CE423 BRIDGE ENGINEERING BRIDGE LOADINGS

4. Bridge Loadings
4.1 Types of loads
The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges
where applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing
bridges.

• Permanent Loads

DC = dead load of structural components and non-structural attachments

DD = down drag
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process
ES = earth surcharge load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

• Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
CR = creep
CT = vehicular collision force
EQ = earthquake
FR = friction
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
LL = vehicular live load
LS = live load surcharge
PL = pedestrian live load
SE = settlement
SH = shrinkage
TG = temperature gradient
TU = uniform temperature
WA = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load

WS = wind load on structure

4.2 Dead Loads

Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used
for dead loads.

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Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10

4.3 Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking
the integer part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs
and/or barriers.

Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the
fatigue limit state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.

Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is unlikely
that all adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple
presence factors.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined with one or more lanes of the
vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

4.3.1 Vehicular Live Loads

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist
of a combination of the:
• Design truck or design tandem, and

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• Design lane load

• Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as
specified in Figure below.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

3.000 mm 1.8 m

Fig. Characteristics of the Design Truck

• Design Tandem: The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110
kN axles spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. See
below.
110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Fig. Design Tandem Load

• Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly
distributed in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load shall
not be subject to a dynamic load allowance.

4.3.2 Dynamic Load Allowance

(IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall
be attributed to two sources:

1- Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delamination, and

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2- Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long
undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to
resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle.
The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).

Table Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
• All Other Limit States 33%

The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where:

DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

4.3.3 Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):

Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces
shall be applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.

Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
and the factor C, taken as:

C = 4 v2
3 g*R

where: v = highway design speed (m/s) g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2) R = radius
of curvature of traffic lane (m)

4.3.4 Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):

From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform
deceleration (retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

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b = v2
2ga

Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.

From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the
design truck or tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.

These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway
surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects.

4.3.5 Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):

Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the ground
should be considered.

4.3.6 Pedestrian Loads

A pedestrian load of 5 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.

4.3.7 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)

• Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that
is retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above the
point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity =
9.81 m/s2).

p = γ * g * z * 10-9

Where p = static pressure (Mpa) γ = density of

3
water (kg/m ) z = height of water above the point of
consideration (mm) g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

4.3.8 Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of
the vertical components of static pressures, acting on all components below
design water level.

4.3.9 Stream Pressure

Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal
stream pressure and the projected surface exposed thereto.

p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2

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Where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit states
and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state
Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8
Table. Drag Coefficient

Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to

water flowing at an angle, θ, to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure below) shall be taken
as:

PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2

Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table below.

Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Table. Lateral Drag Coefficient

Angle, θ, between direction of flow and CL
longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0

1o 0.5

10o 0.7

20o 0.9

≥30o 1.0

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The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the surface
exposed thereto.

4.3.10 Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)
▪ Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized concrete bridges below
50m length the wind load on structures shall be neglected.

In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:

VDZ
P PD = B
VB

Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table below:

VDZ = design velocity of wind at design elevation, Z (Km/hr)

VB= Base wind velocity (Km/hr)

Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa

Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord and 2.2
kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not less than 4.4 kN/m2
on beam or girder components.

▪ Wind Pressure on Vehicles, (WL): When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure
shall be applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be
represented by an interruptible, moving force of 1.46 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m
above, the roadway and shall be transmitted to the structure

▪ Aeroelastic Instability: Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have

been shown to be aeroelastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios
are under about 30.0. Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures
is a highly developed technology, which shall be used to study the wind response
characteristics of a structural model or to verify the results of analysis. This is especially
applicable to long spans.

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4.3.11 Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)

Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the
equivalent weight of the superstructure. These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge when a
sudden shaking of the ground occurs. Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500 mm
at each abutment.

For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:

Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges

Zone Bridges
Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

In which:

* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)

UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method

The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and importance of the
bridge.

Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles
and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return
period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design earthquake
and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large
earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical
structures.

4.3.12 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge;

LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)

Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:

• Type and density of earth, • Location of groundwater table,
• Water content, • Earth-structure interaction,
• Soil creep characteristics, • Amount of surcharge, and
• Degree of compaction • Earthquake effects.

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Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth pressure. Walls
that can move away from the soil mass should be designed for pressures between active and atrest
conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Movement required to reach
the minimum active pressure or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall height and
the soil type. Some typical values of these mobilizing movements, relative to wall height, are given
in Table below:

Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach Minimum Active or Maximum

Passive Earth Pressure Conditions

Values of ∆/H
Type of Backfill
Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05

Where:

∆ = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by
tilting or lateral translation (mm)

H = height of wall (mm)

For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be taken into
consideration in estimating the design earth pressures.

Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of one-half

the height of the wall, taken as the difference in elevation between the point where finished grade
intersects the back of the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.

Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be eliminated
through use of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use of weep holes and
crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide
drainage.

Where soils are subject to both saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads, special
consideration should be given to addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.

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• EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure

There are two earth pressure theories used. These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure
Theories.

Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC abutment since this theory
holds better for the actual situation.

Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be linearly proportional to the depth of earth
and taken as:

p = kh*γs*g*z *10-9

Where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, from table below for walls that do not
deflect or move,

Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko

OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40

Or ka, specified in Equations below, walls that deflect

ka = sin2 (θ + ϕ/)

Γ* sin2θ sin (θ - δ)

In which:
2

/ /
Γ = 1 + sin ( ϕ + δ) sin (ϕ - β )

sin (θ - δ) sin (θ + β)

Where: δ = friction angle between fill and wall

β = angle of fill to the horizontal

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θ = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical

ϕ/ = effective angle of internal friction (°)

Notations

γs = density of soil (kg/m3) z = depth below the

surface of earth (mm) g = Gravitational
acceleration (m/s2)

• ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge

Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, ∆p (MPa), shall be
added to the basic earth pressure. This constant earth pressure shall be taken as:

∆p = ks qs

Where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge qs = uniform surcharge applied to

the upper surface of the active earth wedge (MPa)

live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the surface of the
backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind the back face of the wall.

The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:

∆p = k*γs*g*heq *10-9

where: ∆p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge

(MPa) γs = density of soil (kg /m3) k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)

Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table below. Linear
interpolation shall be used for intermediate wall heights.

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The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and the bottom
of the footing.

Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)

≤1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760
≥9000 610

Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to Vehicular Loading

N.B If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported by
means other than earth, an appropriate reduction in the surcharge loads shall be permitted.

• Down Drag (DD):

When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In this case, the force should be
considered.

4.3.13 Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR,
SE

- Uniform temperature, (TU): Bridge materials expend and contract in response to rise
and fall of temperature. The difference between the lowest or the highest temperature
and the base construction temperature assumed in design shall be used to calculate
thermal deformation effects.

- Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom
surfaces of abridge because the top surface is subjected to direct solar radiation.

- Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains

between concretes of different age and composition, and between concrete and steel or
wood, shall be determined. The designer may specify timing and sequence of
construction in order to minimize stresses due to differential shrinkage between
components.

- Creep, (CR): In determining force effects and deformations due to creep, dependence
on time and changes in compressive stresses shall be taken into account.

- Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in continues structures. Force effects
due to extreme values of differential settlements among substructures and within
individual substructure units shall be considered.

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