muslim organizations
responded to the growing humanitarian crises in Africa.178 Its main focus, guided by the teaching
of Islam is to alleviate poverty worldwide, through sustainable, local and practical solutions that
empower individuals and strengthen communities.179 With developing programs in over seventy
countries in the world a majority of field offices are based in the Middle East, South Asia and
Africa in countries such as Pakistan, Iraq, Bangladesh, Sudan, Lebanon, and Somalia.180 Its first
chairman and founder, Yusuf Islam (formerly singer Cat Stevens), claimed that the organization
174
The Muslim Council of Britain, Available: http://www.mcb.org.uk/faq/faq.php#4, Accessed 23 August 2012
175
Hugh Muir, Muslims must help police more, leaders urge, in The Guardian, 4 July 2007, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jul/04/politics.terrorism, Accessed 23 August 2012
176
Yusuf Islam & The Muslim Council of Britian’s terrorism ties – Muslim Aid ‘charity’ fund Al Qaeda & sent Mujahidden to Bosnia,
in Militant Islam Monitor.org, 24 September 2004, Available: http://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/293, Accessed 18
August 2012
177
Iqbal Asaria: Al Qaeda webmaster of Jihad and Ummah.org heads Muslim Council of Britain business and finance committee, in
Militant Islam Monitor.org, 18 August 2004, Available: http://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/248, Accessed 18 August
2012
178
A call to serve, in Emel, Issue 67, April 2010, Available: http://www.emel.com/article?id=71&a_id=1965, Accessed 21 August
2012
179
Muslim Aid. Serving Humanity, Available: http://www.muslimaid.org/index.php/about-us, Accessed 23 August 2012
180
Muslim Aid. Serving Humanity, Available: http://www.muslimaid.org/index.php/about-us/where-we-work,
31
became a tool in the hand of extremists in 1999 after he had left, and continues as such under the
representation of its current chairman Sir Iqbal Sacranie (who also is the Secretary General of the
Muslim Council of Britain). It has been noted that most of the trustees of Muslim Aid are board
members of the Muslim Council of Britain.181 The Spanish media reported that in 2002 Muslim
Aid was linked by Spanish police to Al Qaeda (AQ) terrorist activities with suspicions of providing
funding for recruiting AQ fighters (mujahadeen) for Bosnia in 2002.182
Muslim Association of Britain (MAB)
The Islamic organization was founded by Kemal el-Helbawy (a senior member of MB and
official spokesman in Europe) in 1997.183 It has twelve branches in Britain’s main cities. According
to its website, it is “dedicated to serving society through promoting Islam in its spiritual teachings,
ideological and civilizing concepts and moral and human values”, for which it uses several
elements including Dawah, media and education.184 MAB is furthermore, a British arm of the
Muslim Brotherhood (MB) front organization. It was investigated by British security services for
possible involvement in the 9/11 attacks and controversial associations with Anwar Al-Awlaki,
extremist and member of Al Qaeda that has been linked to the 7/7 bombings in London. 185 The
MAB objected to the US and UK military intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq. The spokesman
and then President of the organization, Anas Altikriti, co-organized and led fifteen demonstrations
against the wars and against the Israeli occupation of Palestine. The MAB was the initiator of the
biggest demonstration against the war in Iraq in Central London, which took place 15 February
2003 and gathered two million people.186 Today it is considered to be the main British
representative of the Muslim Brotherhood’s global network. As a political activist organization it
promotes Islamist political thought among British Muslims through Islamic Dawah and in close
relation with the teachings of Hasan al-Banna.187
Muslim Welfare House (MWH)
181
Yusuf Islam & The Muslim Council of Britian’s terrorism ties – Muslim Aid ‘charity’ fund Al Qaeda & sent Mujahidden to Bosnia,
in Militant Islam Monitor.org, 24 September 2004, Available: http://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/293, Accessed 18
August 2012
182
Al Goodman, Chief, Spain charity terror link alleged, in CNN.com./World, 8 December 2002, Available:
http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/12/08/spain.alqaeda/, Accessed: 23 August 2012
183
Adrian Morgan, Exclusive: Who is Anwar al-Awlaki, in Family Security Matters, 10 November 2009, Available:
http://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.4729/pub_detail.asp, Accessed 23 August 2012
184
Muslim Association of Britain, Available: http://mabonline.net/?page_id=2, Accessed 23 August 2012
185
Adrian Morgan, Exclusive: Who is Anwar al-Awlaki, in Family Security Matters, 10 November 2009, Available:
http://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/id.4729/pub_detail.asp, Accessed 23 August 2012
186
Anas Altikriti Profile, in The Guardian. Global, Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/global/2007/jun/03/resource2, Accessed
22 August 2012
187
World Almanac of Islamism, The American Foreign Policy Council’s, 2010, Available: http://almanac.afpc.org/UK, Accessed 22
August 2012
32
MWH was founded in 1970, with the original aim of assisting foreign Muslim students in
Britain. Over the years it has changed its purpose and was registered in 1975 as one of UK’s first
charity bodies. Today its official purpose is to minimize the bridge between communities and
encourage minorities to integrate with society. The MWH acts both as a mosque and community
center, as well as a social, cultural, education and counseling center for more than fifteen
nationalities, such as Algerians, Somalis, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. 188 Subsequently, over the
years MWH as a member of the Federation of Islamic Organizations in Europe (FIOE), became
one of the central MB bodies in Britain and developed extensive connections. Until 2007 the
relations between MHW and MB were very strong. Three of the five registered owners of the
MWH were parallel directors of the Muslim Association of Britain.189 It has been reported that Dar
al-Ri’aya (Muslim Welfare House) was involved in transferring MB funds to Egypt and in January
2011 a criminal court in Giza reopened a case in this matter.190
Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW)
The IRW is an international, UK based organization established in Birmingham in 1984 by

co-founder and president Dr Hany El-Banna. It describes itself as an independent non-
governmental organization, and “an international aid and development charity, which aims to
alleviate the suffering of the world’s poorest people.”191 As stated on their website, the majority of
income comes from global donations, of which 90% directly helps people in need, 4% supports the
delivery of relief worldwide, 3% goes to campaigns on essential issues, and 3% to generating
future income.192
Though a charity orientated towards delivering help, it has been directly associated with the
Saudi Arabian government who has funded AQ’s operations and donated money to suicide
bombers’ families. Since the 1990s, tens of millions of dollars have been transferred to bank
accounts of organizations linked to Osama bin Laden. “It was reported that IRW’s main office in
UK, received $50.000 from a Canadian group that the U.S. Treasury Department called ‘a(n
Osama) bin Laden front (…) IRW has collected and funneled millions of dollars to the Chechen
terrorist rebels in Russia, who have ties to al Qaeda.”193 In 2002, the Spanish police reported that
188
Muslim Welfare House, Available: http://www.mwht.org.uk/about-us, Accessed 26 July, 2012
189
August 2012
190
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, 19 June 2011, p. 36, Available: http://www.terrorism-
info.org.il/data/pdf/PDF_11_033_2.pdf, Accessed 26 July 2012
191
Islamic Relief, Available: http://www.islamic-relief.org.uk/AboutUs.aspx, Accessed 25 July 2012
192
Islamic Relief, Available: http://www.islamic-relief.org.uk/How_Your_Donations_Are_Used.aspx, Accessed 25 July 2012
193
Jeffrey Imm, CNN promotion of Islamic Relief Worldwide Group linked to jihadist organizations, in Counterterrorism Blog, 1
August 2006 Available: http://counterterrorismblog.org/2006/08/cnn_promotion_of_islamic_relie.php,
33
the Islamic Relief was one of several charities that deposited money and other support for AQ.194
The families of the 9/11 victims have sued the charity, which raised money worldwide after 9/11
with the pretext of helping victims. The organization-established branches in Gaza and Ramallah,
where it has been reported it provided support and assistance to Hamas infrastructure, transfer of
goods and funds.195
Interpal
Interpal, also known as the Palestinian Relief and Development Fund is the largest British
charity and one of the leading Islamic charities in Europe. It was established in 1994 in
Cricklewood, London. Due to its expansion it now has branches in Birmingham, Manchester,
Bradford and Leicester. It describes itself as a non-political, non-profit charity to alleviate
problems faced by the Palestinian people through providing relief and development to those in
need. Since its establishment it has supported humanitarian, education, medical and community
development projects for Palestinians in need.196
In 1996 it faced its first accusations regarding funding and supporting terrorism. In 1997, the
group was outlawed in Israel and designated as a terrorist-organization in 1998. By 2001, it was
estimated that the charity raised 4 million pounds, raising further suspicions.197
In August 2003 the charity was designated a terrorist entity by the Unites States – “a
principal charity utilized to hide the flow of money to Hamas.” 198 Interpal became one of five
Europe based groups that had its accounts frozen after a suicide bombing in Jerusalem. The British
government’s Charity Commission for England and Wales, for the second time, found no evidence
supporting such allegations. A short time after, the Board of Deputies of British Jews claimed that
the charity was linked to Hamas. The accusation was dropped when Interpal sued the Board. 199 In
2009, for the third time, the Charity Commission cleared Interpal of any accusations. In 2010 the
charity won a High Court case against the British Sunday Express’s claims of terror links to
Hamas. The ruling ordered the newspaper’s official apologies and £60.000 payment to the charity’s

194
Al Goodman, Spain charity terror link alleged, 8 December 2002, Available:
http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/12/08/spain.alqaeda/, Accessed 26 July 2012
195
British national arrested for assisting Hamas, in Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 29 May 2006, Available:
http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Terrorism+and+Islamic+Fundamentalism-
/British+national+arrested+for+assisting+Hamas+29-May-2006.htm, Accessed 25 July 2012
196
Interpal. Helping Palestinians in need, Available: http://www.interpal.org/content.aspx?pageID=11,
197
Dominic Casciani, Islamic charity cleared of Hamas Link, in BBC News, 24 September 2003, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3135392.stm, Accessed 25 July 2012
198
Ibid.
199
Dominic Casciani, Islamic charity cleared of Hamas Link, in BBC News, 24 September 2003, Available:
34
trustees (Ibrahim Hewitt, Essam Mustafa (sic), Shahan Husain, Ghassan Faour, Ismail Ginwalla
and Mohammed Rafiq Vindhani).200 Though a leading non-political and non-profitable charity, it
supports Hamas. It has been reported that the managing trustee of Interpal, Issam Mustafa, met
with a representative of Hamas, Ismail Haniyeh, in connection with a land convoy in June 2011.201
US officials continue to appeal to the UK government to take relevant steps against Interpal,
however, the British government position has not changed over the years possibly, in efforts to
avoid antagonizing the Muslim community.
Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB)
MINAB is a Shia organization that was formed in 2006 mainly as a result of

recommendations presented by members of the Muslim community who had participated in the
Home Office’s Preventing Extremism Together Initiative after the 7/7 bombings. Members include
delegates from major mosques under the joint support of the MCB, MAB, BMF and Al Khoie
Foundation (sic).202 The organization, functioning as a “watchdog for UK mosques”, presented
recommendations for imams and masjid committees to follow in order to combat violent
extremism. MINAB was created to modernize and open up religious institutions with British-born
or educated preachers that understand western culture and can easily relate to young Muslims in
England.203 The understanding was that foreign, non-speaking preachers have limited means to
communicate with the youth, which leaves them subject to manipulation, for example, by English
speaking Al Qaeda operatives.204
The UK Islamic Mission (UKIM)
The UKIM was established in October 1962 and is one of the oldest, single Islamic
organizations in the UK. It was created as an offshoot of the Jamaat-e-Islami with the aim of
establishing the party and its ideology as a political and social force. 205 It holds forty-five branches
and circles across the country and over thirty-five mosques and Islamic schools. Today the main
200
Niki May Young, Interpal wins High Court case against Sunday Express claims of terror links, in Civil Society Governance, 27 July
2012, Available:
http://www.civilsociety.co.uk/governance/news/content/7042/interpal_wins_high_court_case_against_sunday_express_claims_
of_terror_links, Accessed 25 July 2012
201
Adli al-Baraqouni, Humanirtaria voice, Humanity Voice, 21 June 2011, Available:
http://humanityvoice.net/news_details.php?id=6806, Accessed 25 July 2012
202
The mosque or masjid, Muslims in Britain, Available: http://guide.muslimsinbritain.org/guide4.html#4.9,
203
Dominic Casciani, Watchdog for UK mosques launches, BBC News, Available:
204
Paul Goodman, MINAB’s mosques may not be so moderate, The Telegraph, 30 November 2007, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/3644400/MINABs-mosques-may-not-be-so-moderate.html#, Accessed 25 July 2012
205
August 2012
35
goal of UKIM is to serve Muslim society, promote Islam in Britain as "a comprehensive way of
life which must be translated into action in all spheres of human life" with the aim to “(…) mold
the entire human life according to Allah’s revealed Guidance, following the life example of his
Last Messenger Mohammed” and creating an "Islamic social order in the United Kingdom in order
to seek the pleasure of Allah.”206 The organization further states its involvement in various areas
from building new mosques, relief work, to Dawah on the Internet and youth work.207 Until this
day it follows and promotes the work of Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (Jamaat-e-Islami) and Jamal
Badawi (Muslim Brotherhood).208
The Islamic Forum of Europe (IFE)
The organization was founded in the 1970s with the aim of bringing together Muslims in all
parts of Europe. As stated on the website, their main goals are encouraging social and spiritual
renewal, developing mosques, establishing schools and community centers, raising funds for
humanitarian relief, participating in local, national and global issues affecting the Ummah and
creating a new generation of leaders dedicated to serving the community. 209 As of today, the IFE
has nine branches in UK major cities and is a subsidiary organization of East London Mosque
(ELM).
In 2010, after a six-month investigation of IFE and ELM involving secret filming by the
Daily Telegraph and Channel 4, reporters’ recordings showed IFE leaders expressing opposition to
democracy and, support for shari’a law. The reporters uncovered that IFE organized a meeting with
extremists, including Taliban allies – a man named by the American government as an “unindicted
co-conspirator” in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and a second man claimed to be under
FBI investigations for links to the 9/11 attacks.210 Furthermore, the program revealed a detailed
indoctrination program based on the teaching of Maududi.211 The British government revealed that
the Jamaati-e-Islami in the UK, Germany, Italy and France have been operating under Islamic
Forum Europe.212
206
UK Islamic Mission. Dawah, Education, Relief, Available: http://www.ukim.org/ukim/struggle/, Accessed 17 July 2012
207
UK Islamic Mission. Dawah, Education, Relief Available: http://www.ukim.org/ukim/, Accessed 17 July 2012
208
August 2012
209
Islamic Forum of Europe, Available: http://www.islamicforumeurope.com/images_uploaded/2008/12/img3027.pdf, Accessed
22 August 2012
210
Islamic Forum of Europe – IFE, in Global Jihad. The 21st century’s phenomenon, Available:
http://www.globaljihad.net/view_page.asp?id=1858, Accessed: 22 August 2012
211
August 2012
212
Foreign Affairs Commitee. Written evidence from Sujit Sen, UK Parliament Website, Available:
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/116/116we16.htm, Accessed 18 August 2012
36
Mosques, Islamic Centers and Koranic Schools
With the expanding Muslim population in the UK, there has been a rise in the concentration
of mosques in urban areas. Mosques, Islamic Centers and Koranic schools are a clear and
identifiable marker of Muslim presence in UK, with much of the architecture replicating the
Middle Eastern models. As of December 2011, there were a total of 1,642 active mosques
(masjids) and prayer rooms in the UK.213 In 2010 it was estimated that there were nearly seventy
Shia’ mosques in Britain. Many Shia organizations and over half of mosques are members of Shia
organization MINAB.214
Muslims are required to read the Koran in Arabic to the best of their capabilities; therefore,
the majority of masjids offer to teach children in Islamic schools the basic beliefs and practices of
Islam, reading of Arabic script and recitation of Koran. On several occasions, as a result of low
standards of education available for minorities from inner city schools in Britain, a fair amount of
British Muslim youth travel to Pakistan to study in madressahs (sic).215 In numerous cases these
young British Muslims are an easy target for organizations that present their radical ideologies and
promote hatred towards western society.
Mosques, Islamic schools and Islamic culture centers have been financed by donations
received from Saudi Arabia, which has influenced the teaching of the Islamic faith. The growing
radicalism in mainstream mosques is based on the interpretation of the faith known as Wahhabism
by Imams who have studied in Medina Mosque in Saudi Arabia. A majority of mainstream
mosques in the UK have taken on the Saudi Arabian interpretation of shari’a law from official
Saudi books. It is estimated that 25% of extremist literature that supports stoning of adulterers and
waging violent jihad are being sold in UK mosques and mainstream institutions.216 In 2006,
controversy arose after 100 Islamic private schools turned out to be "little more than places where
the Koran is recited." The schools were due for review in 2010.217
Islamic Cultural Centers and London Central Mosque (ICCUK)
213
214
215
The mosque or masjid, Muslims in Britain, Available: http://guide.muslimsinbritain.org/guide4.html,
216
Dispatches – Undercover Mosque, Channel 4 (UK), 15 January 2007, Part 2 of 5, Available:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cCnJsqHDuo&feature=related, Accessed: 16 July 2012
217
37
The London Central Mosque, also known as the Regent Park Mosque, is the most important
and influential mosque in Britain. It was established in 1944 and fully completed in 1977 to
represent British Muslim in the UK. There are several links between the mosque and Saudi Arabia.
The most important include funds from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (£2 million of funding
donated by His Majesty King Faisal Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud).218 Officially it promotes tolerance
and teaches understanding and respect for Muslim and non-Muslim communities in the UK with
the aim of helping Muslims integrate into society.219 However, as revealed in an investigation
concluded by Channel 4 in a January 2007 documentary program, “Dispatches. Undercover
mosque” and September 2008 “Undercover Mosque: The Return,” the teachings in the ICCUK
were based on the fundamentalist interpretation of Islam and shari’a law from official Saudi books.
Sheikh Fazan, a senior member of the official Saudi Establishment, influences the teachings.
Members of the mosque were taught that who rejects Islam or leaves his faith should be killed.
Furthermore, British Muslims should separate from non-Muslims and the society. “You have to
hate what displeases Allah, especially when living in this country (Britain) with that non-
Muslim.”220 The Central London Mosque promoted a message of segregation and clear infiltration
of Wahhabism ideology into schools and mosques. Further links between the mosque and Saudi
Arabia are evident through the mosque’s director general and public face since 2000 - doctor
Ahmed Abdul Bayan. Bayan is not an Imam but a Saudi diplomat closely involved in Islamic
affairs and connected to the Saudi embassy in London.221 In addition, he is a member of the board
of trusties in the King Fahad Academy in West London, which was founded by Saudi Arabia and
under the supervision of the Saudi Arabian Embassy. When investigated in 1998, the academy
taught a Saudi-based curriculum in Arabic.222 In 2011, The Sunday Express suggested that the
Academy “had been infiltrated by fanatics and was teaching an extreme form of Islam and anti-
Semitic and racist doctrines”. Accusations have not been confirmed and the paper was ordered to
pay an undisclosed amount in damages to the school. 223
218
London Central Mosque Trust Ltd. & The Islamic Cultural Centre, About us. History, Available:
http://www.iccuk.org/index.php?article=1&, Accessed: 12 August 2012
219
London Central Mosque Trust Ltd. & The Islamic Cultural Centre, About us. History, Available:
http://www.iccuk.org/index.php?article=1&, Accessed: 12 August 2012
219
Ibid.
220
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oc7PqjD_S3s, Accessed: 16 July 2012
221
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6yWXtnE4RI&feature=related, Accessed: 16 July 2012
222
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBSvExX_Nhc&feature=relmfu, Accessed: 16 July 2012
223
Al Arabiya, London school wins Sunday Express damages over Islam fanatics claim, Al Arabiya News, 1 August 2012, Available:
http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/08/01/229737.html, Accessed 15 August 2012
38
The North London Central Mosque (NLCM)
The North London Mosque, known also as the Finsbury Park Mosque, was founded as a
charity in 1988 and in 1994 was transferred into a mosque. Today, the mosque’s main mission is to
enhance the development of the Muslim community in Britain and help the Muslim community to
successfully integrate into British society.224 Despite its peaceful declaration, it has been suspected
of supporting Islamic extremism since the late 1990s and has developed a reputation of being
associated with radical Islamism in London. The members of the mosque were inspired by the
preaching’s of the mosque’s radical cleric and imam, Abu Hamza al-Masri who since 1997 –
played the role of mediator between North African and South African groups and served as the
official mosque imam since 2000.225 He promoted a militant interpretation of Islam and heavily
influenced members of the mosque. The mosque eventually became known as “The Suicide
Factory” and served as the primary hub for making contact with individuals linked to AQ.226
In 2002, the Guardian reported that Abu Hamza sent several members of the Finsbury
mosque to training camps in Afghanistan. Others obtained AK-47 training for British Islamic
extremists held on the mosque premises.227 The mosque was investigated for allegations related to
terrorism by British officials due to suspicions of links with Al Qaeda, as well as the mosque’s role
in promoting radicalization and Islamic Jihad amongst its followers. Several AQ operatives,
detained by officials, either attended the mosque or were indoctrinated in the mosque, including:
Richard Reid (shoe-bomber), Zacarias Moussaoui (suspect of the 9/11 attacks), Kamel Bourgass
a.k.a Nadir Habra (police killer), Feroz Abbasi (enemy combatant of the United States of America),
Amar Makhulif a.k.a Abu Doha (suspect of the millennium plot to blow up airport in Los Angeles),
Rabah Kadre a.k.a “Toufik” (involvement in the Doha network and plot to blow up a Christmas
market in Strasbourg), Djamel Beghal (recruiter of suicide bombers), Nizar Trabelsi (Kleine Brogel
Nato airbase plot)228, Jerome Courtailler (alleged plot to blow up the US embassy in Paris) and
Muktar Said Ibrahim (Eritrean immigrant involved in 21 July 2005 second transport bomb plot in
the UK). The London Central Mosque became a safe haven for Islamic radicals from all over
Europe.229 The police raided it in 2003, arresting Abu Hamza and closing the mosque for two
224
Finsbury Park Mosque, Available: http://www.finsburyparkmosque.org/modules.php?name=About,
225
226
Mitchell D. Silber, The Al Qaeda Factor. Plots against the West, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2012, p. 26
227
Jason Burke, AK-47 training held at London mosque, in The Guardian, 17 February 2002, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/feb/17/terrorism.religion, Accessed 25 August 2012
228
Neville Dean and Nick Allen, Finsbury Park mosque’s terrorist roll call, in The Independent, 7 February 2006, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/incoming/finsbury-park-mosques-terrorist-roll-call-465867.html, Accessed 23 August 2012
229
Jason Burke, AK-47 training held at London mosque, in The Guardian, 17 February 2002, Available:
39
years. It reopened in 2005.230 In 2007 the mosque received £20,000 from the government’s
Preventing Violent fund, aimed at preventing young Muslims from being victims of extremism.231
Brixton Mosque and Islamic Cultural Center
Brixton Mosque, located in South London was founded in 1990 by a group of Muslims led
by its future chairman Abdul Malik Baker, an adherent of Salafism (a form of Islam seen as in
conflict with liberal democracy).232 He was given an unspecified amount of money from the
Lambeth Council financing the STREET project, which aimed to help young Muslims who were
subject to violent extremism.233 The mosque focuses on its multi-national community by providing
religious, social and financial support to its members. As an organization it consolidates the
foundation of Islam and provides education its followers.234
The mosque became the focus of media attention and official scrutiny due to the fact that
some of its members were suspected of extremism and terrorist actions (Richard Reid the shoe
bomber and Zacarious Moussaoui the twentieth 9/11 hijacker). The Brixton mosque’s young
worshippers, including ex-convicts that it helped rehabilitate, were vulnerable to extremist
propaganda. It was identified as the key connection for the proliferation of and interpretation of
Islam that promoted military jihad as a means to defend Islam, restore the Caliphate and fight the
West.235 Since 2001, the Brixton mosque has been a target of extremist groups, firstly by leafleting
members of the mosque outside the building and secondly by inviting people to discussions
regarding Islam and jihad.236
East London Mosque & London Muslim Center (ELM-LMC)
The East London Mosque was completed in 1985 and became the landmark of London’s East
End. In 2004, the 10.5 million-pound project to develop the LMC by His Royal Highness Prince
230
Dominic Casciani and Sharif Sakr, The battle for the mosque, in BBC News, 7 February 2006, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4639074.stm, Accessed 23 August 2012
231
August 2012
232
233
234
Paul Kelso, Terror recruits warning. Young Muslims ‘fall prey to extremists’, in The Guardian, Available:
http://au.totaltravel.yahoo.com/listing/616782/united-kingdom/greater-london/london-south-west/brixton-stockwell/brixton-
mosque/, Accessed 22 August 2012
235
Mitchell D. Silber, The Al Qaeda Factor. Plots against the West, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2012,
pp. 24-25
236
Paul Keslo, Terror recruits warning. Young Muslims ‘fall prey to extremists’, The Guardian, 27 December 2001, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2001/dec/27/september11.usa, Accessed 21 August 2012
40
Charles and His Royal Prince Mohamed Al-Faisal was completed. It was estimated that half of the
funding was raised through donations from worshippers in the UK, 23% from public and charitable
sources, and 10% from foreign sources including Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Malaysia. ELM-LMC,
located in Tower Hamlets, London, is an independent organization that provides help and guidance
to Muslim citizens in Britain. It promotes peaceful integration into society and programs
supporting women’s development.237 The main objectives stated by the organization are serving
the community, working in partnership with Muslims and non-Muslims, promoting tolerance,
opposing extremism and helping the Muslim community integrate into society. 238
Throughout the years the mosque has become the center of controversy due to regular
hosting of extremist speakers such as Al-Awlaki who was identified as the spiritual advisor of 9/11,
was involved in recruiting Muslims to fight in the name of jihad; and was connected to terrorist
acts such as the Roshonara Choudhry attacks on MP Stephen Timms; Umar Farouq Abdulmutallab,
the Detroit Christmas bomber; and Major Nidal Hasan, the Fort Hood shooter.239 Awlaki first
visited in 2003, delivering a speech, described as a lecture on “Stopping Police Terror” 240 and
secondly in 2009.241 Furthermore, the mosque attempted to advance their Islamist agenda through
manipulation of the British political system.242
The ELM and the LMC have been viewed as one of the most extreme Islamic institutions
with identified links to Jamaati-e-Islami.243
Birmingham Central Mosque
Birmingham Central Mosque was established in 1975 and is one of the largest mosques in
Western Europe and a central point for the Muslim community in Birmingham. 244 It was originally
named after Saddam Hussein, the president of Iraq, who provided money for its construction.
237
East London Mosque & London Muslim Centre, Available: http://www.eastlondonmosque.org.uk/faqs,
238
East London Mosque & London Muslim Centre, Available: http://www.eastlondonmosque.org.uk/vision,
239
Obituary: Anwar al-Awlaki, BBC News Middle East, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11658920,
240
Duncan Gardham, Al-Qaeda leader's tour of Britain revealed, The Telegraph, 5 November 2010, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/8113977/Al-Qaeda-leaders-tour-of-Britain-revealed.html,
241
Gordon Rayner, Muslim groups ‘linked to September 11 hijackers spark fury over conference’, The Telegraph, 27 December
2008, Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3966501/Muslim-groups-linked-to-September-11-hijackers-spark-
fury-over-conference.html, Accessed 24 August 2012
242
August 2012
243
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmfaff/116/116we16.htm, Accessed 18 August 2012
244
About Mosque, Birmingham Central Mosque, Avialable: http://www.centralmosque.org.uk/1/about-us/about-mosque,
41
However, after the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the mosque was renamed to Birmingham Central
Mosque. The mosque has been described as a source of jihad recruitment, a place for meetings of
Al-Muhajiroun, a base for recruitment of the 2003 Tel Aviv suicide bombers, and furthermore one
of many centers of fundraising for Islamic Relief Worldwide (accused of ties with AQ and
Hamas).245
In 2007 the Birmingham Mosque came under severe criticism from David Cameron, who
accused the mosque of spreading jihadist violence and Islamic extremism in the UK.
The chairman of the Birmingham Mosque, Dr Mohammad Naseem, a nationally recognized and
sometimes controversial Muslim leader promised legal actions.246
Koranic Schools
As previously mentioned, mosques and Islamic centers offer teaching of the Koran. Every
Muslim is obligated to recite the Koran, which is the backbone of Muslim education. A number of
Islamic radicals teach extremist ideology at these schools and centers.
It is crucial to understand the difference between a Koranic school (Maktab) and Islamic
school (Madrassa). Both are characterized by the teaching of Koran. Madrassas, which are mostly
linked to the mosque, are religious schools with an Islamic curriculum in Arabic in which they
study Koran, saying of the Prophet, history, and literature. Maktabs offer lower education in which
children learn to read and recite the Koran only. They have been viewed as the breeding grounds
for jihadists. While the schools are critical of the Western culture, only a minor number of them
preach violence.247
It is estimated that there are over 2,000 Islamic schools in Britain,248 attended by more than
250,000 Muslim children for Koran lessons.249 Those with extreme views have promoted
fundamentalism, taught children religious apartheid, anti-British, anti-Western views and Shari’a
punishments. Unprovoked beatings of children have been captured on camera in Yorkshire
245
Jeffrey Imm, CNN promotion of Islamic Relief Worldwide Group linked to jihadist organizations, in Counterterrorism Blog, 1
August 2006 Available: http://counterterrorismblog.org/2006/08/cnn_promotion_of_islamic_relie.php,
246
Yusuff Ali, Muslim leader threatens to sue PM for libel, Newsday, 13 February 2011, Available:
http://www.newsday.co.tt/commentary/print,0,135713.html, Accessed 13 August 2012
247
Muslims education, madrassahs, Islamic schools, in Facts and Details, Available:
http://factsanddetails.com/world.php?itemid=1427&catid=55&subcatid=359, Accessed 12 August 2012
248
Tazeen Ahmad, Shame of Britain’s Muslim schools: Secret filming shows pupils being beaten and ‘taught Hindus drink cow
p***’, Mail Online, 13 February 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1356361/Shame-Britains-Muslim-
schools-Secret-filming-shows-pupils-beaten.html, Accessed 12 August 2012
249
Fran Abrams, Child abuse claims at UK madrassas ‘tip of iceberg’, BBC News. Education & Family, 18 October 2011, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-15256764, Accessed 12 August 2012
42
madrassa and Darul Ullom Islamic High School in Birmingham. 250 In 2009, investigations
conducted by Civitas social policy think-tank found that websites of over 166 of the UK’s Muslim
schools were spreading extreme teachings. Few had links to sites promoting jihad or holy war. 251
The Saudi-sponsored weekend schools delivered books with messages of segregation. The
teachings from the translated Koran, produced under the supervision of the Saudi Ministry of
Islamic Affairs, promoted intolerance and aimed to widen the gap between British society and
Muslims in Britain.252 The majority of Muslim schools teach true tolerance and integration into
society, however there are a handful of schools that promote extremism and have become a base
for future radicals.
Student Groups
With the rapidly growing Muslim population in the UK there has been a rise in the needs for
Islamic schools, universities and student groups. As of today, it is difficult to identify the exact
number of Muslim institutions and students in the UK. In 2001 it was estimated that amongst the
whole student population 167,763 (6%) were Muslims.253 With the estimate increasing by more
than a half over the past years, several bodies have been established to help Muslim students
integrate in Britain.
World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY)
WAMY defines itself as a non-governmental youth and student organization associated with
the United Nations. Its mission is to support young Muslim personal and social development while
further encouraging engagement and integration into British society. The organization aims to
build understating and working partnerships between Muslim organizations and western society.
250
Tazeen Ahmad, Shame of Britain’s Muslim schools: Secret filming shows pupils being beaten and ‘taught Hindus drink cow
p***’, Mail Online, 13 February 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1356361/Shame-Britains-Muslim-
schools-Secret-filming-shows-pupils-beaten.html, Accessed 12 August 2012
251
Matthew Hickley, Some Muslim schools ‘make children despise the West’: Ban on cricket and Harry Potter, Mail Online, 20
February 2009, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1150753/Some-Muslim-schools-make-children-despise-West-
Ban-cricket-Harry-Potter.html, Accessed 12 August 2012
252
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rdpCOaJuBx4, Accessed: 16 July 2012
253
Nicholas Gilby, Rachel Ormston, Amplifying the voice of Muslim students: Finding from literature review, Department for
Business Innovation & Skills, October 2011, BIS Research Paper Number 55, p. 5, Available:
http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/higher-education/docs/a/11-1305-amplifying-voice-of-muslim-students-literature-review,
43
Through various projects, organized conferences, symposia, and workshops, it aims to address
students issues and protect Muslim youth from extremism.254
The organization has been closely linked to the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
and its royal family, as well as to the Muslim Brotherhood. It has been under official surveillance
due to suspicions of promoting Islamic extremism and terrorist financing in India, Israel and
Bosnia. WAMY has been linked to AQ, through the umbrella charity Al Haramain, and supported
its affiliate the European Council for Fatwa and Research (EDFR), which aimed to spread
fundamentalist Islam and promote shari’a worldwide. The EDFR’s (established in 1997) leading
cleric was Yusuf al-Qaradawi, whose views are very controversial in the West, especially known
for his fatwa authorizing female suicide bombers.255 Despite being perceived as a humanitarian and
relief organization, WAMY held conferences and distributed literature promoting Islam, jihad and
anti-Semitism. It further raised funds for Hamas.256
The Federation of Student Islamic Societies (FOSIS)
FOSIS, the oldest student organization, was founded in 1962 and was considered to be one
the first organization relatively free of factionalism. As a national umbrella organization that
represents most Islamic Societies, it focuses on supporting and representing Islamic students at
colleges and Universities in the UK and Northern Ireland.257 The official partners supporting
FOSIS are Muslim Student Trust, Islamic Relief, Human Appeal International and Muslim Aid.
FOSIS caused controversy when its speakers promoted racial hatred in London’s leading
universities (Queen Mary, School of Oriental and African Studies, University College London).
Invited speakers included individuals from the extremist group Hizb ut-Tahrir, supporters of the
Taliban and Muslim convert Abdur Raheem Green, who claimed that “a permanent state of ware
exists between the people of Islam and the people who oppose Islam.” In 2005, Green gave a
speech in the University College London (UCL) with reference to bin Laden, including statements
of hatred towards western society and claims that terrorism works.258 Umar Farouq Abdulmutallab
(the Detroit bomber/underwear bomber) was a student and president of the USL Islamic society
during that time, and may have been influenced by the talks. The organization has been described
254
WAMY, Available: http://www.wamy.co.uk/index.php?sub=subpage&mod=about, Accessed 24 August, 2012
255
Al Qaeda linked World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY) Jihad through Da’wa group working with Novib/Oxfam on Somali
‘education’ initiatives, in Militant Islam Monitor.org, 16 October 2006, Available:
http://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/2473, Accessed 18 August 2012
256
Ibid.
257
Federation of Student Islamic Societies, Available: http://fosis.org.uk/about, Accessed 23 August 2012
258
U.K.: Guest of Federation of Student Islamic Societies told audience a "permanent state of war exists between the people of
Islam and the people who opposed Islam, in Jihad Watch, 7 June 2011, Available: http://www.jihadwatch.org/2011/06/uk-guest-
of-federation-of-student-islamic-societies-told-audience-a-permanent-state-of-war-exists-be.html,
44
as a “conveyor belt”259 for extremism and terrorism.260 FOSIS continues to claim it has no
connection with Islamic extremists nor does it take part in the radicalization of young Muslims.
AhlulBayt Islamic Mission (AIM)
AIM describes itself as an independent, non-profit organization set up in 2003 by a group of

Muslim activists and thinkers with the aim of educating Shia, Sunni, and non-Muslim students
about Islam. It organizes several events, conferences, seminars and educational courses. In 2007 it
gave out more than 10,000 Islamic books for free in the UK and countries such as the USA,
Canada, Germany, Malaysia and Nigeria.261
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center has identified AIM as “an
Iranian organization dealing with spreading Shi’ite Islam and the ideology of Ayatollah Khomeini
to dozens of countries around the globe.”262 The organization, headed by cleric and Hezbollah’s co-
founder Hojjat al-Islam Muhammad Hassam Akhtari, is a supporter of the campaign to
delegitimize Israel. Furthermore, it cooperates with groups and networks affiliated with the Muslim
Brotherhood (MB). The main figure of the British AIM is Sheikh Shabbir Hassanally (supporter of
the idea of an Islamic Revolution and hatred for Israel and the West).263
Noor Youth
Noor Youth, is part of the East London, charity Noor Ul Islam Trust. The Shia organization
established in 2008 is run by students that focus on young Muslim’s living in the UK. 264 It
encourages scholars and individuals to help deal with topics ranging from abortion to drug abuse,
from the Shia point of view.265
Islamic Websites and TV
259
“Convey belt” theory states that young, liberal-minded Muslims enrol to universities, only to be indoctrinated by Islamic
extremists and turned into insular, backward-thinking, conservative Muslims. Terrorist recruiters can easily use these students for
suicide bombings.
260
Hasan Afzal, Is FOSIS training the violent extremists of tomorrow?, in Huffpost Students. United Kingdom, Available:
http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/hasan-afzal/fosis-training-violent-extremists-tomorrow_b_1246801.html,
261
Ahlulbayt. Islamic Mission, Available: http://www.aimislam.com/projects/, Accessed 15 July 2012
262
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, p. 2, 20 June 2012, Available: http://www.terrorism-
info.org.il/Data/articles/Art_20353/E2_120_12_1695082257.pdf, Accessed 19 July 2012
263
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center, p. 3, 20 June 2012, Available: http://www.terrorism-
264
Noor Youth Group, Available: http://nooryouthgroup.com/about-us/, Accessed 24 August 2012
265
Dana Moss, Imam Hussayn ins love individualization of Shia practices in Britain, in SIM. International Institute for the study of
Islam in the modern world, Autumn 2008, p. 45, Available:
http://www.socialsciences.manchester.ac.uk/ricc/events/documents/Everyday%20Cosmopolitanism%20Islam%20Review_22.pdf,
45
There are a variety of websites and TV channels that are easily accessible in the UK. The
official channels available through satellite – such as the Islam Channel, Peace TV, IQRAA TV
and Al Resalah – offer information regarding events, current affairs, education, daily news, movies,
music and documentaries. The Salafi TV networks available for British Muslims are funded by
Saudi Arabia.266 Less available Muslim TV channels are accessible online where everyone may
obtain a variety of information regarding Islam, education, entertainment and current events. Such
include: Al Jazeera (broadcast from Qatar), Al Arabiya (United Arab Emirates), Al Hiwar (UK),
Peace TV (UK), Al Ekhbariya (Saudi Arabia), Al Majd Holy Quran, Cordoba TV (Spain), Express
News (Pakistan), Noor TV (Europe), and SN TV (Somalia).267
IV. Radicalization in the United Kingdom
Theoretical Background and Causes of Radicalization
Since the London 7/7 attacks the topic of Islamic radicalization and extremism has been one
of the main concerns in the UK. Although radicalization has been present in Britain for years, it has
not been discussed or viewed as a threat to homeland security. Public awareness grew out of the
event itself. After 7/7, London became the subject of much scrutiny and the problem of
homegrown terrorism and radicalization became a prominent concern. The UK, as a multicultural
and multiethnic country with a large Muslim population, became an ideal base for Wahhabi
radicalization formed in mosques, schools and cultural centers financed and influenced by Saudi
Arabia’s government and its charities. Furthermore, foreign radicals who immigrated to the UK in
the 1980s and 1990s in search of political asylum – such as Abu Hamza al Masri, Omar Bakri
Mohammad, and Abu Qataba – provided the base for radicalization with a rejectionist Islamic
message in Britain.268
The term radicalization has not been internationally defined. Radicalization, as defined by the
UK’s Home Office, in its CONTEST counterterrorism strategy, is “the process by which people
come to support terrorism and violent extremism, and in some cases, then to join terrorist
groups.”269 The governments Prevent Strategy report further adds that “(…) radicalization is driven
by an ideology which sanctions the use of violence; by propagandists for that ideology here and
overseas; and by personal vulnerabilities and specific local factors which, for a range of reasons,
266
Abdul Nishapuri, Let US Build Pakistan (LUBP), Saudi-funded TV channels continue to radicalize Muslim youth, 30 November
2011, Available: http://criticalppp.com/archives/64365, Accessed 24 August 2012
267
Islamic Box. Islamic TV, Available: http://www.islambox.com/tv-channels, Accessed 21 August 2012
268
Mitchell D. Silber, The Al Qaeda Factor. Plots against the West, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2012, p. 24
269
U.K. Home Office, CONTEST: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering
Terrorism, July 2011, p. 36, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/counter-terrorism-
strategy/strategy-contest?view=Binary, Accessed 1 September 2012
46
make that ideology seem both attractive and compelling.”270 Common locations where
radicalization occurs include university campuses, mosques, religious schools, and private
locations such as homes, cafes and bookstores.271
The table below, by The International Center for the Study of Radicalization and Political
Violence, presents the most popular recruitment grounds:
Table 7. Typology of “Recruitment Grounds”272
Places of Places of Recruitment
congregation vulnerability ‘magnets’
Significance/function No particular Taking advantage of Attracting ‘seekers’
significance other than individuals crises or from a wider area
Muslims meeting lack of orientation
Examples  Mosques  Prisons  ‘Radical mosques’
 Internet cafes  Refugee centers  ‘Radical
 Cafeterias  Welfare agencies bookshops’
 Gyms  Universities
 Summer camps  Etc.
 Etc.
Individuals who hold radical ideas do not necessarily engage in terrorism. However,
“terrorism is associated with rejection of a cohesive, integrated, multi-faith society and of
parliamentary democracy.”273 Radicalization can occur due to many factors and influences. It is not
limited to one single ethnic or interest group, however it is most often discussed with reference to
young Muslims who have carried out or plotted attacks in Europe and North America since 9/11.
Such attacks include the Theo Van Gogh killing and the “Hofstad Plot” in the Netherlands; the
Madrid bombings; the 7/7 bombings and their aftermath, Operation OVERT (“Heathrow Plot”), the
2007 firebombing of Glasgow Airport and the failed terrorist attacks in Central London. Regardless
of their national or cultural origins, two common factors were present: most were native-born
citizens or residents of the attacked country and most underwent the process of radicalization. 274 In
2006, the British Security Service MI5 identified 200 terrorist networks and monitored 1,600 terror
270
Prevent Strategy, HM Government, June 2011, p. 5, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-
terrorism/prevent/prevent-strategy/prevent-strategy-review?view=Binary, Accessed 25 August 2012
271
272
Recruitment and Mobilisation for the Islamist Militant Movement in Europe, ICSR, King’s College London, December 2007, p. 26,
Available: http://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/1234516791ICSREUResearchReport_Proof1.pdf,
273
274
Radicalization. A guide for the Perplexed, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. National Security Criminal Investigations, June 2009,
p. 3, Available: http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/pubs/nsci-ecrsn/radical-eng.pdf, Accessed 1 September 2012
47
suspects and 30 terror plots with links to Al Qaeda.275 In 2007, MI5 increased the number of
suspects by 400.276
There is no one explanation for which individuals are prone to radicalization or engage in
Islamic extremism. Over the years following 7/7 attacks, there have been several domestic and
international events that may have contributed to the growing radicalization of British Muslims: the
reaction to the 1988 publication of the The Satanic Verses (Salman Rushdie affair), the 1991 Gulf
War, 1992-1995 Bosnian War, conflicts in Algeria, Kashmir, and Chechnya, the 7 July 2001
northern riots (Bradford, Oldham, Burnley), British contribution in Afghanistan and Iraq, 9/11 and
“the war on terror”. Furthermore, the Danish Jylland-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy,
from 30 September 2005, also played a role. Despite occurring after 7/7, it had a profound impact
on anti-Western protests in all of Europe, as it was found insulting to Muslim society, religion and
values. Amongst the long-term domestic factors are poverty and alienation, failure of
multiculturalism and integration,277 Islamophobia and accusations against the British government
for engaging in the war against Islam. As presented in chapter two, Muslim minorities that are
young, underpaid, unemployed, religious and poorly integrated into society are ideal for terrorist
organization theories and Islamic radicalization. However, domestically radicalized terrorists are
not necessarily members of the deprived society. Examples of such are suspects of the 2007
London and Glasgow international airport plots, who were physicians, medical research scientists
and an engineer.278 Two-thirds of terror suspects in the UK have been from middle class
backgrounds, were married and 90% were identified as sociable with a number of friends. MI5
reported that individuals who became suicide bombers were often highly educated.279 Such
information shows that terrorists are normal within the general population and are hard to define.
“It is an inherent aspect of contemporary terrorism that society faces neighbor terrorism and not
terrorism from easily identifiable and culturally distinct outsiders or aliens.”280
The security service recognized four factors that cause radicalization first, a personal trauma
275
MI5 monitoring 1,600 radicals, 10 November 2006, Politics.co.k, Available: http://www.politics.co.uk/news/2006/11/10/mi5-
monitoring-1-600-radicals, Accessed 2 September 2012
276
House of Commons. Home Affairs Committee, Roots of violent radicalisation. Nineteenth Report of Session 2010-12, House of
Commons, London, The Stationery Office Limited, Vol. I, 6 February 2012, p. 7, Available:
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/1446/1446.pdf Accessed 31 August 2012
277
Radicalization. A guide for the Perplexed, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. National Security Criminal Investigations, June 2009,
p. 5, Available: http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/pubs/nsci-ecrsn/radical-eng.pdf, Accessed 1 September 2012
278
Ibid.
279
Abul Taher, The middle-class terrorists: More than 60pc of suspects are well educated and from comfortable backgrounds, says
secret M15 file, Mail Online, 15 October 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2049646/The-middle-class-
terrorists-More-60pc-suspects-educated-comfortable-backgrounds-says-secret-M15-file.html,
280
Commons, London, The Stationery Office Limited, Vol. II, 6 February 2012, p. Ev w20, Available:
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/1446/1446vw.pdf, Accessed 31 August 2012
48
such as death. It was estimated that 10% of terror suspects were radicalized as a result of such.
Second, migration – a third of all extremists migrated to Britain alone. Third, criminal activity, in
which two-thirds of suspects had criminal records and so forth, as resulting in prison sentences.281
The prison experience and time in prison can lead some individuals closer to religion as it helps
them cope. Many however are not fully informed about their religion and become vulnerable to
suggestions from radicalizers.282 The estimate “mean age” for when a Muslim becomes radicalized
is 21.6 years and anyone between 16 and 32 is regarded as vulnerable.283 Other suggestions for
why radicalization takes place include the search for identity, meaning and community occurring
among the second and third generation of Muslims. Furthermore, other factors are group bonding,
peer pressure and indoctrination, which are necessary to encourage violence as a legitimate
response to perceived injustice.284 The 2012 report by the House of Commons stated:
“We suspect that violent radicalization is declining within the Muslims community. There may be
growing support for nonviolent extremism, fed by feelings of alienation, and while this may not
lead to a specific terrorist threat or be a staging post for violent extremism, it is nevertheless a
major challenge for society in general and for the police in particular. There also appears to be a
growth in more extreme and violent forms of far-right ideology. Indeed it is clear that individuals
from many different backgrounds are vulnerable, with no typical profile or pathway to
radicalization.”285
Recruitment and Radicalization: Overlook
In order for terrorist organizations to exist, all groups need to radicalize and recruit people to
their cause. How, where and to what extent will vary amongst organizations. 286 AQ, which aimed
to expand its membership, would have recruited people in large numbers in Britain and
internationally to advance its militant Islamist ideologies with the aim of a single Islamic
281
282
283
284
285
Commons, London, The Stationery Office Limited, Vol. I, 6 February 2012, pp. 11-12, Available:
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/1446/1446.pdf, Accessed 31 August 2012
286
49
caliphate.287 After the process of radicalization, vulnerable individuals could be drawn into taking
part in terrorist activities.288
A range of factors similar to causes of Islamic radicalization drive recruitment for terrorist
organizations. The fundamental factor in the radicalization process is ideology. Groups such as AQ
cleverly incorporate their ideologies with beliefs of larger society in order to garner support.
Justifying their actions through religious and ideological motives that appeal to people, promising
rewards (money for families), cultivating the death of a martyr with symbols and rituals assuring
support and a constant flux of new members for the organizations.289 Secondly, organizations today
promote their views on the Internet. It is a tool for publicity, propaganda, terrorist planning,
coordination, radicalization and recruitment.290 Furthermore, the Internet is used as a tool for
dissemination of radical Islam, motivation, fundraising, psychological warfare, sharing information
and networking. The third important tool in recruitment and radicalization are videos and clips
presenting terrorist attacks and Muslim suffering as ways of provoking fury and hate. Moreover
such video clips enhance the reputation and credibility of the terrorist organization and provide
justification of what they do.291 A MI5 report concluded that “‘virtual social interaction drives
radicalization in the virtual world, books, DVD’s, pamphlets and music all feature in the
experiences of British terrorists but their emotional content – for example images of atrocities
against Muslims – is often more important than their factual content.”292 Violence exploited
through videotaped sermons calling for killing the infidels and Jews, leaflets encouraging Muslims
to travel to various hotspots worldwide to wage Jihad, the preaching of imams to take up arms
against the Crusaders and the Jews all play an important part in radical propaganda and
recruitment.293 Forth, recruitment is often personality-driven, based on family ties or local
allegiances. Furthermore, it is based on peer pressure, promise of status, financial rewards, social-
economic factors, social injustice and dysfunction.294
One of the most concerning grounds for UK extremism and terrorism recruitment reported in
2011 were young universities students. According to officials, 40 universities were under the risk
287
288
Ibid., pp. 8, 44
289
Robert A. Pape, The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism, The University of Chicago, American Political Science Review, Vol. 97,
No. 3, August 2003, p.5, Available: http://www.danieldrezner.com/research/guest/Pape1.pdf, Accessed 29 August 2012
290
Prevent Strategy, HM Government, June 2011, pp. 7, 44, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-
291
Ibid., p. 42
292
Alan Travis, The making of an extremist, The Guardian, 20 August 2008, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/aug/20/uksecurity.terrorism, Accessed 21 September 2012
293
Yael Shahar, Islamic radicals in the UK – A double-edge sword, 7 July 2005, Available:
http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/tabid/66/Articlsid/188/currentpage/16/Default.aspx, Accessed 7 October 2012
294
Prevent Strategy, HM Government, June 2011, pp. 20-21, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-
50
of radicalization or recruitment on campus.295 Research has shown that over 30% of individuals in
the UK convicted of Al Qaeda associated terrorist offences between 1999 and 2009 attended
university or a higher education institution. Fifteen percent achieved vocational or further
educational qualifications.296 Terrorists who have attended Britain’s most prestigious universities
include Taimour Abdulwahab al-Abdaly, the Stockholm suicide bomber who had a BSc in sports
therapy from the University of Luton, now the University of Bedfordshire. Umar Farouk
Abdulmutallab, Detriot underpants bomber, studied mechanical engineering at University College
London between 2005 and 2008. Abid Naseer, the leader of the transatlantic liquid bomb plot,
attended computer studies in Liverpool John Moores University. Abdulla Ahmed Ali and Assad
Sarwar, convicted of the transatlantic liquid plot, attended City and Brunel Universities.297
In a survey conducted by FOSIS in 2005, 1 in 5 Muslim students in Britain (18%) would not
report a fellow Muslim planning a terror attack and 52% did not think organizations accused of
extremism should be shut down. In 2006, 12% of young Muslims in Britain (and 12% overall)
believed that suicide attacks against civilians in Britain were justified.298 In 2009, one third of
British Muslim students supported killing for Islam and 40% were in favor of Shari’a law in
Britain.299
“Violent radicalization is clearly a problem within the UK but it takes place within an
international context.”300 The radicalization process has important overseas aspects. It is related to
considerable numbers of individuals who engaged in terrorism in Britain and arrived from
overseas, mainly Muslim countries affected by conflict and instability. Young British Muslims
would travel to countries where classical Islamic educational methods are still taught in Egypt,
Syria, Yemen301 or trained and operated in Pakistan and Afghanistan in order to plan and conduct
terrorist operations in the UK.302 Many would return radicalized. Between 1999 and 2009, most of
295
James Slack, Home Affairs Editor, 40 UK universities are now breeding grounds for terror as hardline grounds peddle hate on
campus, Mail Online, 6 June 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1394625/40-UK-universities-breeding-
grounds-terror.html, Accessed 2 September 2012
296
297
James Slack, Home Affairs Editor, 40 UK universities are now breeding grounds for terror as hardline grounds peddle hate on
campus, Mail Online, 6 June 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1394625/40-UK-universities-breeding-
grounds-terror.htm, Accessed 2 September 2012
298
Daniel Pipes, More Survey Research from a British Islamist Hell, Daniel Pipes. Middle East Forum, 26 July 2005, Available:
http://www.danielpipes.org/blog/2005/07/more-survey-research-from-a-british-islamist, Accessed 15 August 2012
299
Daily Mail Reporter, The latest WiliLeaks revelation: 1 in 3 British Muslim students back killing for Islam and 40% want Sharia
Law, Mail Online, 22 December 2010 Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1340599/WikiLeaks-1-3-British-Muslim-
students-killing-Islam-40-want-Sharia-law.html, Accessed 2 September 2012
300
301
302
51
the convicted were British nationals but less than half were born in the UK. Furthermore,
recruitment, radicalization and terrorist attacks planned in the UK have often occurred due to the
ideology and influence of leaders and preachers from abroad, international financing and
training.303
Radicalization Process
After the 9/11 attacks, Europe, Australia and Canada witnessed new forms of attacks planned
by local residents/citizens who sought to attack their own country, relying on AQ as inspiration and
ideology. Such cases in Europe include the 2004 Madrid attack, the 7/7 London attack,
Amsterdam’s Hofstad Groups, the Toronto 18 Case in Canada and in Australia the Operation
Pendennis.304 With the process occurring rapidly after 9/11 and the need to counter such attacks
emerging, understanding the process of radicalization became a top priority.
As previously indicated the fundamental aspect in the radicalization process is ideology. As
reported by the Nork York Police Department (NYPD), “Jihadist or jihadi-Salafi ideology is the
driver that motivates young men and women, born or living in the West, to carry out “autonomous
jihad” via acts of terrorism against their host countries. It guides movements, identifies the issues,
drives recruitment and is the basis for action.”305
“Terrorists do not all fall from the sky. They emerge from a set of strongly held beliefs.
They are radicalized. Then they become terrorists.”306 As previously presented in the paper, there
are various indicators that are a cause or foundation for radicalization. Although a person may pass
through the process of radicalization, it does not mean that they will commit an act of terrorism.307
Individuals at any time and given any circumstance may enter, exit, and re-enter the radicalization
process. It is described as a fluid process that has no timetable, nor does it necessarily lead to
action.308 According to the NYPD, the radicalization process may take anywhere from a few
months to a few years. Despite the different circumstances and facts from case to case, there appear

303
Prevent Strategy, HM Government, June 2011, pp. 19, 37, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-
304
2007, p. 5, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf,
305
Ibid., p. 6
306
Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, Laura Grossman, Homegrown terrorists in the U.S and U.K. An Empirical Examination of
Radicalization Process, FDD’S Center for Terrorism Research, FDD Press, April 2009, p. 7, Available:
http://www.defenddemocracy.org/stuff/uploads/documents/HomegrownTerrorists_USandUK.pdf,
307
Ibid., p. 8
308
FBI Counterterrorism Division, The radicalization process: From conversion to Jihad, Federal Bureau of Investigation Intelligence
Assessment, 10 May 2006, p. 4, Available: http://cryptome.org/fbi-jihad.pdf, Accessed 24 September 2012
52
to be a certain trend in behavior throughout all stages. The individuals who conclude the entire
process are most likely to be involved in the planning or implementation of a terrorist attack. 309
The NYPD Report distinguishes between four main parts of the process with their own key
indicators and triggers:
Stage 1: Pre-Radicalization
Stage 2: Self-Identification
Stage 3: Indoctrination
Stage 4: Jihadization
Pre-Radicalization
Pre-radicalization is the individual’s ordinary life prior to radicalization – the starting point
from where individuals begin their exposure to extreme ideology and progression towards
radicalization. The key indicators are the individual’s background and environment, higher
education, being a second or third generation immigrant, and being a recent convert to Islam. 310
Self-Identification
In this stage the individuals come to identify with radical movements and embrace radical
Islam. Both internal and external factors influence changes in the person’s personal behavior. By
gravitating from their old identity, they formulate a new one and begin to associate themselves with
like-minded people, further adopting Salafi ideology as their own. A trigger for entering into this
stage maybe an event, crisis, social-economic conditions, or political and personal conflicts in
which an individuals’ mind is set on a new perception or view of the world, looking for new
meaning in life. Progression towards radicalization in the self-identification stage is movement
towards Salafi Islam or regular attendance to a Salafi mosque.311
Indoctrination
During indoctrination, one fully commits to the cause, intensifies and focuses on jihadi-Salafi
ideology and beliefs. The individual takes on the political worldview and relates to Salafi Islam and
its teachings. The individual identifies that action in the form of militant jihad, is the only way to
support and further the cause. This phase is typically facilitated and driven by a “spiritual
sanctioner.” The stage is characterized by a withdrawal from the mosque and movement towards a
309
2007, pp. 6-7, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf,
310
2007, pp. 6-8, 22, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-
Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf, Accessed 14 September 2012
311
Ibid., pp. 6-7, 30-31
53
small group where radical ideas are adopted, shared and politicization of new beliefs occurs. 312
Jihadization
The final phase of the radicalization process is the stage where the individual starts to take
actions based on their beliefs. The individual, belonging to a group, acts according to the demands
of the authority figure and takes part in preparations for combat or attacks by: travel abroad for
training, Internet research, visiting jihadi websites, or physical surveillance of potential targets.
Only small numbers of people pass to this phase, which can last for as little as a couple of weeks.
The ultimate end of this phase is an attack.313
Equally during the second and third stage certain behaviors may occur. The individual trusts
only select religious authorities and ideologically rigid sets of authorities.314 Secondly, low
tolerance occurs towards those who follow a different interpretation of Islam than they do. Third,
an individual may impose his/her religious beliefs on others.315
In June 2008 a MI5 report, of which sections appeared in The Guardian, recognized several
paths that can lead an individual to being radicalized. The report concluded that there is no single
pathway to extremism. Individuals take very different paths of radicalization. The timeframe of the
radicalization process can take months or even years but is always driven by contact with others
who share extremist views. People who do enter the radicalization process and engage in extremist
ideologies have some vulnerability. Furthermore, extremist groups may act as “fictive kin” for
individuals who have lost ties with their families and community.316
Forms of Financing Terrorist Activities
Over the years the UK has been portrayed not only as the hub for radicalization but
furthermore as a hub for Islamic finance. Sources of financing terrorist activities vary domestically
and internationally. Amongst funds from legitimate sources are charities, legitimate businesses or
self-financing by terrorist themselves. Funds from criminal sources include low-level crime,
organized fraud, narcotics smuggling, state sponsors, activities in failed states and other safe-
312
2007, pp. 7, 9, 36, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-
313
2007, pp. 43-45, Available: http://www.nypdshield.org/public/SiteFiles/documents/NYPD_Report-Radicalization_in_the_West.pdf,
314
Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, Laura Grossman, Homegrown terrorists in the U.S and U.K. An Empirical Examination of
Radicalization Process, FDD’S Center for Terrorism Research, FDD Press, April 2009, p. 12, Available:
http://www.defenddemocracy.org/stuff/uploads/documents/HomegrownTerrorists_USandUK.pdf,
315
Ibid., p. 13
316
Alan Travis, The making of an extremist, The Guardian, 20 August 2008, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/aug/20/uksecurity.terrorism, Accessed 21 September 2012
54
havens.317
A number of organizations raise funds in order to support terrorists activities, while others
intend to promote Islam through legitimate programs but become employed by jihadists that use
their funds for their own radical needs.318 One of the five pillars in Islam is zakat – charity.
Muslims are obligated to annually donate money, which becomes a source of income for Islamic
charities and organizations with their own objectives. The main sources of Islamic terror funding
structure are charities, wealthy individuals and state funding. Saudi Arabia has been one of the
biggest financers of Islamic institutions and Muslim causes in the UK and a major source of
financing for Islamic terrorist organizations. It has had a huge effect on British-Muslim life in
Britain and has been able to propagate its ideology all over the UK.319 The collection of funds
occurs in and outside mosques, during religious gatherings or through the direct approach of
individuals and families. Islamic radicals use the same methods. In 2004, members of extreme
Islamist groups such as Al-Muhajiroun collected finances for terrorist purposes during speeches
made in London Central Mosque.320 Forms of financing are profits from legitimate businesses that
can be used as a front for money laundering. The possibility that a business will finance terrorist
activities appears when the relation between sales reported and actual sales is difficult to verify. 321
Further, banks have been used as a legitimate source for money laundering with the aim of
financing terror groups and countries suspected of anti-Western activities.322 The 7/7 attacks
highlighted a new development in terrorist finance: the domestic sources (self-funding) of planning
and funding the attack where only cash was used and no proof of financial activity was
available.323
The use of criminal activity by terrorists to raise money ranges from low-level fraud to
organized crime. Drug trafficking is one of the best sources of funding as it enables terrorist groups
to raise large amounts of money. Credit card fraud is based on illegal purchases with a different
317
Terrorist financing, Financial Action Task Force, Groupe d’action financière, France, 29 February 2008, pp. 11, 15, Available:
http://www.fatf-gafi.org/media/fatf/documents/reports/FATF%20Terrorist%20Financing%20Typologies%20Report.pdf,
318
Eben Kaplan, Tracking down terrorist financing, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 April 2006, Available:
http://www.cfr.org/international-crime/tracking-down-terrorist-financing/p10356, Accessed 17 July 2012
319
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBSvExX_Nhc&feature=relmfu, Accessed: 16 July 2012
320
Terror absconder hands himself in, BBC News, 18 April 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354229.stm,
321
Terrorist financing, Financial Action Task Force, Groupe d’action financière, France, 29 February 2008, p. 13, Available:
322
James Salmon, Standard Chartered share price falls 16%, wiping £6 billion from its value, after claims the UK bank laundered
billions for Iran and Hezbollah, Mail Online 6 August 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2184657/British-
banks-links-global-terror-US-accuses-Standard-Chartered-laundering-billions-Iran-Hezbollah.html, Accessed 10 August 2012
323
Eben Kaplan, Tracking down terrorist financing, Council on Foreign Relations, 4 April 2006, Available:
http://www.cfr.org/international-crime/tracking-down-terrorist-financing/p10356, Accessed 17 July 2012
55
individual’s credit card details mostly through Internet and phone, as these are the easiest. Cheque
fraud in which bank accounts are opened using false identity documents and fraudulent deposits, is
another method. Once numbers of cheque books have been accumulated they are used to purchase
items from department stores under the amounts that would not trigger security checks. The
purchased good would be returned for a cash refund. This is considered to be another fast way of
raising money quickly and efficiently.324 Safe-havens, failed states and state sponsors have the
ability to fund terrorist activity due to the lack of effective jurisdictional control, tolerance of
terrorist organizations and active support to the organizations. Such include Somalia, Iraq and the
Pakistan-Afghanistan border.325
Further forms of financing are the Internet were individuals may launder money through
gambling sites, TV stations,326 travel agencies, cell phone distributors, video pirating and extortion.
Radical Groups and Movements in the UK
In a 2011 Prevent Strategy report, the British government acknowledged that the UK faced a
series of terrorist threats of which the most serious were from AQ, its affiliates and likeminded
organizations inspired by violent Islamism.327 In 2011, in England and Wales there were 115
terrorist offenders in custody of which 79 were associated with AQ or its affiliates. 328 The latest
reports by the House of Commons estimates that there are 48 proscribed international terrorist
organizations in the UK in addition to 14 organizations proscribed in relation to Northern
Ireland.329 Amongst domestic groups openly operating in the UK, there are international
organizations such as the Algerian Groupe Islamique Armée, Egyptian Islamic Jihad and al-
Gamma al-Islaamiya or the Palestinian Hamas and Hizballah, that do not operate openly in UK and
use links with more visible outfits that function as recruiting centers in London. Militant groups
from Kashmir, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Egypt, Algeria and Turkey all raise funds, forge links and
disseminate propaganda in the UK.330
324
Terrorist financing, Financial Action Task Force, Groupe d’action financière, France, 29 February 2008, pp.15, 17-18, Available:
325
Ibid., p. 19
326
Terrorist financing, Financial Action Task Force, Groupe d’action financière, France, 29 February 2008, p. 9, Available:
327
328
Ibid., p. 13
329
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmhaff/1446/1446.pdf Accessed 31 August 2012
330
56
The organizations that have clearly influenced young British Muslims, played a main role in
shaping radical views and supported militant Islam are presented below.
Hizb al-Tahrir (HT)
A revolutionary Islamist party, also known as Liberation Party was established in Jerusalem
in 1952331 by Taqi al-Din al Nabhani with the aim of uniting Muslims under a single Islamic state
or caliphate with shari’a law and saving them from the corrupted Western influences.332 It
established a strong position in the UK amongst the second and third generation of Muslims who
felt alienated and lacked a sense of belonging.333 The organization established a London branch in
1986 under the leadership of Omar Bakri Mohammed after his deportation from Saudi Arabia and
officially being banned from the organization in Saudi Kingdom. 334 It was considered the leading
organization in the UK, with an operational base in Croydon Mosque.335 HT gained followers
especially amongst the young student community and obtained a strong position in students’
campuses where it promoted an anti-Zionist, homophobic and an anti-Hindu approach.336 Officially
it is a non-violent party, however it defends the right to self-defense and endorses protests and
political organizing through violence with statements such as: “Britain will be an Islamic state by
the year 2020!”337 Its main purpose was the re-establishment of the Caliphate and return to the true
Muslim society.338 With the lack of clarity on this issue it has been open to accusations of
promoting violence. In the late 1990s the organization seemed to fade and was subject to
government scrutiny due to its combative debates on campuses. Omar Bakri left HT in 1996 to
establish a more radical organization, Al-Muhajiroun because of differences in policy and methods
of action.339
331
The agreeable date varies among sources. Many identify 1952 as the founding date of Hizb-ut Tahrir, other 1953.
332
333
Muslim Networks and Movements in Western Europe, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, September 2010, p. 37, Available:
http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/Muslim-networks-full-report.pdf, Accessed 22
September 2012
334
335
Rachel Briggs and Jonathan Birdwell Radicalisation among Muslims in the UK, in Ethno-Religious Conflict in Europe. Typologies
of radicalisation in Europe’s Muslim communities, Centre for European Policy Studies Brussels, 2009, p. 126, Available:
http://aei.pitt.edu/32616/1/55._Ethno-Religious_Conflict_in_Europe.pdf, Accessed 24 September 2012
336
337
September 2012
338
Audrey Gillan, Militant groups in the UK, The Guardian, 19 June 2002, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/jun/19/religion.september11, Accessed 3 October 2012
339
57
In the aftermath of 9/11, the HT issued a statement that all Muslims should enter a state of
war against the West, especially the USA and UK, which had declared war against Islam. 340
Between 2001 and 2005, the party increased activity inside the British Muslim community in
mosques and campuses. Furthermore, its aim was to engage with a non-Muslim audience. It used
the 9/11 attacks to present the weakness of Western societies and present Islam as an alternative
ideology.341
After the London 7/7 attacks, Tony Blair sought to ban HT on suspicion of ties to violent
extremism, however investigations showed no evidence of HT ties with terrorism. Although
banned by the National Union of Students’ No Platform Policy in a number of university campuses
in the UK, it continues to operate secretly.342 To this day the organization continues to be very
active in targeting students by speaking on campuses, using the Internet and social media such as
Twitter and Facebook, and through organizing events and conferences.343 In 2007 the organization
came under further scrutiny when several senior members left and a BBC Panorama program
published a memoir of a former member who revealed information about his time in HT.344 HT, as
a result of the British governments pledges to ban the organization and further accusations, referred
to itself as the “victim” of Western oppression. At present it is focusing on changing its image of
an extremist organization.345 Over the years the HT in the UK has organized several protests
against local and international events, which they saw as being insults against Islam and Muslims.
The most recent include anti-US protests in London condemning a US-made anti-Islam film.346
Al-Muhajiroun (The Emigrants)
Self-styled Sheikh Omar Bakri Mohammad, who left Hizb-ut Tahrir, and Anjem Choudary,
created the British independent branch of Al-Muhajiroun (AM) in 1996. The London based group
publicly supported terrorism abroad, held public rallies with terrorist sympathizers, and organized
340
Houriya Ahmed and Hannah Stuart, Hizb ut-Tahrir. Ideology and strategy, The Centre for Social Cohesion, 2009, p. 23, Available:
http:// www.socialcohesion.co.uk/files/1301651409_1.pdf, Accessed 12 August 2012
341
342
343
Student promotion of Hizb ut-Tahrir highlights the group’s influence on campus, Avialable:
http://www.studentrights.org.uk/article/1934/student_promotion_of_hizb_ut_tahrir_highlights_the_group_s_influence_on_cam
pus, Accessed 12 August 2012
344
345
http://www.socialcohesion.co.uk/files/1301651409_1.pdf, Accessed 12 August 2012
346
Peter Walker, Anti-US protesters in London condemn controversial film, The Guardian, 16 September 2012, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/sep/16/anti-us-protesters-london, Accessed 18 September 2012
58
university events.347 Its main purpose was the establishment of the Islamic state by providing the
basis for violent activities in Britain and legitimizing violent activities abroad. 348 The AM was
known for its anti-Western demonstrations, support of shari’a law, praise of the 9/11 terrorists
describing them as the “Magnificent 19,”349 and recruitment for operations with specific focus on
university campuses.350 Furthermore, it called Muslims and non-Muslims to follow their
fundamentalist beliefs, which called for those practicing homosexuality, adultery, fornication and
bestiality to be stoned to death.351 The official number of members was unkown, however in 2004
the group claimed officially 700 members.352 The organization was legitimately disbanded in 2004
and succeeded by two separate groups, The Savior Sect and Al-Ghurabaa. In 2005, Al-Ghurabaa
took credit for the Muslim protests in London against the Danish Prophet Mohammad cartoons.353
The group’s website openly praised Osama bin Laden, warned of death punishments for those who
insult the prophet, and like its mother organization (al-Muhajiroun), was homophobic.354 Despite
being banned in 2006 under the British Terrorism Act for “the glorification” of terrorism,355
supporters of Al-Ghurabba with numbers of front organizations in Britain, reorganized themselves
under new names: as al-Firqat un-Naajiyah and Ahl al Sunnah Wal Jamaa'ah: the Saved Sect, and
the Messenger and his Companions.356 Controversies surrounding the group involved the 2001
claim that Omar Bakri called for the assassination of Tony Blair for the British support of the war
in Afghanistan,357 and its links to the April 2003 suicide bombing in Mikes Bar in Israel. The
bomber Asif Hanif, a twenty-one year old from West London, was a regular visitor of al-
Muhajiroun meetings.358 Further, AM, links to violence include British and international members
347
348
Audrey Gillan, Militant groups in the UK, The Guardian, 19 June 2002,
349
Robert Booth, Islamist Al-Muhajiroun relaunch ends in chaos over segregation attempt, The Guardian, 18 June 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/jun/18/islamist-al-muhajiroun-meeting-chaos, Accessed 3 October 2012
350
Vikram Dodd, Raid on Islamic group office, The Guardian, 31 July 2003, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2003/jul/31/terrorism.world, Accessed 3 October 2012
351
Lee Elliot Major, Muslim student group linked to terrorist attacks, The Guardian, 19 September 2001, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2001/sep/19/students.september11, Accessed 3 October 2012
352
Faisal al Yafai, Monitored Islamist group shuts down, The Guardian, 13 October 2004, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2004/oct/13/terrorism.religion, Accessed 3 October 2012
353
Ian Cobain, Nick Fielding, Reborn extremist sect had key role in London protest, The Guardian, 11 February 2006, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2006/feb/11/religion.muhammadcartoons, Accessed 3 October 2012
354
355
Robert Booth, Islamist Al-Muhajiroun relaunch ends in chaos over segregation attempt, The Guardian, 18 June 2009,
356
357
Colin Blackstock, Militant denies call to assassinate Blair. ’Islam forbids such murders, The Guardian, 10 October 2001,
Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/oct/10/afghanistan.terrorism27, Accessed 3 October 2012
358
Jamie Doward and Andrew Wander, The network, The Guardian, 6 May 2007, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/06/terrorism.jamiedoward, Accessed 3 October 2012
59
who have committed acts of terrorism or suspected of such, including: Mohammed Siddique Khan
(leader of 7/7), Omar Kyan (ringleader of the fertilizer bombers), allegedly Richard Reid (shoe
bomber) and Haroon Rasheed Aswad (arrested in 2005 for attempting to start a MA training camp
for UK and USA jihadists in Oregon).359
In June 2009, Al-Muhajiroun attempted to re-launch in Holborn, where Choudary presented
an anti-British and anti-Semitic approach, referring to British society as “dirty.”360
The Center for Social Cohesion reported that between 1999 and 2009, 15% of individuals
convicted for terrorist related offences were connected to AM.361
Deobandism
Deobandism is a Sunni Islamic movement that was established in 1867 in Deoband, India, by
two Islamic scholars (Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohias) against
British colonialism. The role of the Deoband seminary was to shape individual’s mindset, purify
their character, teach Hanafi law and guide them through spiritual practice.362 It is estimated that
over a century it established nearly nine thousand Deobandi centers of learning in the Indian
subcontinent.363
The Deobandi movement arrived to the UK with the migration of South Asians in the 1960s
and 1970s. They created main centers in the North-West (Bolton, Preston and Blackburn, Leicester
and West Yorkshire) with a network of mosques across Britain and most importantly for the
movement, Islamic seminaries (daru’l-ulum). Seminaries, such as the one at Bury in the north of
England are replicas of the original Indian institution in which a new generation of British born
would learn ulama.364 Deobandism teachings encourage the return to a traditional interpretation of
Islam and are associated with Tablighi Jamaat and some argue with AQ and the Taliban. 365 In 2007
it was reported, that the movement’s leading UK imam, Riyadh ul Haq (former imam at
Birmingham Central Mosque) urged Muslims to reject western values and segregate from non-
Muslims. He preached anti-Semitism, urged Muslims to “shed blood for Allah,” openly supported
359
Ibid.
360
Robert Booth, Islamist Al-Muhajiroun relaunch ends in chaos over segregation attempt, The Guardian, 18 June 2009, Available:
361
One in seven UK terror-related convictions linked to Islamist Group now threatening to prelaunch, Centre for Social Cohesion
Press Briefing, 1 June 2009, London, Available: http://www.socialcohesion.co.uk/files/1243874438_1.pdf, Accessed 25 August
2012
362
363
Ibid., pp. 85-86
364
365
60
armed jihad, praised the Taliban and expressed passion for martyrdom. 366 Since the nineties,
Deobandism has become an influential movement overtaking, as estimated by police, in 2007 more
than 600 of Britain’s 1,350 mosques, though 170 of London mosques have been officially
classified as Deobandi. Furthermore, it was estimated that out of 26 Islamic seminaries in Britain,
the movement ran 17, producing 80% of clerics trained there.367
Tablighi Jamaat (The Preaching Party)
Tablighi Jaamat (TJ) is an offshoot of the Deobandi school of Sunni Islam, which was
established in the 1920s by Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhlawi. The group, although based on
traditions, followed its own methods of preaching, self-discipline and service among members.368
Over the years it has developed influence in nearly 150 countries by offering preaching tours and
encouraging Muslims to be more religiously observant.369 With its teachings, TJ has not avoided
criticism due to promoting the separation of religion and politics, which is against the nature of
Islam.370
Britain first came to contact with TJ through a preaching tour in 1945. However, it was not
until the 1960s that the group established its activities in mosques and madrassas with a focus on
teaching basics of Islam to migrants from South Asia. With the growing acceptance from the
Muslim community and popularity in 1982, the TJ created a center with a nearby mosque and
Institute of Islamic Education.371 Despite the group being highly decentralized, the Dewsbury
Central Mosque in West Yorkshire, has been its European headquarters.372 It is estimated that the
number of followers worldwide ranges from 12 to 80 million.373 In the UK its followers include
professionals, business owners, political leaders and those who search for a sense in life, especially
366
Radical Islamic sect ‘has half of Britain’s mosques in its grip’, 7 September 2007, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-480470/Radical-Islamic-sect-half-Britains-mosques-grip.html,
367
Ibid.
368
369
September 2012
370
371
372
373
September 2012
61
young Muslims who are disillusioned with modern society and search for a sense of belonging are
easily influenced.374
Since 9/11 there have been claims that due to the “group’s missionary activities and loose
organizational structure [it] can be exploited by radical elements.”375 It has been claimed that
terrorists might have used the TJ as a cover. Although the majority of members are interested in
self-renewal and religiosity, some have been accused of having ties to radical networks. Individuals
who have been involved in terrorism and suspected of being part of the group in Britain are
Richard Reid, Mohammed Sidique Khan, Kafeel and Sabeel Ahmed.376
Jama’at-I Islami (The Islamic Society, Islamic Party)
This political movement established in Pakistan by Abu Ala Mawdudi in 1941,377 is

recognized as one of the most influential parties in South Asia. It has developed a strong position in
Europe, especially the UK, where in 2001 over two-thirds of Muslims were from South Asia.378
The main aim was to “transform all social, economic and political structures according to the
teachings of Islam.”379 Officially it was recognized in Europe with the establishment of the UK
Islamic Mission and its affiliate Dawatul Islam, which until today promotes Islamic education with
a specific focus on Jama’at-I Islami thinkers. The movement inspired several groups in the UK,
including the Islamic Society of Britain and Young Muslims UK, which work to help Muslims in
Britain.380
Despite the limited information available and the need for further research, it has been
suggested that Jama’at i-Islami is connected to terrorism. The movement and groups affiliated with
it have ties to the Muslim Brotherhood. Although Jama’at i-Islami has been recognized as a radical
374
375
September 2012
376
377
378
Muslim Networks and Movements in Western Europe, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, September 2010, pp. 23-24,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/Muslim-networks-full-report.pdf,
379
380
Muslim Networks and Movements in Western Europe, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, September 2010, pp. 23-24,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_Affiliation/Muslim/Muslim-networks-full-report.pdf,
62
political movement in South Asia with fascist tendencies and possible connections to AQ, it has
strong support in the UK through NGOs and charities such as Muslim Aid.381 The British state and
main banks have been suspected of financing Jama’at politicians in Pakistan. Furthermore, Islamic
Foundation UK, East London Mosque, Muslim Aid UK, Dawatul Islam and the UK Islamic
Mission are known to have provided support of Jama’at's anti-secularism and anti-western
literature and ideals.382
Islam4UK
Islam4UK founded by Anjem Choudary, was an offshoot of al-Muhajiroun. After the British
government banned The Savior Sect and Al Ghurabaa in 2006, its members continued to operate
under Islam4UK. It was estimated that the group had no more than 1,500 members, however due to
the controversy surrounding the group, it received heavy media attention. 383 The group offered a
platform for Omar Bakri for his lectures over the Internet. It officially supported al-Muhajiroun
with plans to create an Islamic state and introduce shari’a law.384 Its website introduced a picture of
Buckingham Palace converted to a mosque.385
In 2010, Islam4UK received media attention when it announced a march through Wooton
Bassett – the town came to symbolize the fatalities sustained by British forces in Afghanistan. It
was canceled when the group was included in terrorism legislation and banned in January 2010. 386
Supporters of Sharia (SOS)
The group was formed in 1994 by Abu Hamza al-Masri and, as stated on its website, by “(…)
brothers involved in jihad in Bosnia, Afghanistan, and to give the message to the average Muslims
- message which is being hindered by non-Muslims and also by Muslims who like to give the point
of view of Islam which does not oppose the enemies of Islam.”387 It openly states its objectives to
defend Shari’a law through jihad of Islamic groups and re-establish the Caliphate. Its agenda
includes the fight against Western society, which they see as anti-Islamic, and the creation of an
381
Chris Blackburn, Jamaat-i-Islami: A threat to Bangladesh?, Available: http://www.ebangladesh.com/2012/08/07/terrorism-the-
tale-of-three-cities/, Accessed 3 October 2012
382
Ibid.
383
What is Islam4UK, The Telegraph, 4 January 2010, Available:
http://www.familysecuritymatters.org/publications/detail/exclusive-anjem-choudary-and-al-muhajiroun,
Accessed 3 October 2012
384
Adrian Morgan, Exclusive: Anjem Choudary and Al-Muhajirioun, Family Security Matters, 19 February 2010, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/6931212/What-is-Islam4UK.html, Accessed 4 October 2012
385
Dominic Casciani, Profile: Islam4UK, BBC News, 5 January 2010, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8441499.stm,
386
Alan Travis, Islam4UK to be banned, says Alan Johnson, The Guardian, 12 January 2010, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/jan/12/islam4uk-banned-alan-johnson-islamist, Accessed 4 October 2012
387
Who is Sheikh Abu-Hamza. A conversation with Sheikh Abu Hamza, Available:
http://www.angelfire.com/bc3/johnsonuk/eng/sheikh.html, Accessed 3 October 2012
63
Islamic state. The leader himself encourages Muslims not to integrate into British society. 388 The
site offers anti-Western information including fatwaa on American-Zionists, currently unavailable
for viewing.389
Influential Leaders
The majority of radical leaders in the UK share one common characteristic. In order to avoid
prosecution in their country of origin, they arrived to the UK in the 1980s and 1990s in search of
political asylum. As set out earlier, the British government’s belief was that acceptance and
tolerance towards the radicals would secure the UK from any Islamic attacks at home. Londonistan
accepted jihadi refuges from Algeria, Bosnia, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Egypt and other countries,
who, under the protection of British law, financed and plotted attacks globally. 390 Before 9/11 and
following the 7/7 terrorist attacks, officials monitored radical activity in the UK, however never
arrested or extradited leaders despite evidence of their activities. The British support of “the right
of racial individuals to orchestrate the eradication of the rights of their opponents” guaranteed –
“individuals were protected from prosecution in their countries of origin by British legislation that
inhibits the extradition of suspects.”391 With lax immigration and asylum laws, flaws in the border
control system, a liberal approach, support of democratic values and little but existing anti-
terrorists policies before 2001, the UK was the ideal hub and safe-house for radicals and the
development of terrorist activity.
Abu Hamza al Masri
Abu Hamza al Marsi, originally Mustafa Kamel Mustafa,392 was described as Britain’s most
notorious and outspoken Muslim cleric, who spread anti-Western and anti-Semitic views, praised
Osama bin Laden, defended shari’a law, supported jihad, urged supporters to kill, favored re-
establishing the Caliphate, and recruited, influenced and financed terrorists.
He initially emigrated from Egypt to the UK in 1979. In 1984 he married a British citizen
named – Valerie Fleming. From what could have appeared to be integration into British society, he
388
Who is Sheikh Abu-Hamza. A conversation with Sheikh Abu Hamza, Available:
http://www.angelfire.com/bc3/johnsonuk/eng/sheikh.html, Accessed 3 October 2012
389
Ibid.
390 st
Export of terror, Global Jihad. The 21 century’s phenomenon, Available: http://www.globaljihad.net/view_page.asp?id=1939,
391
392
Daily Mail Reporter, Give me my hooks back! “Terror” preacher Abu Hamza demand use of notorious hands as he appears in
New York court after extradition from UK, Mail Online, 6 October 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
2213820/Abu-Hamza-Give-hooks-Terror-preacher-Abu-Hamza-demands-use-notorious-hands-appears-New-York-court-
extradition-UK.html, Accessed 15 October 2012
64
turned towards a fundamentalist interpretation of the Koran. After his divorce in 1990, he returned
to Egypt where he became a self-taught Sheikh. He traveled to Pakistan and Afghanistan during the
period of civil war. Abu Hamza stated he lost his eye and hands while fighting against the Soviet
occupation of Afghanistan. After his return to the UK, he formed Supporters of Sharia in 1994, and
further established a strong position amongst the Muslim community when he took over the
Finsbury Park Mosque in 1996. He became known as the radical cleric and imam who created a
training ground for extremist Islamists.393 As part of a counter-terrorism operation the police raided
the mosque in 2003 and seized replica guns and CS gas canisters. 394 In 2004, Abu Hamza was
convicted by US officials on 11 counts of criminal conduct related to the 1998 hostage taking of
sixteen individuals in Yemen, supporting Afghanistan in 2001 and collaborating to establish a
jihad-training camp in Bly, Oregon between June 2000 and December 2001.395
Charged in 2006, by British officials for soliciting murder and inciting racial hatred, he was
sentenced to seven years in prison.396 After years of battling his extradition in 2008, the UK’s
Home Secretary approved his extradition to the USA. He was extradited to the USA on 5 October
2012 and faced a trial on 26 August 2012, after pleading not guilty to terrorism charges. 397 For the
full timeline of Abu Hamza’s battle to stay in the UK since 2001, refer to the appendix.
Anwar al-Alwaki
Yemeni-American cleric Anwar al-Alwaki was a propagandist leader for radical Islam and
the main figure in the propagation of AQ messages. Well-educated (PhD in Human Resource
Development) and understanding of both Middle Eastern and Western culture, he spread the
ideology of violent extremism and established his position as a mentor to numbers of young
393
Daily Mail Reporter, Give me my hooks back! ‘Terror” preacher Abu Hamza demand use of notorious hands as he appears in
extradition-UK.html, 15 October 2012
394
Abu Hamza: Extradition timeline, BBC News UK, 5 October 2012, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19844349,
395
Paul Cockerton, Abu Hamza profile: The heavy-drinking bouncer who became a preacher of jihad, Mirror, 5 October 2012,
Available: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/abu-hamza-profile-the-radical-cleric-1362939,
396
Daily Mail Reporter, Give me my hooks back! ‘Terror” preacher Abu Hamza demand use of notorious hands as he appears in
extradition-UK.html, 15 October 2012
397
Abu Hamza will stand trial in US next year, London Evening Standard, 9 October 2012, Available:
http://www.standard.co.uk/news/crime/abu-hamza-will-stand-trial-in-us-next-year-8204282.html,
65
Muslims globally. His extremist views were influenced by the teachings of Sayyid Qutb and
Abdullah Azzam.398 In a brochure, “44 Ways to Support Jihad,” he encouraged Muslims to take
part in jihad either personally, by funding or by “jihad of the word.” 399 During his time in the USA,
al-Alwaki faced several arrests for his activities and was suspected of links to the 9/11 attacks. Due
to lack of evidence he was released. He left the USA in 2001 and settled in London, where he
became very active. With the aim of influencing young people, he found followers in Islamic
centers and student societies, and amongst British Muslims who suffered identity problems, and
were anti-western due to conflicts in Iraq, Afghanistan and Israel-Palestine.400 He became involved
with the Muslim Association of Britain – the British arm of the Muslim Brotherhood and the
Federation of Student Islamic Societies.401 Al-Alwaki’s videos, posted in South Bank University in
London, attracted thousands of viewers, who perceived him as an authority on religious and
political matters.402
In 2004 he left for Yemen. In 2006 he was charged which kidnapping and terrorism and
imprisoned for one year. After his release he continued his propaganda activities from Yemen
through the usage of new media. He influenced and mentored potential attackers and groups
including Nidal Malik Hasan, the Fort Hood Shooter; Faisal Shahzad, the Times Square bomber;
and Roshonara Choudry, a British student who stabbed Labour MP Stephen Timms in 2010.403 It
has been reported that Al-Alwaki’s lectures further influenced British Muslims who plotted
bombings of the London Stock Exchange, Big Ben, the Houses of Parliament, the US Embassy, the
home of London Mayor Boris Johnson and two Jewish synagogues.404
Anwar al-Alwaki died in a US military drone operation in Yemen on 30 September 2011.405
Omar Bakri Muhammed
398
Jason Burke, Anwar al-Awlaki obituary, The Guardian, 2 October 2011, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/02/anwar-al-awlaki, Accessed 17 October 2012
399
Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, Anwar Al-Awlaki. The UK connection, The Centre for Social Cohesion, 11 November 2009, p. 4,
Available: http://www.socialcohesion.co.uk/files/1289579667_1.pdf p4, Accessed 16 October 2012
400
401
Irfan Al-Alawi, Radicalization of young British Muslims, Stonegate Institute in Center for Islamic Pluralism, 13 February 2012,
Available: http://www.islamicpluralism.org/1984/radicalization-of-young-british-muslims,
402
Ibid.
403
404
Irfan Al-Alawi, Radicalization of young British Muslims, Stonegate Institute in Center for Islamic Pluralism, 13 February 2012,
Available: http://www.islamicpluralism.org/1984/radicalization-of-young-british-muslims,
405
Obituary: Anwar al-Awlaki, BBC News Middle East, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11658920,
66
Omar Bakri Muhhamed is a Syrian born, Sunni cleric and religious extremist that called for
holy war against Britain; encouraged young Muslims to join insurgency in Iraq; supported the
holocaust, AQ, and jihad; and is a believer in the superiority of Islam.406
He moved to the UK in January 1986 after being expelled from Saudi Arabia for challenging
the Saudi regime and his membership in Hizb al Tahrir. He immediately established the UK branch
of Hizb al Tahrir (1986-1996) and secondly, the London based Al-Muhajiroun (1996-2004).407
Between 1994 and 1998 he spoke in Trafalgar Square and Wembley Stadium during Islamist
rallies.408 Bakri, and Abu Qataba provided the base for radicalization with a rejectionist Islamic
message in Britain and were considered to be the spiritual leaders of Muslim Brotherhood with
links to AQ. It was claimed in 2002, that “every Al-Qaeda operative recently arrested or identified
in Europe came into contact with Bakri at some time or other.”409
In May 2004, he led a demonstration outside the USA Embassy in London during which they
chanted “Osama bin Laden” and burned an American flag.410 The cleric sparked several
controversies during which he confirmed his anti-British views. He referred to the London bombers
as “the fantastic four”, claimed that the British people were to blame for the London terror attacks,
since they “did not make enough effort to stop its own government committing its own atrocities in
Iraq and Afghanistan,” and did not inform the officials if he knew about the planned attack.411
After 7/7, the police raided his home in Luton. Omar Bakri fled Britain to Lebanon, in August and
was denied return to Britain on the basis of supporting terrorism. During his years in the UK, he
received social benefits from the British government, claiming that Islam allowed him to benefit
from what the system offered.412 In 2007 he was arrested and convicted to life imprisonment in
Lebanon for his membership in an armed group aiming to kill Lebanese soldiers and commit
terrorist acts.413
Anjem Choudary
406
Y. Feldner, Radical Islamist profiles (2): Sheikh Omar Bakri Muhhamad – London, MEMRI, 25 October 2001, Available:
http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/535.htm, Accessed 17 October 2012
407
Preacher Omar Bakri Mohammed, Mail Online, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-359046/Preacher-Omar-
Bakri-Mohammed.html, Accessed 17 October 2012
408
409
Al-Qaeda now, CNN Politics, 27 May 2002, Available: http://articles.cnn.com/2002-05-27/politics/time.alqaeda_1_qaeda-al-
qaeda-francis-x-taylor/5?_s=PM:ALLPOLITICS, Accessed 17 October 2012
410
Preacher Omar Bakri Mohammed, Mail Online, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-359046/Preacher-Omar-
Bakri-Mohammed.html, Accessed 17 October 2012
411
Ibid.
412
413
Muslim cleric Omar Bakri Muhammad arrested in Lebanon, BBC News. Middle East, 14 November 2010, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11579274, Accessed 15 October 2012
67
Choudary was born in 1967 in Welling, Kent. He studied medicine before switching to law
after which he became qualified in the Society of Muslim Lawyers.414
After his degree he moved to London in 1991, married in 1996 and started a family. He was
what one could describe to be a “normal” young British citizen, who enjoyed drinking and
partying, which are forbidden under Islamic law. It was not until 1996, when he met Sheik Omar
Bakri Mohammed in Woolwich mosque, that he fully focused on his extremism. He became the
co-founder of Al-Muhajiroun, founder of Islam4UK, a leading figure in al-Ghurabaa and spiritual
advisor to the British group Muslims Against Crusades.415 Anjem Choudary believes in the
superiority of Islam, a life based on shari’a and its implementation in the UK, and the practice of
dawah and jihad against the kuffar (unbeliever). He praised Osama bin Laden and Al-Alwaki,
called his followers to fight against the USA and UK and return to the Caliphate. 416 The supporter
of terrorism regarded the 9/11 attackers as the “magnificent martyrs” and encouraged young British
Muslims to follow such attacks. He focused on variety of issues in order to attract a broad range of
Muslims, most importantly topics that he defined as oppressing Muslims. Choudary was the
organizer of a number of anti-western events, including demonstrations in which he was arrested
for preaching hatred. In July 2006, as the organizer of the February protest outside the Danish
Embassy, he was found guilty and fined for a total of eight hundred pounds for holding
unauthorized public demonstrations.417 The same year, he spoke outside Westminster Cathedral
and called for the execution of Pope Benedict XVI and the death of those who dared to insult the
message of Mohammed.418 In 2011, once again he attracted media attention when he launched a
poster campaign across the UK declaring shari’a-controlled zones with enforced Islamic rules. The
leaflets distributed to the public ordered no gambling, music or concerts, porn or prostitution,
drugs, smoking or alcohol. Despite Islam4UK being banned, the group members continue to be
active and spread extremist views amongst the British Muslim society. 419 Choudary fully took
advantage of the British system, its liberal laws and freedom of speech. Despite being well
414
Murray Wardrop, Anjem Choudary: profile, The Telegraph, 4 January 2010, Avialable:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/terrorism-in-the-uk/6930447/Anjem-Choudary-profile.html,
415
Steven Stalinsky, Deleting online Jihad on Twitter: The case of British Jihadi Anjem Choudary – Tweeting for the Caliphate and
the conquest of the White House, MEMRI, 4 November 2011, Available: http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/5779.htm,
416
Ibid.
417
Muslim cartoon protest man fined, BBC News, 4 July 2006, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/5148364.stm,
418
The unholy past of the Muslim cleric demanding the Pope’s execution, London Evening Standard, 19 September 2006, Available:
http://www.standard.co.uk/news/the-unholy-past-of-the-muslim-cleric-demanding-the-popes-execution-7238428.html, Accessed
16 October 2012
419
Rebecca Camber, ‘No porn or prostitution’” Islamic extremists set up Sharia law controlled zones in British cities, Mail Online, 28
July 2011, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2019547/Anjem-Choudary-Islamic-extremists-set-Sharia-law-zones-
UK-cities.html, Accessed 17 October 2012
68
educated and capable of work he received housing benefits and income support from the
government amounting to nearly two thousand pounds a month.420
Abdullah el-Faisal
The Jamaican, Islamic cleric was born in 1964 into a Christian family. Originally born
Trevor William Forrest, he converted to Islam in 1980, changed his name and moved to Saudi
Arabia where he studied Islamic Studies in Riyadh for eight years. 421 After his degree, he migrated
to the UK where he married a British citizen. In the nineties el-Faisal established study circles in
London’s Tower Hamlets and traveled the UK preaching racial hatred. He followed a similar
ideology as al-Muhajiroun and became known for his radical preaching and, anti-Semitic sermons
in which he encouraged young British Muslims to kill Jews, Hindus, Americans and Christians in
order to receive a place in paradise and become heroes. He called on Muslim youth to learn how to
use rifles, fly planes and use missiles to kill non-believers. Through his lecture tapes available in
Islamic bookstores, he encouraged women to raise their children “with the jihad mentality.” 422 It
was reported that he influenced Germaine Lindsay and Richard Reid. In 2000 he was stopped by
Heathrow border patrol for the possession of Arabic lecture notes but only arrested after police
found tape lectures while investigating AQ links to the UK after 9/11.423
In 2003, he was sentenced to nine years in prison for religious hatred, the usage of
threatening, insulting recordings and soliciting the murder of Jews and Hindus. After seven years
of his sentence he was deported to Jamaica. It has been reported that el-Faisal continues to spread
his extremist views to British youth through the Internet, encouraging jihad in order to conquer
nations.424
Abu Qatada
Abu Qatada, formerly Omar Otham, is a Palestinian-Jordanian. He is described as an

important theologian of global jihad and an AQ operative in Europe. Qatada arrived in the UK
seeking asylum from Jordan in September 1993. In 1994, he began preaching at the Fourth Feather
420
The unholy past of the Muslim cleric demanding the Pope’s execution, London Evening Standard, 19 September 2006, Available:
http://www.standard.co.uk/news/the-unholy-past-of-the-muslim-cleric-demanding-the-popes-execution-7238428.html, Accessed
16 October 2012
421
Profile: Sheikh Abdullah al-Faisal, BBC News, 25 May 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6692243.stm,
422
Profile: Sheikh Abdullah al-Faisal, BBC News, 25 May 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6692243.stm,
423
Hate preaching cleric jailed, BBC News, 7 March 2003, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/2829059.stm,
424
Damien Gayle, Deported preacher of hate transmits terror rants of UK from sun-soaked Caribbean exile, Mail Online, 13 March
2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2114242/Abdullah-el-Faisal-Deported-preacher-transmits-terror-rants-
UK-sun-soaked-exile.html, Accessed 17 October 2012
69
community, near Regent’s Park, and held meetings in his home. Qatada became well known
amongst the British Muslim community and the Algerian and Egyptian armed Islamists. Through
his religious rulings he supported an Islamic government on Muslim lands and justified arm actions
against enemies of Islam.425 Abu Qatada came under government’s scrutiny, when he openly spoke
about rulings justifying suicide attacks during a BBC Panorama interview in 2001. While
questioned for his alleged connections to a German cell, police found £170,000 in his home, with
additional £805 in an envelope labeled “For the mujahedeen in Chechnya.” He was released
without charges and disappeared. In 2002, at the age of forty-two, Qatada was detained as a suspect
terrorist with links to Bin Laden under the new Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act.426 He was
suspected of influencing and advising several individuals who where arrested in connection with
terrorism, including Richard Reidand and Zacarias Moussaoui.427 He was referred to as “Osama
bin Laden’s ambassador in Europe” and “spiritual head of the mujahideen in Britain.” The US,
Spain, France and Algeria accused Qatada of being a key influence in the 9/11 attacks. 428 After his
arrest in 2002, he spent two-and-a-half years in special security units of Belmarsh. Released in
March 2005, he again returned to detention, after Britain signed a “memorandum of
understanding” with Jordan, enabling his deportation under the reassurance of fair trial. He was
released in 2008 after an appeal and ordered a twenty-two hour curfew. The court of appeal
blocked his deportation.429 After years of trials the British government has officially lost in its
efforts to deport the Muslim cleric. On 12 November 2012, the court upheld its decision against
Qatada’s extradition to Jordan and once again he was released on bail from Long Lartin prison in
Worcestershire. He faces a re-trial for conspiring to cause explosions on Western and Israeli targets
in 1998 and 1999.430
Inspiration and Influence from abroad
Muslims are divided into two branches: Sunni (between 85%-90%) and Shia (10%-15%,
425
Dominic Casciani, Profile: Abu Qatada, BBC News, 13 November 2012, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16584923,
Accessed 15 November 2012
426
Cleric held as terror suspect, BBC News World Edition, 25 October 2002, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2359595.stm, Accessed 15 November 2012
427
Dominic Casciani, Profile: Abu Qatada, BBC News, 13 November 2012, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16584923,
428
Britain ‘sheltering al-Qaeda leader’, BBC News World Edition, 8 July 2002, Available:
429
Alan Travis, Abu Qatada: from refugee to detainee, The Guardian, 19 February 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/feb/19/abu-qatada-profile, Accessed 15 November 2010
430
Abu Qatada wins appeal against deportation, BBC News, 12 November 2010, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-
20295754, Accessed 15 November 2012
70
minority in most Islamic countries).431 Of the total Muslim population in Britain, the majority are
Sunni. There is a noticeable lack of accurate information regarding the percentage of Shia and
Sunni in the UK. The 2001 statistics suggested that of the 1.6 million British Muslims, Shia’s made
up 10% (up to 40,000) with a large population located in London, Birmingham, Manchester and
the Midlands.432 In 2009 it was estimated that the Shia Muslim population was 100,000-300,000,
(approximately 10-15%).433 The presented data confirmed that the majority of Shia in the UK are
Pakistanis, Iranians, Iraqis, Bahrainis, Lebanese, Afghanis, East African Indians and Yemenis. 434
The split in Islam took place after Mohammad’s death in 632, when there was no agreement
regarding who was to be the Prophet’s successor. Sunnis believed that Abu Bakr, Mohammad’s
closest companion and one of the earliest converts to Islam should have been the next leader. Shia
(the party of Ali) accepted Ali, Mohammad’s son-in-law, as the rightful successor on the basis of
descent.435
As the majority of Muslims in the UK are Sunni, there has been immense influence on
radicalization in Britain from Saudi Arabia through its financing of organizations involved in
radical forms of Islam and Pakistan as the ground for training young British Muslims and birth of
Islamic ideologies present in the UK.
Sunni
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam, home to Wahhabism, a strict puritanical form of
Sunni Islam created in the eighteenth century by Muhammad Inb Abd Al-Wahhab and place of
pilgrimage to Mecca by Muslims from all over the world. Islam rules over all levels of Saudi
citizens’ lives and further influences Muslims abroad.436 Today, Wahhabism, a strand of salafism is
closely connected to the Saudi ruling family. It is understood as a Sunni Islamic movement with
the goal of purifying Islam of any innovations or practices that defer from the teaching of
431
Mapping the global Muslim population, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, October 2009, p.10,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf, Accessed 13 August
2012
432
A glad day for mourning, The Guardian, 28 June 2003, Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/jun/28/religion.uk,
433
Mapping the global Muslim population, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, October 2009, p.10,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf,
434
435
Ibid., p. 60
436
Saudi Arabia, Muslim Ministries. International Teams, Available: http://mm.iteams.org/middle-east/saudi-arabia/, Accessed 20
October 2012
71
Muhammad.437 It is “the religion of the Saudi royals, the state bureaucracy, the army and air force
and, of course, Osama bin Laden.”438 Wahhabism influenced Osama bin Laden and various
extremist groups. Imams study in Medina Mosque in Saudi Arabia, which is considered to be the
second holiest mosque in Islam. Clerics, imams and teachers (85% of available places have been
reserved for foreigners)439 follow a strict, intolerant and militant Wahhabi interpretation of the
Koran. Saudi Arabia has funded a number of radical teachers and clerics who arrived to the West
through Islamic charitable organizations. They have been known to preach misinterpretations of
the faith to young British Muslims.440
Saudi Arabia is the financer of Islamic activities worldwide. The country finances mosques,
Islamic centers, and charities; and sends missionaries and Islamic literature promoting Wahhabi
thought throughout the world, with a focus on Muslim minorities in the West.441 It was estimated
that Saudi Arabia spent between two and three billion dollars per year abroad since 1975 for
religious causes. Over the years the Saudi Royal family funded 1,500 mosques, 210 Islamic centers
and dozens of Muslim academies and schools.442 Several books that have been used in the West,
including in the UK, have taught, “hate ideology.”443 In 2007, it was reported that a quarter of
Britain’s mosques owned hateful literature that was published in English and distributed by
agencies linked to the government of Saudi Arabia. Books, leaflets, DVDs and journals spread
anti-Western messages and hatred towards Jews and Christians and warned about the consequences
of being homosexual and a believer of faiths other than Islam. 444 In 2007, the CNN Dispatches
reported that the translated Koran for Britain, published in 2006, with King Abdullah’s seal of
approval and, produced under the supervision of the Saudi Ministry of Islamic Affairs contained
footnotes in which it told the readers to disregard the number of verses preaching peace and
tolerance. The comments suggested that they were no longer true and modern Muslims should not
437
Christopher M. Blanchard, The Islamic traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya, CRS Report for Congress, p.1, Available:
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
438
Tariq Ali, Kingdom of corruption: Keeping an eye on the ball: the Saudi connection, Sage, Index on Censorship 2001, p. 15,
Available: http://ipac.kacst.edu.sa/edoc/2010/184681_1.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
439
Wahhabism: A deadly scripture, The Independent, 1 November 2007, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/wahhabism-a-deadly-scripture-398516.html,
440
Militant Jihadism: radicalization, conversion, recruitment, in Trends in Terrorism Series, ITAC CIEM, Vol 2006-4, p. 17, Available:
http://www3.carleton.ca/cciss/res_docs/itac/gendron_e.pdf, Accessed 17 October 2012
441
442
443
Christopher M. Blanchard, The Islamic traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya, CRS Report for Congress, p.5, Available:
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
444
72
follow the narrow interpretation.445 The Saudi Government has been known to have direct and
indirect ties to several main stream institutions, leading mosques and madrassas in the UK that
have been suspected of supporting and spreading extremist ideology of the Salafist-Jihadi
movements.
Pakistan
Radicalization and fundamentalism in Britain have been influenced by Islamic ideologies that
have appeared in Pakistan and spread in the UK by Saudi-finance preachers in mosques. The
problem of violent religious radicalization has been present in Pakistan for years and has affected
its relations with other nations.
There are over 174 million Muslims in Pakistan, which is 96.3% of the population. Pakistan
is the second largest Muslim country in the world, with 11.1% of the world’s Muslims. Despite
Pakistan being dominated by Sunni Islam, it is the second country in the world with the largest
Shia population.446 The majority of people follow the “Sunni Moslem” tradition closely associated
with the Hanafi School of Sunni Islam, however many are also influenced by Sufism – “a more
mystical form of Islam.” “Although Islam plays a central role in the life of most Pakistanis it was
not subverted by violent extremists because of its Hanafi and Sufi influences.”447
Since its formation, Pakistan has been under the influence of clergy and the power of Islam,
which in the state serves as a basis for extremist and violent versions of Islam based on Wahhabi
and Deobandi brands of fundamentalism.448 Furthermore, due to its strategic location, it played an
important role in the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, where it supported and trained the Taliban
ideologically and militarily through its Inter-Services Intelligence Agency (ISI) and help from
Saudi Arabia.449 After the war, militant and extremist groups established their positions in the
northwestern regions of Pakistan. Many Afghan Mujahideen formed new Jihadist outfits such as
the Taliban and AQ in the early 1990s.450 Since then, Pakistan has become a haven and supporter
of Islamic Terrorist Organizations such as Hizb-ul-Mujahideen and Jama’at-I Islami which
received financing from local private donors, from the Muslim Diaspora in the US, from Saudi
445
446
Mapping the global Muslim population, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, October 2009, p. 5,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Orphan_Migrated_Content/Muslimpopulation.pdf,
447
Akram Elias, Pakistan: a failed state?, Security Debrief, 29 April 2009, Available:
http://securitydebrief.com/2009/04/29/pakistan-a-failed-state/, Accessed 20 October 2012
448
Rubina Saigol, Radicalization of state and society in Pakistan, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, p. 5, Available:
http://www.pk.boell.org/downloads/Chapter_Rubina_Final.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
449
Ibid., 14
450
Ibid., p. 15
73
Arabia, the UK and the United Arab Emirates.451 Pakistan, along with Afghanistan, has been
recognized as a regional base and training center for Islamic Army activities supporting
insurgencies in Tajikistan, the Kashmir region and Chechnya. Furthermore, it has assisted in
running training camps for the Taliban, AQ and individuals preparing for terrorist attacks, such as
members of 7/7 attacks.452 In November 2008, according to UK Security Services, over 4,000
British Muslims trained in terrorist camps in Afghanistan and Pakistan.453
Since the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia has provided relief and
humanitarian assistance to Pakistan. It has furthermore sponsored, either directly or through a
network of charities, thousands of madrassas in Pakistan where teachings of Wahhabi Islam take
place until today. “Over time, these schools became the breeding grounds for fanatical ideologies
espoused by extremist groups (notably Al Qaeda and the Taliban) in the region of Baluchistan, the
North-West Frontier Province, and other parts of the country.”454
Shia
Iraq
In 2009 it was estimated that 19-22 million Shia lived in Iraq, close to 70% of the whole
country’s population.455 The country has been dominated by the Sunni minority, which has left the
country in a long-term Sunni-Shi’ite conflict for political domination in Iraq. The Shia population
has lived under Saddam Hussein’s dictatorship.456 In 1991, during the Iraqi revolt against him,
thousands of Shi’its were killed. Local tensions have further spread as a result of the US invasion
in 2003. After Sadam’s fall in April 2003, Iraq became the central point for global jihad, gaining
new recruits from the Muslim world and different jihadists from other fronts.457 Sunni jihadi
groups such as Abu Mousab al-Zarqawi’s Al-Qaeda began a bombing campaign against Shia
451
Rubina Saigol, Radicalization of state and society in Pakistan, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, p. 18, Available:
http://www.pk.boell.org/downloads/Chapter_Rubina_Final.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
452
Al-Qaeda had training camps in Pakistan, reveal CIA documents, 20 January 2012, Available:
http://www.indiatvnews.com/news/world/al-qaeda-had-training-camps-in-pakistan-reveal-cia-documents--8080.html?page=2,
453
Kim Sengupta, British Muslims have become a mainstay of the global ‘jihad’, The Independent, 29 November 2008, Available:
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/british-muslims-have-become-a-mainstay-of-the-global-jihad-1040232.html,
454
Akram Elias, Pakistan: a failed state?, Security Debrief, 29 April 2009, Available:
http://securitydebrief.com/2009/04/29/pakistan-a-failed-state/, Accessed 20 October 2012
455
Mapping the global Muslim population, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Pew Research Center, October 2009, p. 10,
Available: http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedfiles/Orphan_Migrated_Content/Muslimpopulation.pdf, Accessed 21 October
2012
456
Bobby Ghosh, Behind the Sunni-Shi’ite Divde, The Magazine, 5 March 2007, Available:
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1592849-2,00.html, Accessed 20 October 2012
457
Patrick Sokhdeo, Global Jihad. The future in the face of militant Islam, Issac Publishing, USA, 2007, p. 299
74
targets.458 However, due to the anti-American approach, a number of Shia joined the insurgency
against the USA and its allies, which caused more discussion regarding Sunni-Shia relations.459
Since 2003, both Sunni and Shia rebels have attacked the coalition, Iraqi government forces and
civilians. Between 2005 and 2006, intra-Shiite political rivalries have led to an eruption of
violence, mainly in the southern Iraq. In the years 2006 and 2008, Sunni Iraqis in Baghdad, al
Anbar province fought primarily against Sunni rebels, foreign fighters and AQ operatives, who
they sought responsible for violence in their communities.460 The fear of the possibility of Shia
expanding its powers through the region served as a useful fund-raising tool and recruitment
propaganda for terrorist groups.461
Patrick Sookhedeo has written the following regarding the Iraq conflict and the growth and
thinking of extremist groups:
“The continuing struggle in Iraq has strengthened the jihadi concept of the total struggle, in which
politics and media are as important as the military battle. It has also encouraged their psychological
warfare doctrine, whose aim is to dominate the enemy’s imagination and mold the way he thinks
about the war. They realize that the main battlefield is in the minds of the Western public and the
weakening of resolve in Europe and in part of the American public has vindicated their strategies
and encouraged them to redouble their efforts in Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere. They have
become convinced that the very ferocity and barbarity of their actions, the powerful imagery of
Muslims as victims and as victors now broadcast on all the modern media channels, furthers their
cause, weakens the enemy and gains them sympathizers and recruits in the Muslim world.”462
V. Islamic Terrorist activity in the UK (2000-2012)
Terrorist Attacks and Plots: Case Studies
London 7 July 2005 (7/7)
On 7 July 2005, fifty-two people lost their lives and over seven hundred were injured in a
terrorist attack on London’s city transport. This was the first and only successful plot to date
conducted by homegrown, Salafi-Jihadi, suicide bombers in the UK.463
At 8:50 a.m. three explosions took place in London’s Underground in a Circle Line tunnel
between Liverpool Street and Aldgate Station, in a Circle Line just outside Edgware Road, and in a
458
459
460
Christopher M. Blanchard, Islam: Sunnis and Shiites, Congressional Research Service, 28 January 2009, p.2, Available:
http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RS21745.pdf, Accessed 20 October 2012
461
462
Patrick Sokhdeo, Global Jihad. The future in the face of militant Islam, Issac Publishing, USA, 2007, p. 299
463
Christopher Andrew, The rise of the Islamist terrorist threat, Security Service MI5, Available:
https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/mi5-history/mi5-today/the-rise-of-the-islamist-terrorist-threat.html,
75
Piccadilly Line tunnel, between King’s Cross and Russell Square. At 9:47 a.m., a bomb exploded
in a London bus, number 30 in Tavistock Square. The four bombers, who died during the attacks,
were Mohammed Siddique Khan, Shehzad Tanweer, Germaine Lindsay, and Hasib Mir Hussein.464
After the London 7/7 attacks the Muslim community came under suspicion when it was
revealed that three of the suspected suicide bombers came from Pakistani families living in Leeds,
specifically from a working-class, poor and racially mixed neighborhood called Beeston. Khan,
Tanweer and Hussein were neither poor nor underprivileged. Investigations concluded that the
London bombers’ background was “largely unexceptional” and that there was no clear profile of a
“British Islamist terrorist”, with the partial exception of Lindsay.465 There is no one explanation of
the motives. The background of the attackers, however suggests, that it was not poverty or
unemployment but rather a severe identity crisis typical to second and third generation immigrants
that served as the main factor behind their decision to turn towards terrorism.466 Ayman al-
Zawahiri, deputy of bin Laden, claimed responsibility for the attack on behalf of AQ. The extent of
its involvement in planning the 7/7 attacks is unclear. Some suspects included homegrown-based
extremists in the UK, who were inspired by AQ.467 It is likely, that the 7/7 attacks were carried out
as part of al-Zawahiri’s 2002 campaign, where he announced that allies supporting the USA in Iraq
would suffer severe consequences.468
Mohammed Siddique Khan the ringleader of the cell, detonated his explosives outside
Edgware Road. He was thirty-years-old and the eldest of the attackers. He lived in Beeston, Leeds
with his pregnant wife and eighteen-month old daughter. Khan was very known and respected in
his community. He was described as a father figure and was employed as a learning mentor at a
local primary school until December 2004, where he guided children with social problems. In the
mid-1990s, he was part of a group known as the Mullah Boys (a group of young generation Britons
of Pakistani origin), which focused on helping drug addicts. The group turned religious after 9/11.
It is unclear when Khan developed his affinity for extreme Islamism. Apparently, he attended a
local mosque in Beeston where the clerics spoke Urdu. With poor understanding of the language,
he referred to Wahhabi literature, which was translated into English. The main problem that
occurred in Khans life, as reported by his brother, was that he and his wife were from different
464
Paul Murphy, Chairman, Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005, Intelligence and Security Committee, May
2006, p. 2, Available: http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm67/6785/6785.pdf, Accessed 3 September 2012
465
Report of the official account of the bombings in London on 7th July 2005, House of Commons 11 May 2006, p. 13, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/11_05_06_narrative.pdf, Accessed 8 September 2012
466
Assaf Moghadam, The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the diffusion of suicide attacks, Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 2008, pp. 193, 197
467
Al-Qaeda claims London bombings, BBC News, 19 September 2005, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4262392.stm, Accessed 2 September 2012
468
76
Islamic backgrounds. Khan was from a Barelvi Islamic background and his wife was a Deobandi
Muslim. Khan’s relationship with his family was destroyed as he disobeyed his family and married.
At this moment Khan accepted a more radical salafi version of Islam that was dismissive of
traditional Islam and considered all Salafi groups equal. Over time, Khan became more devoted to
Islam, less talkative, more introverted and slightly more intolerant about dissenting views.
However, overall he was seen as a good citizen.469
Shehzad Tanweer was responsible for the attack between Liverpool Street and Aldgate
Station. The twenty-two-year-old grew up in a respected, well off Pakistani family in Leeds, where
his father – a self-made businessman, was seen as a pillar of the community. Tanweer was a friend
of Khan from an early age but lost contact with him until they met coincidently in a gym a few
years prior to 2005. Tanweer attended Leeds Metropolitan University and enjoyed a life that many
could not afford in Beeston. He grew up in a religious but not extremist environment. It was not
until the 9/11 attacks that he became more religious and began socializing more radical individuals.
Apparently a fair amount of young Muslims returned to Islam after September 11. With Islam as
the main focus of his life, he lost interest in his studies and spent his time with Khan and Hussein
in a local Islamic bookstore. Without employment his father supported him. In December 2004,
Tanweer and Khan traveled to Lahore, where they stayed for a couple of months. It is suspected
that both received terrorist training at a madrassa run by Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT).470 Before the
attack, Khan taped a film (last will), which was broadcast on the al-Jazeera network. He identified
himself as a soldier at war, speaking about the need to sacrifice in order to be heard and Muslims to
be free. He blamed British society for oppressing his people in Iraq and all around the world, for
which they needed to be held responsible for.471
The British authorities obtained the majority of information regarding the London bombings
after the attacks. It appeared that the British domestic intelligence agency MI5 and government
officials received warnings regarding possible terrorist activity before the unfortunate attacks in
2005. Prior to the London bombings, the MI5 conducted surveillance of Khan and Tanweer after
their travel to Pakistan, with suspicions of terrorist activity and connections to Al Qaeda members,
who were planning a series of attacks across South-East Britain with fertilizer bombs.472 Despite
several leads, months before the bombings, officials failed to keep tabs or link them to the 7/7
469
470
471
London bomber video aired on TV, BBC News, 2 September 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4206708.stm,
472
Ian Cobain, Richard Norton-Taylor and Jeevan Vasagar, MI5 decided to stop watching two suicide bombers, in the Guardian, 1
May 2007, Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/may/01/terrorism.politics2, Accessed 4 September 2012
77
conspiracies.473 MI5 claimed that they could not identify Khan, although during eighteen months of
surveillance and investigation under codenamed Operation CREVICE, they made inquiries about a
telephone registered in his name, recorded his conversations (they included jihadi activity in
Pakistan, support of the Taliban and UK foreign policy), followed him and had photographs of
him, amongst other information.474
Germaine Lindsay detonated himself in the Piccadilly tunnel. He was a nineteen-year-old,
Jamaican-born convert to Islam, who had a difficult childhood. He did not know his biological
father and was beaten by his stepfather. Khan was described as a bright person, and talented
individual in sports, arts and music. His path to extreme Islam started about four years before 7/7.
After his conversion he referred to himself as Jamal, turned away from friends, stopped listening to
music and playing sports, started wearing the traditional white thobe, learned Arabic and attended
Omar Mosque and then Leeds Grand Mosque. He was disciplined for distributing leaflets in
support of AQ. After his mom traveled to the USA he was left alone. In 2002 he married a Muslim
convert, Samantha Lewthwaite and became a father. In November 2004 he went through a new
transformation. He became once again very modern in his views, shaved his beard, wore western
clothes, associated with petty criminals and became closely acquainted with other women.475
Hasib Mir Hussein was the youngest member of the Beeston-based Islamists (eighteen). He
failed to detonate his bomb on the Underground and detonated himself on bus number 30 in
Tavistock Square. Hussein was described as “docile, until provoked” with a tendency of becoming
violent. He attended college, however was a poor student. Around 2003 he became extremely
religious after his pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. After hajj he became openly supportive of AQ and
praised the 9/11 attackers as martyrs. In 2004, he became westernized once again, and just before
the London attack, he shaved, assumingly not to draw suspicion.476
The four young British Muslims spent time in mosques, youth clubs, gyms and an Islamic
bookstore in Beeston. They all were second or third generation immigrants that went through an
identity crisis feeling trapped between tradition and modernization. Young, educated, unemployed
with a lack of clear identity, they became influenced by Salafi-Jihadists ideology that offered an
473
Nic Roberson, Paul Cruickshank and Tim Lister, Documents give new details on al Qaeda’s London bombings, in CNN World, 30
April 2012, Available: http://articles.cnn.com/2012-04-30/world/world_al-qaeda-documents-london-bombings_1_qaeda-s-
london-operation-crevice-rashid-rauf/2?_s=PM:WORLD, Accessed 4 September 2012
474
Ian Cobain, Richard Norton-Taylor and Jeevan Vasagar, MI5 decided to stop watching two suicide bombers, in the Guardian, 1
May 2007, Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/may/01/terrorism.politics2, Accessed 4 September 2012
475
476
78
alternative identity.477 Khan, the ringleader of the group encouraged the process of radicalization
and the group provided each other with emotional support. Through the course of the radicalization
process, Islamic preachers such as Abdullah al-Faisal and Omar Bakri Muhhamad influenced the
individuals.478 According to a 7/7 report, the “bombs were homemade and the ingredients used
were all readily commercially available and not particularly expensive. Each device appears to
have consisted of around 2-5kg of home made explosive (…) current indications are that group was
self-financed. There is no evidence of external sources of income. Our best estimate is that the
overall cost is less than £8,000. The overseas trips, bomb making equipment, rent, car hire and UK
travel being the main cost elements.”479
A year before the 7/7 attacks, British intelligence concluded “al Qaeda was secretly
recruiting…Muslims in British universities and colleges to carry out terrorist attacks.” Despite the
government’s awareness of developing radicalization in the UK and intelligence surveillance of
terrorist suspects, the British Joint Terrorism Analysis Center (JTAC) informed policymakers three
weeks before bombings that “at present there is not a group with both the current intent and the
capability to attack the UK.”480 That reassuring message from the country’s intelligence agencies
and law enforcement officials, prompted the British government to lower its terror alert despite the
upcoming G-8 summit in Scotland and anticipation of potential attacks due to earlier bombings in
Europe (Madrid train bombings in March 2004).
Before the 7/7 attacks, there were several warning that the British intelligence failed to
understand or respond to in order to deter the attacks. Long before the bombings, British officials
predicted a terrorist attack. In 2003, Eliza Manningham-Buller, director general of MI5, stated that
she saw "no prospect of a significant reduction in the threat posed to the UK and its interests from
Islamist terrorism over the next five years, and I fear for a considerable number of years
thereafter.”481 In April 2004, Sheik Omar Bakri Mohammed, an extremist cleric living in Britain,
warned in a press interview “a very well organized London-based group, Al Qaeda Europe, was on
the verge of launching a big operation here.”482 The majority of alerts regarding possible attack in
London came from foreign governments. In December 2004 British MI6 and US authorities (CIA,
477
Ibid., pp. 197-198
478
Ibid., pp. 212, 219
479
Report of the official account of the bombings in London on 7th July 2005, House of Commons 11 May 2006, pp. 22-23,
Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/11_05_06_narrative.pdf, Accessed 8 September 2012
480
Elaine Sciolino and Don Van Natta Jr., June Report led Britain to lower its terror alert, in The New York Time. International, 19
July 2005, Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/19/international/europe/19intel.html?pagewanted=all, Accessed 4
September 2012
481
Elaine Sciolino and Don Van Natta Jr., June Report led Britain to lower its terror alert, in The New York Time. International, 19
July 2005, Available: http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/19/international/europe/19intel.html?pagewanted=all, Accessed 4
September 2012
482
Ibid.
79
FBI) were warned by Saudi intelligence of an attack by four people on the London Underground
within six months.483 In June 2005, French intelligence warned about a likely terror attack.484 Just
hours before the bombings occurred, Scotland Yard informed the Israeli Embassy in London about
possible attacks in the city and ordered that Foreign Minister Benyamin Netanyahu remain in his
hotel and not make his way to Liverpool Street (one of the explosion sites) where he was to address
an economic summit.485
Wood Green Ricin Plot
Seven individuals of North African origin, mostly from Algeria in their twenties and
thirties,486 were arrested in January 2003 for plotting an attempted bioterrorism attack on the
London Underground with ricin poison. Ingredients and equipment required for the production of
ricin were discovered in a flat in Wood Green.487 Supposedly, the plot was connected to AQ,488
however the lack of evidence and no presence of ricin on analyzed objects, led to the release of the
four suspects without charge and conviction.489 These were Samir Feddag (26), Mouloud Feddag,
(18), Mustapha Taleb (33) and 17-year-old who could not be named for legal reasons. Masreddine
Fekhadji was charged with two offences under the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act. 490 Mohamed
Meguerba jumped bail and fled Britain to Algeria.491 Kamel Bourgass, the mastermind of the plot
was imprisoned for seventeen years for conspiring “together with other persons unknown to
commit public nuisance by the use of poisons and/or explosives to cause disruption, fear or injury.”
The verdict was reached based on his hand-written notes on how to make ricin, cyanide and
botulinum.492 Further, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for the stabbing to death of detective
483
Antony Barnett and Martin Bright, We warned MI6 of tube attacks, claim Saudis, in the Guardian/The Observer, 4 September
2004, Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/sep/04/july7.saudiarabia, Accessed 4 September 2012
484
Jon Henley and Duncan Campbell, France and Saudis knew of plans to attack UK, in The Guardian, 9 August 2005, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/aug/09/france.july7, Accessed 4 September 2012
485
Britain failed to protect London even after Israel warned Britain of coming Al-Qaeda (sic) terror-inefficiency of conspiracy?, in
India Daily News Bureau, 7 July 2005, Available: http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/3489.asp,
486
Frank Gardner, Ricin find ‘very significant’, BBC News. World Edition, 8 January 2003, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2636153.stm, Accessed 15 October 2012
487
Terrorism police find deadly poison, BBC News. World Edition, 7 January 2003, Available:
488
Chris Summers, Questions over ricin conspiracy, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available:
489
Killer jailed over poison plot, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4433709.stm, Accessed
15 October 2012
490
Five released after terror raids, BBC News. World Edition, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2657657.stm,
491
Killer jailed over poison plot, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4433709.stm, Accessed
15 October 2012
492
80
Stephen Oake during his arrest in Manchester on January 2003, and stabbing of three other police
offers at that time.493
Details regarding Kamer Bourgass’ background have been unknown to the police. He has
been described by MI5 as a “sleeper,” an AQ operative waiting to be activated at the right time in
the UK. The officials believe he spent time in Afghanistan, where he learned how to use and make
poison and entered the UK illegally as Nadir Habra in the back of a lorry through the port of Dover
in January 2000.494 In December 2001, he lost his appeal to grant him asylum in the UK. Two
months later the police found a false passport of Bourgass during a search conducted in a storage
depot in Wembley in North London.495 After his conviction in 2003, he was imprisoned at
Wakefield, West Yorkshire. In July 2009, he was transferred to Whitemoor prison in
Cambridgeshire due to “escalation of violence [in the prison] for faith-related reasons.” Bourgass
was suspected of bullying and intimidating fellow prisoners. In an attempt to convert other
prisoners he pressured them to attend prayers, and told them what they should eat and read.
Furthermore, he aimed to convince others not to operate with staff, especially the female prison
staff. In 2010, Bourgass was accused of prompting a murder on an unnamed fellow prisoner who
assaulted him in March that year.496
21 July 2005 Bomb Plot (21/7)
Two weeks after the 7/7 attacks, Muktar Ibrahim (29), Yassin Omar (26), Ramzi Mohammed
(25), and Hussain Osman (28), attempted to detonate explosives on three London tube trains and a
bus. The attack was unsuccessful due to faulty explosives. They were convicted of conspiracy to
murder and sentenced for life in July 2007.497 Manfo Asiedu (35), possibly from Ghanian, was
believed to be the fifth bomber, who abandoned his bomb and returned to Ibrahim’s apartment to
defuse a booby-trap bomb.498 He was charged for conspiring to cause explosions and sentenced to
33 years.499
493
The ricin case timeline, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4433459.stm,
494
Mystery still surrounds killer, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4440953.stm, Accessed
15 October 2012
495
The ricin case timeline, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4433459.stm,
496
Dominic Casciani, Terrorists Bourgass and Hussain denied court challenge, BBC News, 18 February 2011, Available,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12502772, Accessed 15 October 2012
497
21 July: Attacks, escapes and arrests, BBC News, 11 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6752991.stm,
498
Profile: Manfo Kwaku Asiedu, BBC News, 9 November 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6634913.stm,
499
21 July plotter’s fiancee jailed, BBC News, 11 July 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7501870.stm, Accessed
2 November 2012
81
Ibrahim, the ringleader of the group boarded a bus in Shoreditch (East London). Mohammed
targeted a train at Oval Station (South London), Omar entered a train at Warren Street (Central
London) and Osma traveled on a Hammersmith and City line service to Sheperd’s Bush (West
London).500
The bombers were of East African origin and arrived in the UK in the 1990s.501 In their teens
and early twenties, all four attackers were influenced and guided by radical clerics Abu Hamza and
Abdullah el-Faisal. They read radical literature and watched videos of beheadings, the 9/11 attacks
and murder of Daniel Pearl.502
Muktar Ibrahim born in Eritrea experienced the war of independence against Ethiopia. He
arrived in the UK in 1990, worked as a market trailer and received British citizenship in 2004. In
the early 1990s, Muktar Ibrahim was involved in criminal gang related activity for which he was
detained for five years. After his release in 1998, he showed signs of effort to change his life,
however such enthusiasm did not last for long as he became interested in the Islamist political
scene in London and attended Finsbury Park Mosque. It has been suggested that Ibrahim, known as
“emir” attended training camps in Pakistan, and trained for jihad in Sudan in 2003. He was under
surveillance in May 2004.503 When traveling to Pakistan in December that year, he was held for
questioning by British authorities at Heathrow airport, however was released to continue his travel
despite suspicious behavior and possession of a substantial amount of money.504
Yassin Omar from Somalia arrived in the UK with his sisters and spent most of his childhood
in foster care. From an early age Omar did not like authority and had no interest in education. It
was in 2000 that he became interested in Islam, which he demonstrated by wearing a robe instead
of western clothing and by spoking about his support for the Taliban and the establishment of an
Islamic state in Afghanistan. He openly expressed his support of the 9/11 attacks and anti-Western
views.505 The production of the bombs took place in Omar’s flat in new Southgate, where they
500
Four guilty over 21/7 bomb plot, BBC News, 10 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6284350.stm,
501
Ibid.
502
Sandra Laville, 21/7 bombers: ringleader slipped through police net, The Guardian, 10 July 2007, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/jul/10/terrorism.topstories3, Accessed 20 October 2012
503
Profile: Muktar Ibrahim, BBC News, 11 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/email_news/6634901.stm, Accessed 20
October 2012
504
Nic Roberson, Paul Cruickshank and Tim Lister, Documents give new details on al Qaeda’s London bombings, Available:
http://articles.cnn.com/2012-04-30/world/world_al-qaeda-documents-london-bombings_1_qaeda-s-london-operation-crevice-
rashid-rauf/5?_s=PM:WORLD, Accessed 4 September 2012
505
Profile: Yassin Omar, BBC News, 9 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6634917.stm,
82
stocked large quantities of hydrogen peroxide from hairdressing suppliers before the 21/7 attacks.
The attackers relying on the 7/7 successful plot, used a similar hydrogen peroxide mixture.506
Ramzi Mohammed a Somali born lived in a refugee camp as a result of the civil war and
witnessed his father being forced to fight in one of the warring militia. In order to secure a better
life his mother sent him away. He arrived in the UK in 1998 and was put in the care of Slough
social services. Mohammed led a Western lifestyle and enjoyed his youth until 2003, when he
started attending the Finsbury Park Mosque and listening to speakers talk about religion and
politics at Hyde Park Corner. In 2004 he associated with Ibrahim and Omar and attended Abu
Hamza preaching’s. When police raided his apartment they found extremist literature, and a suicide
note to his girlfriend and two children. He was described as a “Jekyll and Hyde character.”507
Hussain Osman, whose real name was Hamdi Isaac Adus, originated from Ethiopia. Before
traveling to the UK in 1996 under the name Osman, he lived in Italy for fourteen years with his
brother. In order to claim asylum he presented himself as a citizen of war-torn Somalia. He was
married with children and lived in Stockwell. From this moment on there is little information
available regarding Osman’s life and when and how he met Ibrahim and Omar. After the attack he
escaped to Italy where he was arrested on 29 July 2005.508
A number of individuals have been convicted on the basis of giving assistance and
protection to the 21/7 bombers: Wahbi Mohammed (25), from Stockwell, brother of Ramzi
Mohammed sentenced for 17 years. Siraj Ali (33), from Enfield, failed to release information about
Ibrahim and Omar, and was sentenced for 12 years. Ali was fostered by the same family as Omar
and lived in the same block of flats as him in Southgate. Abdul Sherif (30), from Stockwell, brother
of Hussain Osman, was sentenced to 10 years. Osman traveled to Italy with Sherif’s passport.
Ismail Abdurahman (25), from Lambeth was sentenced to 10 years for not disclosing information
about Said and Osman. Muhedin Ali (29), from Ladbroke Grove, received a 7-year sentence
(police found in his possession extremist material and a suicide note belonging to Mohammed).509
510
Further convictions of individuals guilty of supporting Osman included: Yeshi Girma, Hussain
Osman's wife, who was jailed for 15 years, her brother Esayas Girma and sister Mulu Girma who
were jailed for 10 years. Mohamed Kabashi (Mulu's boyfriend) who was jailed for 10 years.
506
Four guilty over 21/7 bomb plot, BBC News, 10 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6284350.stm,
507
Profile: Ramzi Mohammed, BBC News, 9 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6634955.stm, Accessed 20
October 2012
508
Profile: Hussain Osman, BBC News, 9 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6634923.stm#map, Accessed
20 October 2012
509
The accomplices to terror, BBC News, 4 February 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7226715.stm, Accessed
20 October 2012
510
Five jailed for helping 21/7 plot, BBC News, 4 February 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7226425.stm,
83
Fardosa Abdullahi, Yassin Omar's fiancée, who was jailed for three years.511
Dhiren Barot – Plots to Attack US and UK
Dhiren Barot was the mastermind behind a series of plans to attack British and US targets.
He was under MI5 surveillance and arrested in London in August 2004. Barot pleaded guilty and
was jailed for life in November 2006.512 Seven other men who were individually recruited by Barot
were jailed for up to twenty-six years for conspiring in terror plans, which included blowing apart a
London Underground tunnel and, bombings using an explosive-packed limousine and a dirty
radiation device.513 Targets in the USA included IMF and the World Bank in Washington, the
Stock Exchange and Citigroup headquarters in New York, and the Prudential Building in Newark,
New Jersey. Supposedly he presented his plans to AQ leadership with the aim of getting the
permission and the resources to mount attacks in the UK.514
Barot was born in India in 1971 and immigrated with his family a year later to Kingsbury,
UK. Following his studies he worked as an airline ticket clerk in Piccadilly from 1991-1995. He
allegedly he traveled to Pakistan in October 1995 and obtained training at a terrorist camp. In 1999
he published a book titled The Army of Madniah under the name Esa al-Hindu in which he revealed
he converted to Islam at the age of twenty. During an investigation police found detailed notes
about weapons, grenades, chemicals for bomb making and bomb-making instructions.515
The members of Barot cell were: Mohammed Naveed Bhatti (27), of Harrow in North
London, sentenced to 20 years; Junade Feroze (31), of Blackburn, who received 22 years; and Zia
Ul Haq (28), of Wembley in North London, who was convicted for 18 years. Abdul Aziz Jalil (24),
of Luton, was jailed for 26 years; Omar Abdur Rehman (23), of Bushey in Hertfordshire, was
jailed for 15 years; and Nadeem Tarmohamed (29) from Wembley, received 20 years. Qaisar
Shaffi (28), of Willesden, North-West London, was sentenced to 15 years.516
Fertilizer Bomb Plot
In April 2007, five British Muslims in their twenties and thirties were sentenced to life
511
21 July plotter’s fiancee jailed, BBC News, 11 July 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7501870.stm, Accessed
20 October 2012
512
Muslim convert who plotted terror, BBC News, 7 November 2006, Available:
513
UK al-Qaeda cell members jailed, BBC News, 15 June 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6755797.stm,
514
515
Ibid.
516
Accessed: 20 October 2012
84
imprisonment for planning a plot on a number of targets across Britain. Potential targets included
London’s Ministry of Sound nightclub, Houses of Parliament and Bluewater shopping centre in
Kent. The 600 kg of ammonium nitrate that was purchased to construct a bomb was kept in Access
self-storage in Hanwall, West London.517 The AQ sympathizers traveled to Pakistan to support
jihadi groups such as al-Muhajiroun and their armed campaigns. As a result of frustration and
anger towards the US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan, the group began planning an attack in
2003. It was directed towards Britain, who, as a supporter of the US, was said to have supported
the war against Muslims.518
Omar Khyam, the group ringleader, was born and raised in Crawley, West Sussex in a
largely secular Muslim household. In his early teens, while growing up without a father, his interest
in both religion and politics led him to perceiv violence as the answer to all problems, with religion
justifying his actions. At the age of eighteen he got involved with al-Muhajirioun and attended
lectures by Omar Bakri Mohammed, Abu Hamza al-Masri and Abduall Faisal. His views
corresponded with the preachers belief of no “compatibility between Islam and life in Britain.” In
2000 he traveled to Pakistan to train in a Mujahideen training camp to fight in Kashmir. It was here
where Khan received military training that became useful for 21/7. In 2001 he traveled to
Afghanistan were he met members of the Taliban. Next, he returned to Pakistan, where he
allegedly met Abdul Hadi (an AQ senior figure) and began planning the attacks in the UK. For his
trip to Pakistan he took a bank loan of £16,000.519
Jawad Akbar was born in Pakistan, spent his early years in Italy, and at the age of eight move
to Crawly. Interested in mathematics and technology, he studied at Brunel University and during
this time worked part-time at Gatwick Airport with clearance to work airside. He became involved
in a radical Islamist political group at the university. Akbar, although he was perceived as a good
member of society, never felt fully integrated and “nursed a sense of resentment and hatred towards
the society in which he lived”.520 He developed an open sense of hatred towards non-Muslims,
referring to them as kuffars. Akbar met Khyam through another suspect, Nabeel Hussain, who was
cleared of charges and traveled with him to Pakistan in 2003. During investigations it was revealed
that MI5 monitored Akbar and they became aware of his plots to attack a nightclub.521
517
Five get life over UK bomb plot, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6195914.stm,
518
Ibid.
519
Profile: Omar Khyam, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149794.stm,
520
Profile: Omar Khyam, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149794.stm,
521
Profile: Jawad Akbar, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149788.stm,
85
Salahuddin Amin, was born in Britain and his family left to Pakistan when he was four. He
returned to Luton, Bedfordshire in 1991, when he was 16-years-old and only spoke Urdu. He
apparently experienced culture shock after his return. Over time he quickly learned English and
received a degree in product design engineering. Every year he returned to Pakistan for a holiday,
and it was during one trip that he became a sympathizer the perceived suffering of Muslims in
Kashmir. After his return he began to donate half of his wages towards the cause and attended Al-
Muhajiroun meetings in Luton where he met individuals who attempted to develop a jihadi support
network between the UK and groups abroad. Through the network, which included Crawley, he
met Khyam. Amin returned permanently to Pakistan after raising £21,000 from dishonest bank
loans. UK officials claim that it was in Pakistan where Amin served as a facilitator between the UK
and extremists in Pakistan such as AQ.522
Wahhed Mahmood was a British Muslim from Crawley (details about his background are not
well known) met Khyam in a local mosque and participated in al-Muhajiroun meetings in Luton.
Both were known for their expressed anger over how they saw Msulims being treated in the world.
In 2003 the plotters met in the Mahmood family home in Pakistan where they decided to launch an
attack in the UK. The police reported that during the search conducted of his flat, little evidence
was found, as he had removed his computer hard drive. Evidence against Mahmood was based on
the testimony of Mohammed Babar, an American who met the plotters in the UK and Pakistan, and
on a tape in which he praised the Madrid bombings and discussed the possibility of bombings in
the Bluewater shopping centre in Kent.523
Anthony Garcia, born Rahman Benouis in Algeria, moved to Leyton, UK at the age of five.
He was the only member of the group that was not of Pakistani origins and who adapted well in
British society. He left school at the age sixteen with the dream of becoming a male model. His
father changed the family name to Adam, as “it sounded more English.” During Garcia’s teenage
years, Islam played no part in his life. Only when his older brother developed an interest in Islam
did he follow. The first step towards radicalization started between 1998 and 1999 when they
attended Islamist political meetings. The turning point for Garcia was when he saw videos of
atrocities in Kashmir and became a supporter of the cause. In 2003, he traveled to Pakistan and
attended the same training camp as Khyam. Upon his return he bought fertilizer from an
agricultural merchant and with Khyam and Nabeel Hussain he hired a unit in Access self-storage
522
Profile: Salahuddin Amin, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149790.stm, Accessed 21
October 2012
523
Profile: Waheed Mahmood, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149800.stm, Accessed
21 October 2012
86
for the ammonium nitrate.524

Mohammed Khawaja a computer programmer of Pakistani origin who lived in Canada, was
found guilty of designing the detonators for the 21/7 attacks. He was accused of supplying money
to the Crawly group, whose members he met in a training camp in Pakistan. In February 2004 he
flew to Heathrow to present the remote control needed to set off the bomb.525
Mohammed Babar, an American of Pakistani origin acted as witness for the prosecution of
the 21/7 group. He traveled to Pakistan after the 9/11 attacks to “fight jihad in neighboring
Afghanistan” where he met the other defendants in the case in 2003.526 He received immunity from
prosecution in Britain after pleading guilty for terrorism offences in a New York federal court.527
Babar, as a member of AQ, provided senior members with money and equipment, supplied
weapons, trained individuals in training camps he had set up in Pakistan, and planned two attempts
to assassinate General Pervez Musharraf, the former president of Pakistan. He attracted the
attention of US officials when he declared his loyalty to his fellow Muslims and would not hesitate
to kill American soldiers in Afghanistan. His cooperation in court granted him a reduced sentence
in prison. Despite his convictions on five terrorism offences that carried a maximum seventy-year
term, after four years and eight months he was released in 2008.528
London and Glasgow International Airport Plots (20-30 June 2007)
In the early hours of 29 June 2007, the police defused two cars in Central London containing
petrol, gas cylinders and nails. One was left in front of the Tiger Tiger club on Haymarket. The
second containing a bomb was towed from nearby Cockspur Street, where it was parked illegally
and left in a car compound on Park Lane, which is the location where a second device was later
found. The following day, 30 June 2007, after the failed car bomb attacks in London, a burning car
containing gas cylinders was driven into the entrance of Glasgow’s international airport. The two
men who drove the car were Kafeel Ahmed and doctor Bilal Abdullah. Officials connected the plot
with the failed car bombings in London.529 Iraqi Bilal Abdullah, a doctor registered to work in the
524
Profile: Anthony Garcia, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6149798.stm, Accessed 21
October 2012
525
Duncan Gardham, Canadian al-Qaeda bomb-maker guilty in British fertiliser, The Telegraph, 29 October 2008, Available:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/canada/3281206/Canadian-al-Qaeda-bomb-maker-guilty-in-British-
fertiliser-bomb-plot.html, Accessed 21 October 2012
526
Andy Tighe, The US ‘supergrass’ central to trial, BBC News, 23 March 2006, Available:
527
Jeevan Vasagar, Supergrass told court of training at Pakistan terror camp, The Guardian, 1 May 2007, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/may/01/terrorism.politics, Accessed 21 October 2012
528
Shiv Malik, Jihadi who helped train 7/7 bomber freed by US after just five years, The Guardian, 13 February 2011, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/feb/13/jihadi-train-7-7-bomber-freed, Accessed 21 October 2012
529
Timeline: Failed car bomb attacks, BBC News, 6 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6260626.stm,
87
UK, was charged with conspiracy to cause explosions. Kafeel Ahmed a twenty-seven-year-old
engineer from India, suffered burns to 90% of his body during the explosion and died in the
hospital.530 Dr. Mohhammed Asha, a doctor from Jordan with Palestinian origins was scheduled to
stand trial for conspiracy to cause explosions with Ahmed in October 2008.531
There were five more suspects involved in the London-Glasgow plots of which three,
including Dr. Asha’s wife, were released shortly after arrest. The fourth suspect, Dr. Mohammed
Hannef was arrested in Australia and charged with providing support to a terrorist organization.
The fifth suspect, Dr Sabeel Ahmed, brother of Kafeel Ahmed, was arrested and charged under the
Terrorism Act on 14 July.532 He pleaded guilty for withholding information about a terrorist act and
was jailed for eighteen months. However, he left prison immediately due to time spent in
custody.533
After the Glasgow Airport attack, the UK was placed on its highest level of terrorism alert,
which meant that further attacks were imminent.534
Transatlantic Aircraft Plot
The transatlantic aircraft plot was a 2006 terrorist plot to detonate liquid explosives on board
several airlines traveling from the UK to the USA. The foiled attack by British police led to the
arrest of a numbers of suspects throughout London in August 2006. Individuals arrested and
convicted for life of conspiring to activate bombs in order to murder, included plot ringleader
Abdulla Ahmed Ali (28), from Walthamstow, Tanvir Hussain (28), from Leyton, and the
“quartermaster” Assad Sarwar (29) from High Wycombe. The three individuals were considered to
be the main masterminds of the attack. Also convicted of conspiracy to murder was Umar Islam, 31
from Plaistow. Three others, Ibrahim Savat (28), Arafat Khan (28), and Wahedd Zaman, (25) were
arrested but not convicted. The eighth suspect, British convert, Donald Stewart-Whyte (23) of High
Wycombe was cleared of charges.535
Abdulla Ahmed Ali, a British-born citizen from Newham, London studied engineering in
City University, following which he “pursued business opportunities in Pakistan.” He became
530
Bomb plot: Arrests and release, BBC News, 5 October 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6264230.stm,
531
Ibid.
532
Bomb plot: Arrests and release, BBC News, 5 October 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6264230.stm,
533
John Clements, Dr Sabeel Ahmed jailed for terror ‘silence’, Mirror, 12 April 2008, Available: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-
news/dr-sabeel-ahmed-jailed-for-terror-302485, Accessed 21 October 2012
534
UK terror threat now critica’, BBC News, 1 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6257606.stm, Accessed 22
October 2012
535
Three guilty of airline bomb plot, BBC News, 7 September 2009, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8242238.stm,
88
politically and religiously active in his teenage years. In 2003, when the USA invaded Afghanistan,
a charity shop, Islamic Medical Association in Clapton, East London, raised money and collected
equipment for refugees in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Ali became associated with the charity and
traveled to Pakistan, where he felt that aid work was ineffective and violence was the solution to
fighting the root of the problem – the West. Anger from what he had witnessed turned him towards
radical Islam. In January 2004 he traveled to Mecca for hajj, and in August to Pakistan for refugee
work.536 It has been suggested that at the time he attended training camps and learned his bomb-
making skills. He was there at the same time as the 7/7 attackers and the 21/7 plotters. 537 He
traveled back to Pakistan twice more, in June 2005 and May 2006. Upon his arrival in May at
Heathrow airport, he was investigated and asked to open his luggage, where security discovered a
suspected powdered soft drink and large number of batteries. He was released, however under
suspicion, and the MI5 and the police mounted a surveillance operation. Ali and Sarwar sent emails
with coded messages to jihadi contacts in Pakistan, which gave them guidance regarding the plot.
Security surveillance operations of Ahmed Ali and Hussain secured video evidence of individuals
preparing devices and jihadist suicide videos in their Walthamstow property. 538
Tanvir Hussain was described as “a fashion-conscious person” who enjoyed his youth. He
appeared in an AQ-style militant video, however denied it was a set of martyrdom films produced
by the plot group. Husain knew Ali from college and through their friendship became part of the
plot.539
Assad Sarwar, was described as the “quartermaster,” and had hidden the bomb ingredients –
such as hydrogen peroxide (hair bleach) – in his home and stored bomb parts in a suitcase in the
woods, which were used in the bomb production in a flat in Walthamstow that became the plotters’
bomb factory.540 British-born Sarwar lived in High Wycombe. Despite being accepted to university
in Chichester, he did not attend because he became homesick. His second attempt at Brunel
University was unsuccessful as he found the work too difficult. Sarwar described himself as shy,
with low self-esteem, and felt he was useless. In 2003 he traveled to Pakistan to help in an Afghan
refugee camp, where he met Ahmed Ali. After returning to the UK, they met at an East London
536
Dominic Casciani, Liquid bomb plot: What happened, 7 September 2009, Available:
537
Profiles: Airline plot accused, BBC News, 7 September 2009, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7604808.stm,
538
539
540
89
school and spoke about the situation in Afghanistan and Iraq.541

Rashid Rauf, a Birmingham-born British-Pakistani was raised in a wealthy family. Starting
from his teenage years he considered religion an important part of his life. He attended Portsmouth
University, which he left in 2002, and was reported to have moved to Pakistan, Punjab province
after the murder of his uncle Mohammed Saeed. Details regarding his life in Pakistan are unclear,
however, it is known that he married into the family of Maulana Masood Azhar, founder of Jaish-e-
Mohammed – the most powerful Islamic organization involved in attacks against India over the
dispute of Kashmir. In the UK, Azhar’s preaching influenced militant British-Pakistani
campaigners involved in Kashmir and through his personal appearances he raised funds for
Mujahideen. The British officials believed that Rashid Rauf was the facilitator, connecting
radicalized young British Muslim with the Mujahideen in Pakistan. He was arrested in Pakistan in
August 2006 and allegedly escaped prison in 2007.542
The reasons for that the group of men decided to conduct a violent plot were found in their
writings and martyrdom videos, in which they expressed anger over British and American foreign
policy, and expressed a belief that Muslims were oppressed and helpless victims of Western
dominance.543
Plot to behead a British Muslim Soldier
On 31 January 2007, the West Midlands Counter-Terrorism Unit and police arrested Parviz
Khan and eight other individuals of Pakistani origin for plotting a kidnapping and beheading of a
British Muslim Soldier who served in Afghanistan. The plot was identified as an ”Iraqi-style”
abduction.544 Five people have been charged for supplying equipment and funding for a terrorism
act between 30 March 2006 and 31 January 2007. These were: Amjad Mahmood (31), Mohammed
Irfan (30), Zahoor Iqbal (29), Hamid Elasmar (43), and the leader of the group, Parviz Khan.545
The police also arrested Basiru Gassama (29), who was accused of withholding information about
a potential act of terrorism. Abu Izzadeen was arrested in London in August 2007. He encouraged
his audience in a Birmingham speech in 2006 to behead Muslim recruits to the British army. Abu
541
542
Dominic Casciani, Profile: Rashi Rauf, BBC News, 22 November 2008, Available:
543
544
Terror raids over ‘beheading plot’. CNN.com World, 31 January 2007, Available:
http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/01/31/uk.terror.arrests/index.html, Accessed 22 October 2012
545
Man charged with plotting kidnap, BBC News, 9 February 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6344967.stm,
90
Bakr (38), was released without charge and accused the British government of making the UK “a
police state for Muslims.”546
Parviz Khan, an unemployed charity worker from Birmingham, was the mastermind of the
attack. Khan intended to use drug dealers to kidnap the Muslim soldier during his night out and
release footage of his beheading from a garage. Khan was described as a “fanatic” with very
extreme views. With the aim of persuading Gassama to take part in the plot, Khan showed him
videos of beheadings. As a member of an Islamist terrorist cell, he supported terrorists in Pakistan
and Afghanistan and was planning to supply them with computer hard drives, range-finders and
night-vision equipment that he had collected.547
Exeter Bombing Plot (22 May 2008)
Mohammed Abdul Saeed formally Nicky Reilly, is the twenty-two year old “nail bomber”
who accidentally detonated an explosive device in a restaurant toilet in Exeter, Plymouth, while
preparing to carry out a terrorist attack. The bomb was constructed from sodium hydroxide,
paraffin, strips of aluminum foil and nails. The bomber, who was the only injured, pleaded guilty
and was imprisoned for life.548
Reilly lived with his mother in King Street, which was considered to be one of the toughest
areas in the city. During the investigation it appeared that Reilly had a history of mental illness and
through militant influences on the Internet he became a victim of radicalization. Internet chatrooms
and websites were the root of his constructed hate towards the West and source of information on
how to create volatile caustic soda and paraffin bottle bombs.549 He was known as a calm
individual, who converted to Islam and spent most of his time in his room searching the Internet.
Many described him as a quiet and vulnerable person who was persuaded by others to conduct the
attack.550 The failed plot was thought to have been linked to Pakistan, however, due to lack of
evidence, such has not been confirmed. Furthermore, it is more likely that while he was
“encouraged by literature and individuals via the internet, Reilly was self-radicalized.” In a note he
wrote prior to his failed suicide bombing he stated that he was not brainwashed, indoctrinated, or
insane. He followed what God expected from mujahideen. The attack was a protest against
546
547
Man admits plot to behead soldier, BBC News, 29 January 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7215081.stm, Accessed
22 October 2012
548
Vikram Dodd, Helen Pidd, Exeter bomb suspect ‘encouraged by text message’ before mission – police, The Guardian, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/may/24/ukcrime.uksecurity, Accessed 22 October 2012
549
Nicky Reilly: Profile of a failed suicide bomber, Metro, Available: http://www.metro.co.uk/news/357902-nicky-reilly-profile-of-
a-failed-suicide-bomber, Accessed 22 October 2012
550
91
Britain’s, Israel’s and America’s brutality towards Muslims in the world and objection against the
unacceptable Western way of life that opposed the true religion – Islam.551
Assessment
The cases of the most prominent attacks and plots in the UK share some similarities. First,
the age group of the terrorists ranges from 18 to 43 years old, with the majority of attackers being
very young – aged 25 to 31. Secondly, the majority of individuals were British citizens and of
South Asian origin, mostly from Pakistan. Third, the young British Muslims were from middle-
class backgrounds, mostly with high level degrees and employed. Fourthly, mosques, influence
from abroad, training and ties with Pakistan, further the Internet had influenced and shaped their
radical Islamic views. All the incidences conducted in the UK were motivated by the US and UK
presence in Iraq and Afghanistan, the countries foreign policies, the dispute over Kashmir and the
perceived Western oppression of Muslims in the world.
Lists of Arrests, Charges and Extraditions of Terrorist Suspects
2000
October Iftikhar Ali Convicted for distributing leaflets advertising an al-Muhajiroun
event in Whitechapel – which called for a holy war against
Jews – with the intention of stirring up racial hatred.552
2002
February Abu Qatada Detained at the age of forty-two as a suspect terrorist with links
to Bin Laden under the new Anti-Terrorism, Crime and
Security Act.553 Released on bail from prison November 2012,
after the court upheld his appeal against extradition to
Jordan.554
551
Nail-bomber given life sentence, BBC News, 30 January 2009, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7859887.stm,
552
One in seven UK terror-related convictions linked to Islamist Group now threatening to prelaunch, Centre for Social Cohesion
Press Briefing, 1 June 2009, London, Available: http://www.socialcohesion.co.uk/files/1243874438_1.pdf, Accessed 25 August
2012
553
554
Abu Qatada wins appeal against deportation, BBC News, 12 November 2010, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-
20295754, Accessed 15 November 2012
92
February Moinul Abedin First individual to have been convicted in the UK for planning
an AQ inspired terrorist attack. Jailed for twenty years.555
April Iftikhar Ali The first individual arrested in the UK for inciting racial hatred
with an Islamic religious text and holy war against Jews with
leaflets promoting Al Mahajiroun. Fined £3,000, ordered to pay
£1,200 in costs and received 200 hours community service.556
Brahim First to be convicted of funding Islamist-related terrorism
Benmerzouga, through conspiracy to defraud. They raised funds for terrorist
Baghdad Meziane organizations such as AQ. Both were jailed for eleven years.557
2003
January Kamel Bourgass Kamel Bourgass the mastermind of Wood Green Ricin Plot,
was imprisoned for seventeen years for conspiring “together
with other persons unknown to commit public nuisance by the
use of poisons and/or explosives to cause disruption, fear or
injury”.558 And life imprisonment for the stabbing to death
detective Stephen Oake.559
March Mohammed Charged under section 58 of the Terrorism Act 2000 for
Abdullah Azam possessing documents or records with information that could
have been used to plan a terrorist attack.560
Abduallah el-Faisal Sentenced to nine years of jail for religious hatred, the usage of
threatening, insulting recordings and soliciting the murder of
Jews and Hindus. After seven years deported to Jamaica.561
2005
April Saajid Badat The shoe bomber plotter was arrested in November 2003. He
pleaded guilty to conspiring to blow up an aircraft with a shoe
bomb like Richard Reid. He did not pursue with the attack.
Badat was given thirteen years in jail.562
August Omar Bakri Denied return to Britain on basis of supporting terrorism after
Muhammed fleeing to Lebanon after the 7/7 attacks.563 In 2007 he was
arrested and convicted to life imprisonment in Lebanon.564
555
Phil Mackie, Moinul Abedin: UK’s first al-Qaeda inspired bomber, BBC News, 2 March 2012, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-birmingham-17231013, Accessed 22 October 2012
556
Muslim guilty of inciting racial hatred, BBC News, 3 May 2002, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/1966839.stm, Accessed 22 October 2012
557
Terror-link pair jailed, BBC News, 1 April 2003, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/2887953.stm, Accessed
22 October 2012
558
559
The ricin case timeline, BBC News, 13 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4433459.stm, Accessed 15
October 2012
560
Owen Bowcott, Six arrests in London after anti-terrorist raids, The Guardian, 20 September 2002, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2002/sep/20/september11.britainandseptember11, Accessed 23 October 2012
561
Damien Gayle, Deported preacher of hate transmits terror rants of UK from sun-soaked Caribbean exile, Mail Online, 13 March
2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2114242/Abdullah-el-Faisal-Deported-preacher-transmits-terror-rants-
UK-sun-soaked-exile.html, Accessed 17 October 2012
562
Shoebomb plotter given 13 years, BBC News, 22 April 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4474307.stm,
563
Y. Feldner, Radical Islamist profiles (2): Sheikh Omar Bakri Muhhamad – London, MEMRI, 25 October 2001,
Available: http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/535.htm, Accessed 17 October 2012
564
Muslim cleric Omar Bakri Muhammad arrested in Lebanon, BBC News. Middle East, 14 November 2010,
Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11579274, Accessed 15 October 2012
93
November Abbas Boutrab First individual convicted of extremist related terrorism in

Northern Ireland. The Algerian with suspected AQ links was
found guilty of downloading information on how to blow up a
passenger jet and forging of false identities.565
2006
February Abu Hamza Convicted of incitement to murder and sentenced to 7 years. On
the 5 October 2012 Abu Hamza lost his appeal, and by the High
courts decision the self-taught cleric was extradited to the
United States.566
July Anjem Choudary Organizer of the February protest outside Danish Embassy, he
was found guilty and fined for total of eight hundred pounds for
holding unauthorized public demonstration.567
August Abdulla Ahmed The transatlantic aircraft plotters were convicted for life for
Ali, Tanvir conspiring to activate bombs in order to murder.
Hussain, Assad
Sarwar
August Umar Islam, Members of the transatlantic aircraft group. Convicted of
Ibrahim Savat, conspiracy to murder. Arrested but not convicted Savat, Khan,
Wahedd Zaman, Zaman, Stewart-Whyte568
Donald Steward-
Whyte
November Dhiren Barot AQ operative sentenced to life in prison after pleading guilty of
plotting to attack UK and US targets using a dirty bomb and
gas-filled limousines.569
2007
April Omar Khyam, A group of five men were convicted of plotting an attack on
Jawad Akbar, shopping centers and nightclubs using fertilizer-based
Salahuddin Amin, explosive. Five were sentenced to life two others were
Wahhed Mahmood, acquitted.570
Anthony Garcia
Mohammed Babar Connected to the fertilizer plot. Received immunity from
prosecution in Britain after pleading guilty for terrorism
offences in a New York federal court.571 Despite his
convictions on five terrorism offences that carried a maximum
565
Al-Qaeda terror suspect convicted, BBC News, 24 November 2005, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4467640.stm, Accessed 22 October 2012
566
Owen Bowcott, Abu Hamza extradition to US goes ahead after court defeat, The Guardian, 6 October 2012,
Available: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/oct/05/abu-hamza-loses-extradition-appeal, Accessed 7 October 2012
567
Muslim cartoon protest man fined, BBC News, 4 July 2006, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/5148364.stm,
568
569
570
Five get life over UK bomb plot, BBC News, 30 April 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6195914.stm,
571
Jeevan Vasagar, Supergrass told court of training at Pakistan terror camp, The Guardian, 1 May 2007, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2007/may/01/terrorism.politics, Accessed 21 October 2012
94
seventy-year term, after four years and eight months he was

released in 2008.572
May Syed Hashmi Arrested in the UK in 2006 and held in solitary confinement.
First extradited individual from UK to the USA on Islamism
related terrorism charges. Known to have connections with AQ
and Al Muhajiroun.573 Pled guilty and jailed for fifteen years.574
June Mohammed Seven men were jailed for a total of 136 years for their
Naveed Bhatti, involvement in Dhiren Barot’s dirty bomb plot and Gas Limos
Junade Feroze, Zia project.575 576
Ul Haq, Abdul
Aziz Jalil, Omar
Abdur Rehman,
Nadeem
Tarmohamed,
Qaisar Shaffi
July Mizanur Rahman, Three individuals jailed for six years for inciting racial hatred
Umran Javed, during protests at the Danish embassy in London against
Abdul Muhid, cartoons satirizing the Prophet Muhammad. Saleem jailed for
Abdul Saleem four years.577
July Muktar Ibrahim 21/7 plotters were convicted of conspiracy to murder and
Yassin Omar, sentenced for life.578
Ramzi Mohammed,
Hussain Osman,
July Tariq Al-Daour, Arrested in 2005. The first people in the UK to be convicted of
Younes Tsouli, inciting terrorist murder through the internet. The group was in
Waseem Mughal, close relation with AQ.579 Mughal received seven-and-a-half
years and lengthened to 12, Al-Daour six-and-a-half years
increased to 10 and Tsouli ten, increased to 16 years.580
572
Shiv Malik, Jihadi who helped train 7/7 bomber freed by US after just five years, The Guardian, 13 February 2011, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/feb/13/jihadi-train-7-7-bomber-freed, Accessed 21 October 2012
573
Alison Gendar, Queens man Syed Hashmi facing 15 years after pleading guiltiy to helping Al Qaeda, Daily News, 27 April 2010,
http://articles.nydailynews.com/2010-04-27/news/27062872_1_queens-man-junaid-babar-cell-phone,
574
Larry Neumeister, Syed Hashmi, American student, pleads guilty to helping Al Qaida, New York Huffington Post, 27 April 2010,
Available: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/27/syed-hashmi-american-stud_n_554211.html,
575
Terrorist plots in the UK, Security Service MI5, Available: https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/terrorism/international-
terrorism/international-terrorism-and-the-uk/terrorist-plots-in-the-uk.html,
576
Accessed: 20 October 2012
577
Four men jailed over cartoon demo, BBC News, 18 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk/6904622.stm, Accessed
23 October 2012
578
21 July: Attacks, escapes and arrests, BBC News, 11 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6752991.stm,
579
Trio fuelled al-Qaeda propaganda, BBC News, 4 July 2007, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6264150.stm,
580
Longer sentences for al-Qaeda men, BBC News, 18 December 2007, Available:
95
July Five students were convicted on charges of possessing material

for terrorist purposes with the intention of going to terrorist
training camps in Pakistan or Afghanistan.581
October Mohhamed Atif In 2007, twenty-year-old Scottish student charged with
Siddique collecting terrorist related information. He was guilty for two
charges under Terrorism Act 2000, one under Terrorism Act
2006 and a breach of the peace. He was sentenced to eight
years. After an appeal in 2010 his conviction of possessing
articles of “reasonable suspicion” was overturned. The rest of
the three remain.582
November Abdul Rahman First person in Britain to be convicted of disseminating terrorist
information under the 2006 Terrorism Act. Part of a gang of
radical young Muslims who recruited and trained jihadists.
Jailed for six years.583
2008
January Sohail Anjum AQ trained terrorist who planed on carrying out an act of
Qureshi terrorism overseas. He was jailed for four-and-a-half years.584
February Parviz Khan, Individuals of Pakistani origin arrested for plotting a
Amjad Mahmood, kidnapping and beheading of a British Muslim soldier who
Mohammed Irfan, served in Afghanistan.585 Mahmood, Irfan, Iqbal, Elasmar,
Zahoor Iqbal, Khan charged for supplying equipment and funding for a
Hamid Elasmar terrorism act. Sentenced to terms between two years and life.586
February Malcolm Hodges Hodges was sentenced for publishing statements intending to
encourage terrorism. In November 2006 he sent letters to
dozens of mosques in the UK stating his support of Osama bin
Laden, encouraging jihad and spread anti-Semitic views. He
was jailed for two years.587
581
582
Siddique terrorism charges in detail, BBC News, 9 February 2010, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/tayside_and_central/8506062.stm, Accessed 27 October 2012
583
Al Qaeda terrorist who took part in Lake District training camp sentence to six years in prison, Mail Online, 22 November 2007,
Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-495455/Al-Qaeda-terrorist-took-Lake-District-training-camp-sentenced-years-
prison.html, Accessed 22 October 2012
584
585
http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/01/31/uk.terror.arrests/index.html, Accessed 22 October 2012
586
587
Man urged terror attacks on accountancy institutes – 10 years after failing professional exams, Mail Online, 19 February 2008,
Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-516448/Man-urged-terror-attacks-accountancy-institutes--10-years-failing-
professional-exams.html, Accessed 23 October 2012
96
February Mohammed First convictions for providing or attending terrorist training in

Hamid, Kibley da the UK under the Terrorism Act 2006.588 The court sentences
Costa, Mohammed varied amongst individuals: Hamid seven-and-a half years,
Al-Figari, Ahmet and da Costa 11 months, Al-Figari 4 years 2 months,
Atilla Ahmet, Ahmed, 3 years and 8 months, Mutegombwa 3 years and 5
Kader Ahmed, months, Kyriacou 10 years.589
Yassin
Mutegombwa,
Mohammed
Kyriacou
March Bilal Mohammed First individual that was convicted for disseminating terrorist
material under a section 2 of the Terrorism Act 2006. This is
the first time the section has been used independently.
Sentenced for three years.590
March Rizwan Ditta, Accomplices of Bilal Mohammed, responsible for
disseminating radical DVDs in the country. Jailed for four
years.591
April Abu Izzadeen, All men were members of Al-Muhajiroun. Most accused of
Shah Jala Hussain, terrorist fundraising. Simon Keeler was the first British Muslim
Simon Keeler convert to be convicted over the support of terrorism. He
Abdul Saleem received two-and-half-years for terrorism fundraising and four-
Ibrahim Hassan, and-a-half-years for inciting terror overseas. Izzadeen received
Abdul Muhid four-and-a-half years. Hussain 2 years and 3 months, Saleem 3
years and 9 months for inciting terrorism overseas, Hassan
received 2 years 9 months for inciting terrorism. Muhid
received 2 years.592
May Mohammed Abdul Mohammed Abdul Saeed the twenty-two year old “nail
Saeed bomber” from Exeter, Plymouth, pleaded guilty and was
imprisoned for life.593
June Yeshiemebet Partner of Hussain Osman (21/7 plotter) was sentenced to

Girma, fifteen years of jail for assisting an offender by failing to
disclose information following the attack.594
Esaya Girma, Mulu Brother and sister of Yeshiemebet Girma. Jailed for ten years
Girma each for assisting an offender and failing to disclose
information.595
588
Owen Bowcott, Preacher guilty of organising terror training camps, The Guardian, 26 February 2008, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/feb/26/uksecurity, Accessed 22 October 2012
589
Top extremist recruiter is jailed, BBC News, 26 February 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7265704.stm,
590
Muslim man who sold DVDs glorifying the 9/11 atrocities jailed under new terror laws, Mail Online, 20 March 2008, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-540470/Muslim-man-sold-DVDs-glorifying-9-11-atrocities-jailed-new-terror-laws.html,
591
Ibid.
592
‘Arrogant’ Muslim preacher jailed, BBC News, 18 April 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7354397.stm,
593
594
Elias, Yeshi Girma sentenced to 15 years in prison, Ethiopian Review, 12 June 2008, Available:
http://www.ethiopianreview.com/content/2753, Accessed 23 October 2012
595
Elias, Yeshi Girma sentenced to 15 years in prison, Ethiopian Review, 12 June 2008, Available:
http://www.ethiopianreview.com/content/2753, Accessed 23 October 2012
97
August Hammaad Munshi Arrested at the age of sixteen and convicted at eighteen. He
became the youngest British citizen to be charged for terrorist
activities under the Terrorism Act. He was sentenced for two
years in a young offenders’ institution for making a record of
information possibly used for terrorist purposes 596
August Aabid Khan, Khan described as key player in radicalization through the
Sultan Muhammad, internet, recruited Mushi at the age of 15. He was sentenced for
12 years for possessing or making documents promoting
terrorism. Mohammad his cousin was sentence for similar
offences for 10 years.597
October Shahid Ali, Four individuals in Birmingham were accused of terror
Mohammed offences including supply of equipment to Afghanistan and
Nadim, Shabir Pakistan for use in fighting against British forces. Ali, Nadim
Mohammed, Abdul and Shabir were charged with engaging in conduct with the
Raheem intention of assisting in the commission of acts of terrorism.
Raheem was charged with failure to disclose information.598
December Dr Bilal Abdulla Sentenced to 32 years for his role in terrorist plots carried out in
London and Glasgow International Airport in June 2007.599
December Rangzieb Ahmed, First two individuals in the UK to be convicted of membership
Habib Ahmed, of proscribed Islamist organization, which were AQ and
Harakut ul-Mujahideen.600 Rangzieb who was jailed for life
Habib sentenced to ten years were granted leave to appeal in
2010.601
2009
February Shella Roma, Was the first woman in the UK to be convicted of distributing
terrorist publications under Section 2 of the Terrorism Act
2006. The publications encouraged readers to travel abroad to
fight a jihad. Roma pleaded guilty.602 She received a three-year
order, with supervision for two years.603
April Nine individuals were arrested in a counter-terrorism operation
after being stopped on a motorway, M65, by anti-terror police.
596
Computer terror teenager jailed, BBC News, 19 September 2008, Available:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/7625041.stm, Accessed 23 October 2012
597
Ibid.
598
Four remanded on terror charges, Gazette. National News, 28 October 2008, Available:
http://www.gazetteseries.co.uk/uk_national_news/3799655.Four_remanded_on_terror_charges/,
599
600
Briton guilty of directing terror, BBC News, 18 December 2008, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7789773.stm,
601
Arthur Martin, Embarrassment for British security services after convicted Al Qaeda member allowed to appeal, Mail Online, 1
July 2010, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1290942/Convicted-British-Al-Qaeda-member-Rangzieb-Ahmed-
allowed-appeal.html, Accessed 23 October 2012
602
Woman produced ‘holy war’ leaflet, BBC News, 3 February 2009, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7868372.stm,
603
Woman sentenced for jihad leaflet, BBC News, 30 March 2009, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7972580.stm,
98
Six were released without charges, three remained in

custody.604
April Abbas Taj, Ali Convicted for conspiracy to reckless damage of property and
Beheshti, Abrar endanger life of Martin Rynja, the publisher was preparing to
Mirza release a novel about the Prophet and the life of his child bride
Aisha. They received for-and-a-half years imprisonment.605
2010
July Ibrahim Savant, Convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiracy to
Arafat Khan, murder persons unknown. Until 2010 a total of twelve people
Wahhed Zaman had been convicted in seven trials for terrorism-related offences
in connection with the 2006 aircraft bomb plot.606
November Roshonara Student convicted of attempting to murder the MP Stephen
Choudhry Timms after being inspired by extremist sermons she had
watched on the Internet.607
2011
March Rajib Karim IT worker for British Airways, was convicted and sentenced to
30 years' imprisonment for supplying information about airlines
to AQ terrorists in Yemen.608
September Irfan Nasser, Irfan Six men from Birmingham ages 25 to 32 have been charged for
Khalid, Ashik Ali, planning an act of terrorism in the UK. Four were charged with
Rahin Ahmed, “preparing for an act of terrorism in the UK,” and the other two
Bahader Ali, were charged with failing to disclose information.609
Mohammed
Rizwan
2012
February Shah Rahman, Arrested in December 2010, nine men who were members of a
Gurukanth Desai, terrorist network in England and Wales were sentenced to
Abdul Miah, Omar between five and 17 years' imprisonment for offences including
Latif, Usman Khan, plotting to attack the London Stock Exchange, Big Ben,
Mohammed Westminster Abbey, the Palace of Westminster, London Eye,
Shahjahan, and seeking terrorist training overseas.610
Mohibur Rahman,
Nazam Hussain
July Mohammed Sajid The couple planned a terror attack on a Jewish community in
Khan, Shasta Khan Northwest England. Mohammed who pleaded guilty for
terrorism charges received an indeterminate sentence with a
604
Terror police arrest nine men travelling on motorway in North-West, Daily Mail, 14 February 2009, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1145422/Terror-police-arrest-men-travelling-motorway-North-West.html, Accessed 24
October 2012
605
Tom Kelly, Muslim extremists jailed for arson attack on Mohammed book publisher’s home, Mail Online, 8 July 2009, Available:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1198111/If-choose-live-country-live-rules-says-judge-jails-Muslim-extremists-arson-
attack-publishers-home.html, Accessed 19 October 2012
606
terrorism/international-terrorism-and-the-uk/terrorist-plots-in-the-uk.html, Accessed 21 October 2012
607
Ibid.
608
Terror plot BA man Rajiv Karim gets 30 years, BBC News, 18 March 2011, Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12788224,
609
John F. Burns, Ravi Somaiya, Six accused of plotting terrorism in England, The New York Times, 26 September 2011, Available:
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/27/world/europe/suspects-charged-in-british-terrorism-plot.html, Accessed 27 October 2012
610
Rebecca Camber, Big Ben bomb gang out in six years: Outrage as terror plotters plead guilty in turn for light sentences, Mail
Online, 2 February 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2094799/London-Stock-Exchange-bomb-plot-4-
radical-Muslims-planned-target-Boris-Johnson.html, Accessed 21 October 2012
99
minimum of seven-and-a-half years. Shasta Khan who was

found guilty of engaging in preparation for terrorism and two
counts of possessing information useful for terrorism was jailed
for eight years.611
July Richard Dart, Six individuals including Richard Dart, who vowed to disrupt
Khalid Baqa, Imran the weeding of Prince William and Kate Middleton, were
Mahmood, arrested over alleged plot to carry out major terrorists attacks
Jahangir Alom, before the Olympics.612 They were charged with offences
Ruksana Begum involving traveling to Pakistan for training in terrorism between
July 2010 and July 2012.613
September Two individuals arrested at American embassy in London
during demonstrations against an anti-Muslim film. An
estimated of 150 individuals including radical leader Choudary
burned USA and Israeli flags and called for shari’a law in
Britain.614
After the 9/11 attacks a rise in radical Islam was recorded. As a consequence, several anti-
terrorism policies were put into place in the UK. As a result, Muslim communities have faced a
major rise in scrutiny. Between 2001 and 2003, there was a 302% increase in ‘stop and search’
incidents among Asian people, compared to 118% among white people.615 After the 2005
bombings, a number of Muslims living in London have been arrested on terrorism related
allegations and several Islamic preachers and mosques have been under government surveillance.
Between February 2001 and July 2010, 543,400 people were stopped and searched under the
Terrorism Act 2000. Two-hundred-eighty-three individuals were arrested for terrorism offences, of
which 19% were of Asian origin.616 In February 2012, the UK Terrorism Analysis reported that
less than 20% of convicted terrorists are serving life or indeterminate sentences and a further 20%
have been convicted for more than ten years. The largest single proportion (32%) has been serving
sentences of between eight months and four years for their offences. Meanwhile, the Muslim prison
611
Jewish community terrorist attack plan couple jailed, BBC News Manchester, 20 July 2012, Available:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-18892693, Accessed 24 October 2012
612
Stephen Wright, White Muslim convert who threatened to disrupt Royal Wedding among six held as police swoop in raids across
London to stop ‘major terrorist attack’, Mail Online, 5 July 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
2169193/London-2012-Olympics-Former-Blunkett-bobby-held-terror-swoops.html, Accessed 24 October 2012
613
Justin Davenport, Terror arrests: Police charge Islam convert Richard Dart with four others over offences not linked to Olympics,
London Evening Standard, 19 July 2012, Available: http://www.standard.co.uk/news/crime/terror-arrests-police-charge-islam-
convert-richard-dart-with-four-others-over-offences-not-linked-to-olympics-7958739.html,
614
Neil Sears, As a wave of anti-American riots erupts across the Islamic world…Muslims’ U.S. flag burning protests spread to
Britain, Mail Online, 14 September 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2203381/As-wave-anti-American-
riots-erupts-Islamic-world--Muslims-U-S-flag-burning-protests-spread-Britain.html, Accessed 27 October 2012
615
House of Commons. Home Affairs Committee, Terrorism and Community Relations, Sixth Report of Session 2004-05 Vol. I, The
Stationery Office Limited, London, 6 April 2005, p. 19, Available: http://www.statewatch.org/news/2005/apr/uk-hasc-terr-com-
rel.pdf, Accessed 31 August 2012
616
Tufyal Choudhury and Helen Fenwick, The impact of counter-terrorism measures on Muslim communities, Equality and Human
Rights Commission Research report 72, Durham University, 2011, p. 31, Available:
http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/research/counter-terrorism_research_report_72.pdf,
100
population in the UK convicted of offences not related to terrorism has grown by over 540% since
1991. At the end of 2010 it stood at 10,400, which was 12% of the total prison population.617
Statistics of the Home Office released in October 2012 revealed that the number of people arrested
for terrorism offences in 2010/2011 had fallen to 121 from 178 the previous year. This was below
the annual average of 206 registered since April 2002. Amongst the 121 individuals forty-five
suspects were charged, of which only nineteen were for terrorism-related offences.618 Furthermore,
there has been a great decrease since January 2009 and December 2010, when 650 arrests on
suspicions of terrorism took place in the UK and Northern Ireland. During this time the UK had the
biggest number of terrorist-related arrests in comparison to any other country in Europe.619 The
Home Office statistics on the use of counter-terrorism powers confirmed a 90% decline of the use
of anti-terror stop and search powers. Between 2010 and 2011, there were 9,645 individuals
stopped and searched in comparison to 102,504 in the previous year. Since 9/11, of the total of
1,963 people arrested in Britain as part of the war on terror, 1,070 were released without charge
and 701 were charged with offences, including 208 for crimes that were not terrorist related.620
Until 31 March 2010, 102 prisoners were classified as terrorists, 73% of whom were UK
nationals.621
VI. United Kingdom Responses
The UK government has introduced a variety of measures against terrorism. The

counterterrorism policies are brought together under the CONTEST strategy. The strategy for
countering international terrorism covers a four-step plan, called the “four P’s”: prevent, pursue,
protect and prepare.622 The strategy focuses on:
Prevent terrorism by reducing the number of individuals inspired to support Islamist terrorism or
become terrorists, and work to Pursue terrorists and those who assist them in order to disrupt
potential attacks. Reducing vulnerability involves work streams to Protect potential targets
(buildings, for example) in the UK and abroad and to Prepare for the consequences of an attack
617
Michael Clarke, The global origins of new terrorism, UK Terrorism Analysis, RUSI, No1. February 2012, p.3,
Available: http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/UKTA1.pdf, Accessed 7 September 2012
618
Valentina Soria, Another decade of terrorist threat to the UK, UK Terrorism Analysis, RUSI, No1. February 2012, p.3, Available:
http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/UKTA1.pdf, Accessed 7 September 2012
619
620
Alan Travis, Terrorism arrests in UK show steep fall, The Guardian, 13 October 2011, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/oct/13/terrorism-arrests-uk-steep-fall, Accessed 21 October 2012
621
terrorism/international-terrorism-and-the-uk/terrorist-plots-in-the-uk.html,Accessed 21 October 2012
622
Paul Murphy, Chairman, Report into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005, Intelligence and Security Committee, May
2006, p. 5, Available: http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm67/6785/6785.pdf, Accessed 3 September 2012
101
through resilience and contingency planning.623
The main legislation introduced before the 7/7 attacks and modified over the years was the
Terrorism Act 2000 and the Anti-terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001. The aim of the Terrorism
Act 2000 is "to make provisions about terrorism and to make temporary provisions for Northern
Ireland about the prosecution and punishment of certain offences, the preservation of peace and the
maintenance of order." It widened and expended the definition of terrorism, outlawed terrorist
groups, and enhanced police powers, including stop and search and pre-charge detention for seven
days.624 The Ant-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was introduced by Tony Blair’s
government after the 9/11 attacks. Its aim was to amend the Terrorism Act 2000 in order to provide
provisions in terrorism and security policies with a focus on steps to deal with foreign nationals
who have been suspected of committing, organizing or supporting terrorism. It focuses to “amend
or extend the criminal law and powers for preventing crime and enforcing that law; to make
provision about the control of pathogens and toxins and to provide for the retention of
communications data.”625
After the 7/7 attacks, the UK government introduced new anti-terrorism policies, tightened
security legislations, increased passenger profiling, and increased the number of arrests. The most
significant terrorism legislation following Terrorism Act 2000 and the Anti-terrorism and Crime
and Security Act 2001 are: Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, with the aim "to provide for the
making of ‘control orders imposing obligations on individuals suspected of being involved in
terrorism-related activity. These are preventative orders which are designed to restrict or prevent
the further involvement by individuals in such activity.”626 Terrorism Act 2006 aims "to make
provision for and about offences relating to conduct carried out, or capable of being carried out, for
purposes connected with terrorism.” The legislation extends the pre-charge detention period from
14 to 28 days.627 The purpose of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 is “to create new powers to
gather and share information for counter-terrorism; to make further provision about the detention
and questioning of terrorist suspects and the prosecution and punishment of terrorist offences; to
impose notification requirements on persons convicted of such offences; and to confer further
623
Ibid.
624
Terrorism Act 2000, The Guardian, 19 January 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/jan/19/terrorism-act, Accessed 12 October 2012
625
Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, The Guardian, 19 January 2009, Avialable:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/jan/13/anti-terrorism-act, Accessed 12 October 2012
626
Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, The Guardian, 19 January 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/jan/13/prevention-terrorism-act,
627
Terrorism Act 2006, The Guardian, 19 January 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/jan/19/terrorism-act-2006, Accessed 12 October 2012
102
powers to act against terrorist financing.” The act enables post-charge questioning of terrorist
suspects and allows police to take fingerprints and DNA samples for further investigation.628
Further steps were taken by increasing British surveillance and infiltration. British intelligence
established internal security units to monitor Muslims suspected of sympathy towards Al Qaeda.
The most controversial part of the British counter-terrorism strategy was the police ‘shoot-to-kill’
policy of terrorism suspects, which sparekd discussion and criticism after the mistaken killing of a
Brazilian immigrant, Jean Charles de Menezes.629
In 2008, the UK government made two important changes to its policy. It increased emphasis
on “prevent” and underlined the importance of language and communication.630 The commitment
to the prevent agenda by Prime Minister Gordon Brown, was reflected in new funding for the
course of three years. Between 2008 and 2011, an additional £240 million was contributed to the
Home Office towards counter-terrorism policing, £400 million towards tackling radicalization and
promoting understanding overseas by the Foreign Office, Department for International
Development, and the British Council. In addition, £70 million went towards community projects
for tackling violent extremism.631 The changes in regards to language and communication were an
important aspect. The Research Information and Communications Unit (RICU), a unit within the
Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism (OSCT) in the Home Office, aimed to improve
government language in order to avoid playing into the hands of the violent extremists and to
appeal to Britain’s Muslim communities. Ministers were instructed not to use for example the
phrase ‘war on terror’, to speak about a ‘struggle’ rather than a ‘battle,’ and were advised to stop
talking about the “Muslim problem.”632
The UK domestic homeland security budget, including the funding for countering terrorism,
had a 250 percent increase between 2001 and 2011. The government’s budget spending increased
from £1 billion in 2001 to £3.5 billion in 2010, with the police alone receiving in three years after
the 7/7 attacks, a 30% increase in their counter-terrorism budget.633
628
Counter-Terrorism Act 2008, The Guardian, 19 January 2009, Available:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/jan/19/counter-terrorism-act, Accessed 12 October 2012
629
‘Shoot-to-kill’ policy to remain, BBC News, 25 July 2005, Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4713199.stm, Accessed
12 October 2012
630
Rachel Briggs and Jonathan Birdwell Radicalisation among Muslims in the UK, Ethno-Religious Conflict in Europe. Typologies of
radicalisation in Europe’s Muslim communities, Centre for European Policy Studies Brussels, 2009, p. 133, Available:
631
Ibid., p. 134
632
Rachel Briggs and Jonathan Birdwell Radicalisation among Muslims in the UK, Ethno-Religious Conflict in Europe. Typologies of
radicalisation in Europe’s Muslim communities, Centre for European Policy Studies Brussels, 2009, p. 134, Available:
633
Tobias Feakin, The post-Olympic challenge: staying secure, UK Terrorism Analysis, RUSI, No1. February 2012, p.10, Available:
http://www.rusi.org/downloads/assets/UKTA1.pdf, Accessed 7 September 2012
103
VII. Conclusion
This paper has attempted to analyze Islamic radicalization exclusively in the United
Kingdom, through presenting a vast amount of information, factors and processes that take place
amongst the Muslim population in Britain. As underlined throughout, internal and external factors
contribute to the rise of radical Islam amongst British-born and immigrants. The UK is home to an
enormously diverse Muslim community. The minorities are distinct from the majority because of
their religious belief, cultural identities, and ethnic roots. As a result of socio-economic differences,
feelings of alienation in Western society, and difficulties of assimilation, Muslims, especially the
young generation, are vulnerable to extreme Islamic ideologies that originate abroad and developed
in the UK. London – the home of the highest numbers of Muslims in England and the most diverse
of any Muslim community in Europe in terms of history, language, ethnic origin, politics and social
class has become the base for recruitment, mobilization and financing of militant Islam.
Furthermore, it has served as a safe haven for radical leaders and organizations for decades.
Although in general the majority of Muslims are recognized as peaceful, an enormous number are
supporters of violent Islam, influenced by radical ideologies of preachers such as Abu Hamza or
Omar Bakri Mohammed, Islamic websites and social media. Radical Islamists arrived to the UK
and lived as ordinary citizens, however operated as sleeper cells under the watch of British
authorities. The governments misunderstanding or underestimation of the threat of radical Islam
led to a culmination of radicalization in 2005. It was only after the 7 July, 2005 attacks that the UK
realized the consequences of the developing extremism in Britain and its continuing influence
amongst British Muslim society. The attacks brought awareness to society that terrorism exists and
that radicalization is a major security threat in the UK. Furthermore, there developed a new trend of
homegrown terrorists, which raised concerns of the possibility of future attacks and widened the
existing gap between the British societies.
Despite the British government’s effort to counter radicalization through various policies,
radical ideologies and organizations continue to develop and gain supporters through various
grounds, such as mosques, koranic schools, Islamic centers and new media. Radicalization in the
UK is an existing concern that needs to be addressed and acted upon immediately. Short-term
measures, such as policies do influence the recruitment and therefore the radicalization process.
However, they do not affect the factors that contribute to recruitment and lead to the radicalization
of an individual. In order for the government to be successful, it should be consistent in its counter-
terrorism efforts and intolerant of any forms of extremism. It should focus on understanding the
complexities of community politics and establish a working relationship with Muslim society in
104
order to build trust. Further, it should minimize the gap between the British minorities and
majorities, encourage assimilation with equal opportunities and rights for Muslims such as South
Asian minorities who have been mostly prone to radicalization.
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125
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127
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APPENDIX
Table 8: Britain’s Biggest Mosques
Mosque Name Town Size Theme

Suffa-tul-Islam Central Bradford 8000 Sufi - Bareilvi
Masjid, Horton Park
Avenue
Central Jamia Mosque Birmingham 6000 Sufi - Bareilvi
Ghamkol Sharif, 150
Golden Hillock Road
Islamic Cultural London 5400 Arabic mainstream
Centre, 146 Park Road
Jamiyat Tabligh-ul- Bradford 5200 Sufi - Bareilvi - Qadria
Islam, circa 177 Naushahia
Barkerend Road
Leeds Islamic Centre, Leeds 4700 Deobandi
46-48 Spencer Place
Jamia al-Akbaria, 241 Luton 4700 Sufi - Bareilvi
Selbourne Road
128
Masjid-e-Jamia Al Middlesbrough 4500 Sufi - Bareilvi

Madina, 133a Waterloo
Road
Jamia Masjid Ghousia, Luton 4500 Sufi - Bareilvi
2-10 Westbourne Road
East London Mosque & London 4500 Maudoodi-ist
London Muslim management
Centre, 46-92
Whitechapel Road
Birmingham Central Birmingham 4500 Deobandi
Mosque, 180 Belgrave
Middleway or 148-154
Masjid-al-Farooq, Leicester 4000 Deobandi
Berners Street
Markazi Masjid, South Dewsbury 4000 Deobandi
Street (south end)
Madni Jamia Masjid, Bradford 4000 Sufi - Bareilvi
101 Thornbury Road
Jamia Masjid Ghosia, London 4000 Sufi - Bareilvi
439-451 Lea Bridge
Road
Husseini Islamic London 4000 Shia - Twelvers
Centre, 50 Wood Lane
Jamiyat Tabligh-ul- Bradford 3800 Sufi - Bareilvi - Qadria
Islam Mosque, 9 Naushahia
Darfield Street
Wolverhampton Wolverhampton 3600 Deobandi
Mosque Trust, 197
Waterloo Road
Makki Masjid, Blackburn 3500 Deobandi
Wimberley Street
Jamia Masjid, 30-32 Bradford 3500 Deobandi
Howard Street
Markazi Jamia Masjid Leeds 3200 Sufi - Bareilvi
Bilal, Conway Road
and Harehills Lane
Jamia Mosque, 51 Leicester 3200 Deobandi
Asfordby Street
Jamia Masjid, 59 Brick London 3200 Sufi - Fultoli
Lane
Greenwich Islamic London 3200 Salafi and Shafi'i
Centre, 131 Plumstead
Road
Masjid Ilyas, Riverine London 3000 Deobandi
Centre Abbey Mills,
Canning Road
Manchester Central Manchester 3000 Sufi - Bareilvi
Mosque and Islamic
Cultural Centre, 20
Upper Park
129
Keighley Markazi Keighley 3000 Sufi - Bareilvi

Jamia Mosque, 75
Emily Street
Jamia Masjid Bilal, Rochdale 3000 Sufi - Bareilvi
Bulwer Street
Hounslow Jamia London 3000 Sufi - Bareilvi
Masjid & Islamic
Centre, Wellington
Road South
Faidhan-e-Madina, Peterborough 3000 Sufi - Bareilvi - Qadri
169-175 Gladstone Dawat-e-Islami
Street
Croydon Masjid and London 3000 Deobandi
Islamic Centre, 525
London Road
Central Mosque Motherwell 3000 Deobandi
Lanarkshire, 1-3 and 5
Clydesdale Street
Baitul Futuh (Qadiani London 3000 Qadiani
world headquarters),
181 London Road
Source: UK Mosques Statistics/Masjid Statistics, derived from data listed in the mosques.muslimsinbritain.org/maps.php Directory,
TH
E UK
Timeline of Abu Hamza’s battle to stay in the UK:
Hamza, who was born Mustafa Kamel Mustafa in Alexandria, Egypt, in April 1958, came to the
UK to study in the early 1980s. He met and married an English woman, Valerie Fleming, and
received British citizenship, but the couple divorced years later.
He suffered injuries to his hands and eye in Afghanistan, where he travelled to fight a jihad against
Soviet occupation. On his return to the UK, Hamza started preaching radical anti-Western sermons
at Finsbury Park Mosque in north London.
Over the last eight years he has fought extradition to the U.S. to face numerous terror-related
charges.
130
Here is a timeline of key events in his case:

2001:
September - Following the 9/11 attacks, Hamza’s comments in support of Osama bin Laden spark
outrage.
2002:
April - Hamza is formally suspended by the Charity Commission from his position at Finsbury
Park Mosque over his inflammatory speeches.
September 11 - Hamza speaks at a controversial conference at the mosque titled A Towering Day
In History.
2003:
January - Armed police arrest seven people at the mosque in a dawn raid. A stun gun, replica
firearms and CS gas canisters are among the items seized.
February - Hamza again causes outrage when he describes the ill-fated Columbia space shuttle,
which contained Christians, Hindus and a Jew, as a 'trinity of evil' and says its destruction was a
punishment from Allah.
April - Home Secretary David Blunkett announces new laws allowing British citizenship to be
removed from immigrants who 'seriously prejudice' the UK’s interests. Legal moves begin to get
Hamza deported to Yemen. Two weeks later, his lawyers announce he will appeal against the
move.
2004:
May - Hamza is arrested on a US extradition warrant. The US wants him on charges of conspiring
to take Western hostages in Yemen, funding terrorism, and organising a terrorist training camp in
Oregon between 1998 and 2000.
October - He is charged with 15 offences under the Terrorism Act, including incitement to murder
and possession of a terrorism document, temporarily staying the US extradition process.
2006:
February 7 - Hamza is jailed for seven years after being found guilty on 11 of 15 charges.
July - He is given the go-ahead to challenge the convictions for incitement to murder and race hate
offences.
November - The Court of Appeal dismisses his appeal against the conviction.
2007:
May - A preliminary extradition hearing takes place in London.
July - Hamza speaks by video-link in a hearing to fight the extradition.
November - A judge at City of Westminster Magistrates’ Court rules that Hamza has lost his legal
131
arguments against extradition. Senior District Judge Timothy Workman sends the matter to the
Home Secretary to make a final decision.
2008:
February 7 - Home Secretary Jacqui Smith signs an extradition order, meaning Hamza will be
handed over to US authorities within 28 days if he does not appeal.
June 20 - Two High Court judges rule that the extradition decision is 'unassailable'.
July 23 - Hamza is refused permission to appeal to the House of Lords as senior judge Sir Igor
Judge refuses to certify that his case raises a point of law of such public importance to go before
the highest court in the land.
August 4 - The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg rules that Hamza should
not be extradited until judges can examine his case. The Home Office says it will abide by the
court’s request.
2010:
January 18 - Hamza launches another legal fight to hang on to his British passport.
February 9 - Legal aid bosses seize Hamza’s house in Greenford, west London, to pay off his
legal bills, despite the radical preacher claiming it does not belong to him. Officials hope to raise
£280,000 from the sale.
November 5 - Hamza wins his appeal against the Government’s attempts to strip him of his British
passport. The move would have rendered him 'stateless' as he has already been stripped of his
Egyptian citizenship, the Special Immigration Appeals Commission rules.
2012:
April 10 - Europe’s human rights judges rule that Hamza, along with four other terror suspects,
would not be subject to 'ill-treatment' in America and their extradition is lawful.
July 9 - Hamza lodges an appeal with the ECHR over his extradition to the US - on the eve of the
July 10 deadline.
September 24 - Hamza’s request for an appeal is rejected as Europe’s human rights judges rule he
can be extradited to America.
September 25 - BBC journalist Frank Gardner apologizes for a 'breach of confidence' after telling
the Radio 4 Today programme that the Queen had voiced concerns about the UK’s inability to
arrest Hamza.
September 26 - Hamza launches a last-minute High Court challenge in a move to avoid
extradition.
September 27 - The Lord Chief Justice, Lord Judge, says extensive delays in cases such as the
extradition of radical cleric Abu Hamza are a 'source of real fury'.
132
October 3 - Hamza’s legal team claim his health is 'deteriorating' and he is suffering from long-
term depression, inability to concentrate and short-term memory loss. But Sir John Thomas,
president of the Queen’s Bench Division, suggests that if there is a risk of a degenerative condition,
'the sooner he is put on trial the better.
October 5 - The High Court rules that Hamza can be extradited to the U.S. and the radical cleric is
placed on a plane within hours.
October 6 - Hamza arrives in America was placed in front of a New York judge within 24 hours.
Source: Daily Mail Reporter, Give me my hooks back! “Terror” preacher Abu Hamza demand use of notorious hands as he appears
in New York court after extradition from UK, Mail Online, 6 October 2012, Available: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
extradition-UK.html, Accessed 15 October 2012

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ISLAMIC RADICALIZATION IN THE UK: INDEX OF

Anna Wojtowicz, (Research Assistant, ICT)

V. Islamic Terrorist Activity in the UK (2000-2012) 71

History of the Muslim Community in the UK

January 2011, Available: http://www.pewforum.org/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-regional-europe.aspx#1,

Geographical Concentration of Muslims

Muslim immigration to the UK is geographically diverse and includes immigrants from

Table 1: Muslim Geographical Concentration in the UK based on 2001 Census31

Country Principal Muslim % Muslim

Local authority districts Muslim population % of Muslim population

Birmingham 140,000 14%

The United Kingdom is characterized as a diverse, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society.

Table 4: Distribution of age43

0-14 years 15-29 years 30-44 years

Occupation & Socio-economic Conditions

Religious and Cultural Aspects

Area Number of Mosques

Table 6: Sense of belonging by ethnicity90

Organizations within the UK

The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)

Muslim Aid is a UK non-governmental organization with its main headquarters in London’s

Muslim Association of Britain (MAB)

Muslim Welfare House (MWH)

Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW)

The IRW is an international, UK based organization established in Birmingham in 1984 by

Accessed 26 July 2012

Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB)

MINAB is a Shia organization that was formed in 2006 mainly as a result of

The UK Islamic Mission (UKIM)

The Islamic Forum of Europe (IFE)

Mosques, Islamic Centers and Koranic Schools

Islamic Cultural Centers and London Central Mosque (ICCUK)

The North London Central Mosque (NLCM)

Brixton Mosque and Islamic Cultural Center

East London Mosque & London Muslim Center (ELM-LMC)

Birmingham Central Mosque

World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY)

The Federation of Student Islamic Societies (FOSIS)

AhlulBayt Islamic Mission (AIM)

AIM describes itself as an independent, non-profit organization set up in 2003 by a group of

Islamic Websites and TV

IV. Radicalization in the United Kingdom

Theoretical Background and Causes of Radicalization

Recruitment and Radicalization: Overlook

Terrorism, July 2011, p. 36, Available: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/counter-terrorism/counter-terrorism-

Forms of Financing Terrorist Activities

Radical Groups and Movements in the UK

Hizb al-Tahrir (HT)

Al-Muhajiroun (The Emigrants)

Tablighi Jamaat (The Preaching Party)

Jama’at-I Islami (The Islamic Society, Islamic Party)

This political movement established in Pakistan by Abu Ala Mawdudi in 1941,377 is

Supporters of Sharia (SOS)

Abu Hamza al Masri

Omar Bakri Muhammed

Abu Qatada, formerly Omar Otham, is a Palestinian-Jordanian. He is described as an

Inspiration and Influence from abroad

V. Islamic Terrorist activity in the UK (2000-2012)

Terrorist Attacks and Plots: Case Studies

London 7 July 2005 (7/7)