09 Chapter1

Chapter 1 The Problem and Its Background
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
The progress of any country depends on its students and as students follow their
teachers, indeed, the progress of any country depends on teachers. But here in India,
apathy can be seen in teachers towards their responsibilities. The present system of
education needs a plethora of modifications according to the objectives of democratic
and socialist society. It is a known fact that to make the education system more
effective, developed countries are regularly engaged in finding novel methods based on
new experiments. Education system of India too has pursued new experiments to
participate and to lead in the race of progress like developed countries. So many
progresses are also conducted by the government considering this objective. According
to NPE (1986 with modification undertaken in 1992), “the country has placed boundless
trust in the education system. People have the right to expect concrete results. And the
forever objective is to make it possible” (p.25). In true sense, education refers to making
people human and their life progressive, cultural and civilized. Though Indian
education system is criticized on so many grounds, especially on the issue of quality.
Regarding the importance of quality education, The Report of the Education
Commission (1964-66) stated that education can be built or developed in the form of
instruments to obtain quality education necessary for social, economic and cultural
change and national survival.
Advancement of any nation depends on the quality of its teachers and this is the
reason why the profession of teaching is such an honorable profession and teachers are
called nation-builders. But teachers cannot handle their multidimensional
responsibilities, until they are not updated individually and professionally. Therefore,
like other professions it is significant to teach and train the teachers. The meaning of
teaching and training of teachers is not only related to make them learn ‘how to teach’
but also ‘make them learn to achieve utmost with their save time, energy and money’.
This helps in reducing their problems along with carrying out their responsibilities
effectively and efficiently. Teaching and training of teachers is not only a training
program for teachers but it has become teaching along with advancing their own
pleasure and satisfaction (Sood and Anand, 2010).
1
NCTE (1998) has emphasized this fact that attention should be paid on highest
development of expertise and commitment in training of teachers. NCTE considers it
essential to have an effective professional teaching-training for teachers to improve the
quality of education. It is necessary for building a learning society to develop teachers
as teaching personnel who have a tendency to learn throughout their life. NCERT
organizes various programs of vocational development like student teaching, micro
teaching, research & evaluation process and improvement in curriculum of teachers
training to develop the ability of teaching-trainers. Along with this UGC provides
economic aid for organizing seminars, workshops and research projects to improve
teaching programs for teachers. Despite all these efforts, no remarkable advancement
can be seen.
To fulfill the responsibilities effectively teachers should possess all the traits
which make them capable to satisfy students’ needs. According to ‘Attribution Theory’
students repeat these behaviors by which their objectives are fulfilled. They appreciate
such behaviors by others too which helps to accomplish their aims. If students realize
that their needs will be satisfied by the behavior demonstrated by the teachers, then they
start taking interest in their teaching (Obot et al., 2012). Recognizing the importance of
teachers in educational reconstruction, Secondary Education Commission (1953,
p.127) reported that “the most important factor in the contemplated educational
reconstruction is the teacher-his personal qualities, his educational qualifications, his
professional training and the place that he occupies in the school as well as in the
community. The reputation of a school and its influence on the life of the community
invariably depend on the kind of teachers working in it”. Teachers’ educational
achievements, subject knowledge, teaching plans and teaching skills have a great role
in making teaching work effective, but if teachers lack appropriate motivation and
commitment, then even an efficient teacher would fail to provide quality education.
Rikard (1999) also believes that quality of teaching not only govern by knowledge and
teaching skills of a teacher but their enthusiasm and commitment also play a significant
role.
The development of a nation depends on its youth. Students are decent civilians
of a nation. The personality of students is shaped by teachers. They develop various
abilities and skills in their students. If teachers are well trained, then they can proceed
with pleasure and self-confidence. Professional commitment provides a strong base to
2
teachers to realize this objective. This helps the teachers to improve themselves and in
the overall development of their students. The ability and commitment are essential
grounds of quality teaching. If teachers possess professional commitment and abilities,
then it is spotted that it surely would be demonstrated in their teaching. Practically the
professional commitment of teachers not only makes them capable in demonstrating
their abilities of teaching functions and behaviors but acquaint them with the values of
the teaching profession also. Commitment is the most important trait of any teacher.
The actions of a teacher do not limit to the classroom only but it is also set in the
environment and structure of any institution in the form of school and education system
(Bala, 2017).
Committed teachers are who related themselves with the teaching-related

responsibilities and their roles when they are appointed anywhere as a teacher.
Crosswell and Elliott (2004) believe that with the commitment of teachers, it is
manifested the perception of commitment, their understanding and various forms of
this concept. Professionally committed teachers provide their all students with equal
opportunity and importance on proper time which improves or grows their
achievements. Professionally committed teachers plays the role of an active school-
class manager, leader and organizer of group activities, builder of students’ character.
Activities to encourage learning are also operated by the professionally committed
teacher.
Commitment is a word which is used to tell the characteristics of each other by

teachers. It is a word which is used to explain the attributes of human beings who are
devoted towards their work and take their work seriously (Hemalatha and Ahmed,
2011). Professionalism/expertise and quality of work are indicators of commitment
towards the school of any teacher where they teach. Thus, it can be said that if teachers
are committed, then they will move ahead to achieve the objectives of the related school
or organization (Hutapea, 2012). Choi and Tang (2009) refers to the commitment of
teachers as their psychological involvement with the teaching profession. Any teacher
who leaves the school can also have commitment towards teaching and this too is
possible that there may be other reasons for leaving the school.
According to Skidmore (2007), professionally committed teachers are the ones

who are-
3
a) devoted to develop themselves for their profession by taking advanced degrees

and standard based professional growth opportunities;
b) taking feedbacks for critically examining their practices and engaging in action
research; and
c) creating professional learning communities for advancement of their
profession.
The significance of teachers’ professional commitment is clear with this

analysis and it is also evident that comprehensive study of different aspects of
professional commitment is necessary to improve the quality of education system.
1.2 Professional Commitment: An Overview
1.2.1 Concept and Definition of Profession and Professional
Profession can be defined as ‘a profession’ which requires specific studies and

training and which aims to provide services or directions in return of charging a certain
fee. Although some professionals also offer their services without charging any fee.
Profession is livelihood and it literally means to enhance and gather the skills,
knowledge and to utilize them in serving humanity. A service can be directly provided
by a professional for instance a service provided by a medical expert or a teacher, on
the other hand an indirect service such as given by a teacher or trainer. These services
can be provided to a limited number of populations for a limited period of time or be
given for a limited/certain condition of life. These services are not given to every
student, graduate, postgraduate but provided to those who have distinctive capability
for this profession. This is also given with the purpose that before getting into the
profession they would get the training and after a time interval the persons would
enhance their capabilities and skills on their own. This could be understood by other
manners. If professionals’ clients work under some institution or a part of any
institution, they (professionals) give their services to their client for a limited period of
time. For example, a teacher who is a professional offers his services to the students
only till the studies into that particular school or college or university. A profession can
be practiced either by being a part of an institution or can be practiced as a freelance
practitioner. This means, if teaching considers being a profession, a professional teacher
can teach students either being a part of the institution or as an independent freelancer.
4
A profession has some specificity. These are follows here;
i. A profession demands distinctive knowledge and an expanded practical

approach,
ii. A profession necessarily provides social services,
iii. The personnel involved into a profession required a constant training,
iv. The membership of a profession is meant to save the interest of that particular
professional fraternity,
v. A profession has its own code of conduct, and
vi. A profession assures the professional life of the members of its fraternity.
Where the other business only serves, a profession not only serves the society
but also considers its ultimate goal to serve in itself. At the contradiction between the
client and the society, the main priority would be given to the society. The main
difference between profession and business is that the profession is established on the
basis of great knowledge, prosperity and expertise. A profession is considered to be a
profession on the basis of two norms. First to provide the services and second to do
work with the sense of consciousness, with great understanding, and with great
efficiency.
The National Education Association of the Institute on Professional and Public

Relations, Washington (1948) in its pamphlet “The yardstick of a profession” suggested
eight criteria of a profession;
i. Activities involving a profession are essentially cognition based.

ii. Has a command over a specific knowledge.
iii. Necessitates extended professional preparation.
iv. Needs a continual in-service growth.
v. Affords a life career and permanent membership.
vi. Sets up its own norms and standards.
vii. Prioritize service over personal benefits.
viii. Has a strong professional organization involving people in which everyone
supports each other.
Liberman (1956) in his monumental work “Education as Profession” in the

context of U.S.A. lists following characteristics of a profession:
5
 A unique, definite and essential social service;

 An emphasis upon intellectual techniques in performing its service;
 A long period of specialized training;
 A broad range of autonomy for both individual practitioners and for
occupational group as whole;
 Accountability;
 Service to be rendered form the basis and not the economic returns;
 A comprehensive self-governing organization of practitioners; and
 A code of ethics.
Almost all subsequent studies on ‘Profession’ is largely influenced by

Liberman’s above mentioned classical work. For example, Stinnett (1969) almost
reproduces the same list. According to him the essential features of a profession are:
 Intellectual operations;
 Derivation of the content from science and learning;
 Working up of material to practical end;
 Possessing a transferable skill;
 Self-organization;
 Altruism;
 Professional autonomy; and
 Personal autonomy.
Biswal (2006) also gave a detailed criterion of a profession and professional

which is as under-
i. When an occupation is the full-time job and the main source of income for a
person.
ii. A professional is a person who has got special knowledge and learnt a specific
set of skills.
iii. The professionals serve in the interest of their client.
iv. The profession has the objective to serve the people and the professionals use
their comprehension to make their client satisfied with the services provided by
the professionals.
v. The client and the professional have a relationship of faith and trust.
vi. A professional has a right of self-government.
6
vii. Professionals form unions and with the help of unions they control various
activities related to the profession like controlling the admission, fixing the
standard for the test in training and imparting knowledge related to the
profession.
viii. A long-standing preparation or certification is required for a profession.
ix. License is required for a profession to be carried out.
x. The professionals keep the welfare of the society above their personal gain.
xi. A profession requires the professionals to be devoted towards their profession
for life time.
According to Sen (2017), specific characteristics of a profession may be

enumerated as follows:
i. A specific set of skills and knowledge is required for a profession.

ii. A profession imparts an essential service either to a part of society or the whole
society.
iii. A profession needs a pre-service for attaining the skills or in service to update
the knowledge or both is required.
iv. A profession requires liberty in their field and a sense of autonomy.
v. A profession renders services to its members for a lifetime not a part time job.
vi. A profession assembles a well-disciplined and a well-knit organization to
safeguard the growth and interests of the organization.
vii. A profession is acknowledged by the state and the society in which its services
are rendered.
A profession is characterized by a sufficiently long period of academic training,

an organized body of knowledge on which the undertaking is based, an appropriate
duration of formal and rigorous professional training in tandem with practical
experience in the field and a code of professional ethics that binds its members into a
fraternity (NCFTE, 2009, p.15). A profession requires a deep commitment by all
members that goes beyond a desire for pecuniary gain and that requires the adoption of
specific values (Weick and McDaniel, 1989). According to Cambridge International
Dictionary of English (1995) profession can be referred to as any type of work that
requires a specific set of skills and a distinctive training, it is the one that is often
respected because it needs a high level of knowledge and education.
7
A specific type of occupation in which the members show high levels of specific
features such as proficiency related to the field, autonomy, trust in the regulation of
organization by its members is profession (Kerr, 2005). According to Llapa et al.
(2008), a profession requires a specific set of characteristics which might be different
for different professions but few of the general ones are high involvement, the feeling
of identity, autonomy and an attitude to adhere by the objectives and professional
values. “To be a professional is to have acquired a set of skills through competency-
based training which enables one to deliver efficiently according to contract, a customer
led service in compliance with accountability procedures, collaboratively implemented
and managerially assured” (Hoyle, 1995, p.60).
So basically, A specific type of work or occupation which needs training or an

expertise in its members, which is respected as it has a high level of education involved,
is a ‘Profession’ and a person who has these characteristics and qualities can be called
a professional.
1.2.2 Concept and Definition of Commitment
The use of practice of the concept of ‘commitment’ increased in the context of

both individual and organizational behaviors in the field of organizational research
during the 1950s (Choi and Tang, 2009). Commitment can be explained in various
ways. Basically, commitment can be explained in the form of desire to continue any
work. In this way, ‘Relational commitment’ can be seen as a desire to continue or stay
in a relationship with anybody. Commitment is seen as behavioral norms (continue the
work) by some theorists. Others see it as an individual experience of staying in
relationship with anyone on psychological ground. Relational commitment is seen as
one-dimensional by some while others consider it as multidimensional or it is of various
types. For e.g. some researcher explains the commitment as a concept having cognitive
(for ex. Idea), stimulating (for ex. Emotions) and motivations (intentions) like elements.
While others import various types of commitment itself such as moral commitment,
structural commitment and individual commitment (Agnew, 2009).
Commitment can be described as a cooperation in organizational direction

which is not only done by conscious mind but also by unconscious mind. Commitment
is a stage of attachment which not only refers to the related individual, group or
institution but also recognizes the determined objectives. Commitment can be the
8
consequence of decisions. Commitment is a process and, in this process, any individual,

group or institution not only chooses those options that they know but take into
consideration options chosen by others. When options or decisions are chosen then
commitment gets strengthened.
The power of human work needs reinforcement like commitment towards work
and positive change in culture of work, because committed human works help force
groups/organizations to achieve their goals. If commitment towards work is on its
higher level, then a society can be hypothesized in which every individual makes
maximum efforts to fulfill their obligations. Commitment is such a trait of an individual
of being loyal to their profession, for which it is required to imbibe certain
acquaintances related to the profession and to achieve the decided goals by proper
application of that acquaintance. And this improves job security, job satisfaction and
self-confidence etc. (Swarnalatha, 2016).
Generally, ‘commitment’ is used to see the level of cooperation of an individual

in any organization. Commitment is described as a product of such decisions or
interceding for which an individual agrees and beaver away to achieve or stand by those
decisions (Yukl, 2006). Committed employees of an organization can improve its
growth and achievements and a lack of committed employees can reduce the quality of
service and products and hinder the organization’s performance (Bahrami et al., 2016).
According to Robbins and Judge (2007), commitment towards an organization

refers to that condition which involves the exhibition of eagerness and devotion for
achieving the aims and desires of organization by an individual to maintain its
membership within the organization. Becker (1960) defines ‘commitment’, as an
investment in any particular profession. Indeed, commitment is the feeling of loyalty
and compliance towards time.
In brief, ‘commitment’ is such a trait of honesty and devotion related

belongingness, which is related to the aims determined for an organization, profession,
society or the person himself/herself.
1.2.3 Types of Commitment
The social scientists have characterized some measures of commitment. Some

of them are given as under-
9
According to Kanter (1968) there are three analytically characterizable

dimensions of commitment but are interdependent on each other which are-
1. Continuance Commitment: It means to participate in a system and continuing

to be its members as remaining a member would be more advantageous than to
leave the group.
2. Cohesive Commitment: It means to have an attachment or orientation towards
an organization and its members. The parts of this dimension are
characterization, unanimity and gratification from interpersonal interaction.
3. Control Commitment: It refers to the evaluation of a group by considering the
legitimacy, the moral nicety, the way of doing things, the structure of the
governing authority, the goals and motives and the ways adopted to fulfil those
goals by the group on the lines of good-bad.
From the above discussion, it can be said that commitment is a personalized

aspect and thus depends upon individual to individual. So, commitment may be referred
to as the socio psychological inclination of the members towards their organization, its
motives and values of the occupation and profession.
The behavior of people towards their work is greatly affected by the level of
commitment they possess towards their profession. It is the relative strength of
identification with an involvement in a profession. Commitment towards profession
necessitates-
1. To have trust in the goals and values of the profession and accepting them.
2. To make efforts to achieve those goals readily by the group members.
3. To maintain membership in the profession enthusiastically and wilfully.
Allen and Meyer (1990) gave a three-component model of commitment. They

are following three “mind sets” of an individual, which can determine the commitment
of the employees towards their profession-
1. Affective Commitment (wants to stay): It refers to the employee’s attachment

to, identification with, and involvement in the organization/ profession.
Employees who are emotionally attached to their organization/profession would
be committed. Employees who are affectively committed to their profession and
organization would put efforts to achieve the goals set by the
organization/profession and would desire to remain a part of the profession.
10
These employees would be committed towards their work because they actually
‘Wants to’.
2. Continuance Commitment (needs to stay): It refers to an awareness of the costs
associated with leaving the organization/ profession. Continuance commitment
can be described as an individual’s need to stay at an organization. This
component of commitment represents the perceived costs to the individuals that
would result from their discontinuation as a member of a particular organization
3. Normative Commitment (ought to stay): The individual commits to and
remains with the organization/profession because they have a sense of
responsibility and understands that it is their duty to do so. The feeling of
obligation may come from various sources such as- the profession might have
trained the employees and have invested resources to train them, so the employees
now feel a sense of moral duty to put maximum efforts in their work and stay
with the profession in order to repay by doing what they can. The feeling of
obligation may also be on a personal level developed before the person joins the
profession through family or other socialization processes, that it is important to
be loyal towards one’s profession. The employees have a desire to stay with the
organization/profession because they ‘Ought to’ and are bound by the sense of
responsibility.
Dannetta (2002) has divided teaching commitment in three types. First,

commitment towards organization, in which belief and acceptance of aims and value of
teachers’ organization and wish to continue in that organization and efforts to fulfill the
aims can be considered. Second type of commitment includes teachers’ commitment
towards their teaching profession. Commitment towards the teaching profession is
positively related to the teaching function. Third type is concerned with the teacher’s
commitment towards learning. Its concern with the level of commitment of teachers
towards students’ learning.
NCTE (1998) gave five commitment areas to a teacher. These are-
1. Commitment to the Learner including affectionate towards the learner, always

ready to help, work for the all-round development of the students, teach according
to the needs and requirements of the students as a classroom is a heterogeneous
group so the teaching is to be done accordingly.
11
2. Commitment to the Society- Works to make the families, community and

thereby the nation aware and conscious. They should work for the advancement
of the society considering the impact of their teaching on the society.
3. Commitment to Achieve Excellence- Teachers should make the best possible

use of the resources provided to deliver the best that they can. They should teach
to attain the highest level of excellence possible for the welfare of their students,
community, society and the nation. ‘Whatever you do, do it well’ spirit should be
there in the minds of teachers while teaching.
4. Commitment to Basic Human Values- A teacher should have and practice the
professional values such as– not favouring anyone, whatsoever (i.e. a teacher
should be impartial), objectivity, intellectually honest, loyalty towards the nation
etc. Teachers should portray the values that they want to impart in their students
as a teacher is an ideal that the students follow.
5. Commitment to the Profession- Teachers should accept the role and

responsibilities that comes along with this profession. They might have entered
into the profession in various circumstances but once they start playing the role
of a teacher, they should become completely aware of the values and liabilities
related to the profession.
Rathod and Varma (2003) gave some aspects of a teacher’s commitment and
put them in six broad areas which are given as follows-
1. Commitment to the Student
2. Commitment to the Parents
3. Committed to the School
4. Committed to the Society
5. Commitment to the Nation
6. Commitment to the Profession
According to Agrawal (2014), there are many aspects of teacher’s commitment

and these can be put in six broad areas. which are listed as below:
1. Commitment to the student/learner: Concern for the learners and their all-
round development, and readiness to help learners.
12
2. Commitment to the work/profession: Internal acceptance of the role and

responsibilities of the teaching profession. It refers to the teachers’ commitment
to their profession, i.e. a sense of pride in their profession.
3. Commitment to society: Awareness and concern about the impact of teachers’
work on the degrees of advancement of families, communities and nation.
4. Commitment to the organization/institution: Institutional commitments of
teachers reflected in relation to their identification with and involvement in the
organizational activities of their institution.
5. Commitment to professional development: Care and concern for doing
everything to develop themselves (teachers) to perform a multiple of activities
like teaching, counselling, communicating, guiding, evaluating, organizing
(activities), diagnosing (students' problems) and finding remedies etc.
6. Commitment to professional ethics: Including the role model aspect
comprising genuine practice of professional ethics such as impartiality,
objectivity, intellectual honesty, national loyalty etc. with consistency.
Simpson and Hood (2000) have also explained about commitment in the context
of teaching profession, according to them; committed teachers show some specific
behavioral characteristics. The professional development is the top priority for them,
remain excited for the ongoing teaching and learning, are affectionate for the students,
show positive behavior towards the students and recognize the motives, goals,
strengths, requirements and situations of the students.
1.2.4 Concept and Definition of Professional Commitment
When a person enters any profession, then it is generally accepted that every
carrier has its own values which secures its effectiveness and dignity. Professional
commitment shows what kind of persons and workers they are and performs their
function with honesty while doing their best (Delima, 2015). In the present time it is
equally important to have productivity of personnel with a reward system of
management, satisfaction towards their co-workers and their work for the success and
existence of any organization. There are mainly three components of commitment
towards an organization- acceptance and belief in goals of organization, desire of
eventually of expected efforts by organization and desire/wish to continue the
membership of organization (Hemalatha and Ahmed, 2011).
13
Vandenberg & Scarpello (1994) have defined ‘Professional Commitment’ as

belief and acceptance of values in a selected profession or field of work by an individual
or wish to continue his or her membership. Koch & Steers (1978) however defined
professional commitment as congruence between one’s real and ideal job, identification
with one’s chosen profession and reluctance to seek alternative employment.
According to Ferris and Aranya (1983), professional commitment may be

understood as the comparable solidity of a person in their profession, embracing the set
goals related to that profession and making efforts to complete the goals willfully. In
the words of Lodahl and Kejner (1965), professional commitment is the level to which
a person’s dignity and self-esteem is affected by their work performance.
So, professional commitment can be understood as being loyal towards a

profession, having faith in it, accepting the goals and motives of it and being
enthusiastic to put efforts for the achievement of the goals.
1.2.5 Teaching as a Profession
It has been a debatable topic for many years whether teaching is a profession or
a business. As the teachers, unlike the other professionals do not raise a strong personal
voice hence, they have been considered at a lower status professionally. The perception
of teachers towards their own profession has a strong impact on the professional status.
According to Good (1973), professionalism in teaching is defined as the concern

with the vocation of teaching so that it may increasingly become and be known as a
profession rather than a craft; this involves among other things, distinctive expertness
and high competence resulting from theoretical study and knowledge as well as practice
mastery of pedagogical techniques. According to Kolo (2006), in teaching, the
professionalization entails facilitating teaching skills in ‘pre-service training’, as well
as programs of ‘in-service professional development’ such as seminar, workshop, and
training session (as cited in Adagiri, 2009). According to Wragg (1984), good teachers
have the qualities such as enthusiasm, planning skills, firm and fair behavior, have the
knowledge of their subject, enthusiastically involved in the activities that are in the
welfare and progress of their students.
Teaching is now being considered as a modern profession. Teaching as an

occupation is one of the earliest occupations like law and medicine. But relating it with
14
the term profession was delayed as teaching is associated with priesthood and religion.
Now, it is being considered as a profession after the emergence and advancement of
science, its deliverance from traditional values of religion and formal system of
education introduced by the British.
The terms occupation and professional have different meanings and the process.
By which an occupation is given the term profession is called professionalization and
has been described as one “starting with the establishment of the activity as a full-time
occupation, progressing through the establishment of training schools and university
links, the formation of a professional organization and the struggle to gain legal support
for exclusion, and culminating with the formation of a formal code of ethics” (Roberts
and Dietrich, 1999, p. 123). Keeping all this in view, it can be said that teaching is a
profession as it requires expertise and complete knowledge of the subject, it is a form
of public service, it is achieved and maintained through an uninterrupted rigorous study,
specialized skills are attained by the training and the teachers have the liability to
educate, impart knowledge and do welfare of the society.
There are certain conditions which teaching fulfills that support it as a

profession, for example;
1. Effective teaching requires careful skills and understanding. It is essentially an

intellectual operation based on systematic body of knowledge. A teacher has to
analyse and evaluate the classroom environment regularly while providing
learning experiences and develop an appropriate action plan for attaining
predetermined changes in the behaviour of students who are different from each
other on the basis of interest and pace of learning. All those activities, which are
conducted by the teacher are intellectual activities.
2. Teaching is not only an art but science also. Being a science, certain steps are to
be followed in teaching. Though there is a high level of autonomy in curriculum
construction such as annual plan for activities, development of instructional
objectives, determining teaching methods, teaching materials, norms of
evaluation, deciding the appropriate methods for determination of enrolment and
promotion and planning and execution of co-curricular activities etc. All these
activities are planned taking into consideration the educational objectives which
are to be achieved in certain predetermined duration.
15
3. Its tendency is of self-organized and by self-organized means individuals

involved in the teaching profession are sensitive toward growth and development.
They develop certain systems to improve the standards of the teaching profession
and provide them stability.
4. Teaching is probably the highest kind of social service. It is unanimously
accepted that education is a strong medium to bring change in the nation. United
states of America, Russia etc. developed countries are apparent examples of this
statement. These and other nations are continuously developing due to higher
rates of educators. Society develops with education.
5. Teaching cannot be learned in one or two years. Teachers are required by law to
complete certain requirements for certification and entrance into the profession.
It has a rather lengthy period of study and training.
6. Teaching profession depends upon the seriate knowledge, which is derived from
the social, psychological, historical, political and economic aspects of life. This
gets affected by religious and spiritual beliefs of society also.
7. There is almost an equal code of conduct for teaching profession in the whole
world.
8. In the profession of teaching, a teacher learns at every stage. It encourages the
development of teachers being in service.
Besides this education is a dynamic discipline, the innovative knowledge related with
the teaching methods and other fundamental curriculum are developing regularly. It is
necessary for in-service trained teachers to acquire new knowledge and renovate the
acquired knowledge and teaching skills. This in-service training encourages the
effective accomplishment of functions performed by a teacher.
Teaching is a profession which is considered as the mother of all professions.

There is a clear understanding and recognition of the existing reality that students are
better able to develop their cognitive skills, affective attributes and conative qualities
at different levels of education with the help of teachers and their continuous guidance.
The direction provided by the teachers also boosts up the creativity and confidence in
the students as well as contributes to their success in different professional domains. It
can be said that the influence of a teacher on students does not merely end when they
pass an examination by what is taught by the teacher but the impact is also resonated
16
by developed cognitive skills, shaped up personalities and characters modified or not

modified.
The soundness of a profession is directly dependent upon the level of

commitment of the members of any professional organization. It is the same for
teaching also. Therefore, a teacher should be highly committed.
1.2.6 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Professional Commitment
The environment of a school can be said healthy when the school pays attention
to teaching and its leadership has such an effect/impact on teachers that it can develop
a belief that those teachers have impact on teaching and learning. The characteristics
possessed by any school has a great impact on its teachers’ commitment (Raman et al.,
2015). Teachers have a significant role in the education system and their
responsibilities, allegiance and commitment towards organization can play a great role
in achieving the goals of the education system. A committed teacher considers teaching
not only as a job but as a responsibility to develop the future of further generation.
Teachers play the role of interject between past and future or in other words adults and
children. This is why they are called builders of social, cultural and economic structure
of the society (Nirukar and Nadi, 2015).
A teacher has to have a high level of commitment to be effective because to

achieve a high level of achievement by the student such dedicated teachers are required
who can contribute effectively. It is a common trait of the committed teachers that they
have the ability to determine goals for themselves and to identify their personal values.
They are expected to be the chief fundamental pillar of a progressive society. Thus, all
the good working conditions, environment and administrative support are necessary to
be made available for teachers. This is required to exhibit their commitment towards
their own profession (Hasan and Parween, 2015).
Teachers need to modify, improve and strengthen their professional activities

along with the development of understanding and insight of various aspects of
profession, time boundation, positive attitude towards co-workers, enthusiasm,
cooperation and honesty etc., which can be seen as example of basic human values
(Arjunam and Balamurugan, 2013).
17
The quality of teaching depends more on how much teachers are cooperative as
a member of the school or organization and how much they are satisfied. This can be
said that while teaching so many complexes are evident in teachers’ reactions, some
certain attitudes and behaviors. The congestion of personal characteristics like-
expectations, reasons, needs, experiences, personality, ability to learn, creativity along
with the organizational characteristics like conditions of work, advantages, co-workers,
type of leadership, policies of school or organization, promotion and opportunities for
advancement affect the person’s reaction towards the work (Magdalena, 2009).
If a school dreams to produce quality human resources being the

bearer/conveyor of change in the nation, then the environment of the school is an
important variable in affecting the change. Every school possesses a certain
environment which is different from other schools. A class glimpse of the environment
is apparent in the personal of the school. The environment of the school also creates the
personality of the members of the school and decides in what way it would contribute
to the school’s achievement. Hallinger and Leithwood (1996); Reyes and Pounder
(1993) believe that it is required for a school to be successful as an institution to have
such an appropriate environment by which the teachers can attain satisfaction from their
work.
The sovereignty of teachers in decision-making related to the classroom, their

participation in decision making related to the school and elements like opportunities
for them to learn something in conditions of organization exhibits their commitment
towards the organization (Firestone and Pannell, 1993). Active participation in decision
making related to the organization increases the involvement and commitment which
leads to the attainment of a high level of acceptance and satisfaction. Baugh and Roberts
(1994) did comparative study in context of engineer’s professional and organizational
commitment for their job performance and satisfaction and found that whose level of
professional and organizational commitment was high, their level of performance and
satisfaction in job was high too. High level of performance was found in professionally
committed workers in a study done by Aranya and Farris (1984).
The level of motivation gained in the organization has a significant role in

affecting the performance of teachers in the education system. Therefore, school
management should pay attention to the creation of a motivational environment for
18
teachers. Teachers need the praise, communication and respect from the school
management and co-workers. If the above-mentioned fields are positive, then it affects
the performance of teachers positively. Consideration of school management towards
these requirements and making the teacher feel capable, valuable and functional
improves the commitment of teachers towards their organization. Arjunam and
Balamurugan (2013) believe that the significance of professional commitment can be
seen between the relationship of workers and the organization. For the professionally
committed workers, their work/job is an important part of their life. It means that for
them, their work and co-worker both are important and thus in an inclusive context the
worker is attached to the whole organization.
Short and Rinehart (1992) identified 6 dimensions of teachers’ empowerment

in form of important decision making related to the institution, personal growth, status
in the institution, self-efficacy, autonomy and impact. Important decisions affecting the
functions of teachers like budget, selection of teachers, participation in construction of
lesson-plan and time-table can be categorized in the category of ‘Decision Making’.
‘Personal Growth’ can include such conditions in which teachers feel that school
management avail them with the environment for professional growth along with the
development of teaching skills and learning. Teachers’ professional respect and
acceptance in organization by the school management and co-workers can be seen as
‘Status’. Likewise, respect can include the support of teachers regarding their
knowledge, suggestions and other functions. Teachers’ ability to assist the students in
their learning together with the feeling of being effective in applying teaching skills,
techniques and knowledge can be kept in ‘Self Efficacy’. The feeling of control in the
selection of their work, text books and lesson plans can be identified as ‘Autonomy’.
‘Impact’ includes the realization of being effective in school life.
In the teaching profession, various factors affecting the teachers’ professional

commitment are identified from time to time. In which some are salient-
1. Commitment to organization,
2. Professional and Organizational Conflict,
3. Working Environment,
4. Gender
5. Institutions related with the socialization and
19
6. Economic benefits and services and facilities to the employees from public or
private organizations.
Some other chief factors affecting the teachers’ commitment are status of ‘fall
back or move ahead’, marital status, age and tenure of profession (Hung and Liu, 1999).
It is clear and evident from the above analysis that it is very important to know
the factors affecting the professional commitment of teachers to be effective. That is
why to comprehend the concept of professional commitment the relation of factors
affecting the professional commitment and their impact are presented onward.
1.3 Organizational Climate: An Overview
1.3.1 Concept and Definition of Organization
From the very early times, humans have been living in organized groups.
Initially, the work in a group was limited to survival activities like gathering food,
migrating, defending and securing the group. As a result of these group activities,
people got a chance to work according to their skills, strength and power to achieve
larger goals such as building up their communities and protecting it. The group also
gives it a prominent identity. Individuals doing certain specific functions according to
their skills and doing what they were best at enabled them to become more concentrated
and do the work more efficiently. Doing a certain work in a group or association
provides many benefits and the congregation becomes imperishable and strong. For
this, the group requires cooperation and coordination, without which the association
may lose its strength. For this type of cooperation for attainment of desired goals, some
sort of structural relationships had to be established. The sort of group that is based on
understanding, coordination and cooperation, is the general meaning of an organization.
Barnard (1938) have defined ‘Organization’ as a system that consciously

coordinates the activities of two or more persons and influences their behaviour. Scott
(1964) refers to organizations as collectivities that have been established for the pursuit
of relatively specific objectives on a more or less continuous basis.
Balyer and Ozcan (2017) refer to organization as a group or association of

people who work together to attain a common specified objective. The structure of an
organization gives information on how tasks are divided amongst the members, how
20
the grouping has been done and how coordination is maintained in the group. The
organization structure defines the role of the members so that each and every member
understands what responsibility they have towards the group. The organization
structure also gives an idea of the characters of the organization and the values it
believes in.
According to Blav and Scott (1962), most analysts conceive of social

organizations as the network of social relations and the shared orientation.... often
referred to as social structure and culture respectively (as cited in Bhatnagar and
Aggarwal,2015, p. 44). Social organization is the broader set of relationships and
processes of which educational organizations are a part. Educational institutions are
organizations set up for achieving particular purposes. They are social systems,
activities, therein are governed by social laws.
So, in short it may be said that an organization is an association of people who

work together to achieve some desired goal. The goal may be achieved through
intentionally designed activities, instinctive improvisation or a combination of both.
The achievement of goals depends upon the coordinated efforts of the group members.
1.3.2 Concept and Definition of Climate
According to Lorenz (1902), “climate is what you expect, weather is what you
get” (as cited in Bothe, 2018, p.1). McBean et al. (1992) stated that climate is the
statistics of weather. But on the other hand, the term climate is used in different contexts
that refers to temporal and/or spatial scales. Climate has unpretentious, methodical,
philosophical and political meanings.
Temperature is that element of a geographical climate, that can be measured

but it is not the absolute temperature that matters but how the temperature is perceived
by humans is what matters (is it cold, hot, or comfortable?). The importance of
measuring temperature is in terms of human comfort only. The perception of
temperature is that a particular temperature may be cool for one person, comfortable
for another and warm for some other person. In the same way, for an organization also
the climate may be regarded in absolute terms and might be measured by various
techniques because it is perceived differently by different individuals. The absolute
climate may be comfortable for one person but might not be the same for another
21
individual. One of the most important factors to measure and understand is the climate,
as a good climate imposes several human benefits and a bad climate has major
disadvantages on people. (Sharmila and Gokulkrishnan 2013).
In 1939, Lewin, Lippit and White, attempted to study the climate based on
empirical and practical experiences by observing the effect of different leaderships on
the working atmosphere and the members of an organization. They found that climate
had a very powerful impact as it was able to change the behavioral pattern of the group
members. Supporting this further by his motivation theory, Lewin (1951) also stated
that climate is a crucial and functional connection between a person and the
environment as climate describes the facts based on empirical experiences. McGregor
(1960) also kept his view regarding managerial climate; the way in which the superiors
behave creates a psychological climate for the subordinates and they thus respond
according to that psychological climate regardless of the personal style of the superior.
Blake and Mouton (1964) acknowledge that a manager does not only manage the people
working under him but also the organizational climate in which the subordinates work.
Discussing the sociological aspect, ‘climate’ may be understood as a set of approaches,
standards or environmental conditions of a group working at a particular place in a
particular or specified time period. Here in this study we are using the term ‘Climate’
in sociological terms in order to understand it in terms of ‘organizational conditions.’
Organizations are different from each other in different views like their
objectives, goals, ethnic composition of the population etc. One can experience the
distinctiveness of an organization by the atmosphere of the organization. Some other
terms such as tone of the organization, personality of the organization, organizational
climate etc. may also be used to sense the uniqueness of an organization. This feeling
that how one organization is different from another can only be felt or experienced, it
is impalpable. Francis and Milbourn (1980. p.92) also stated that, “climate for an
organization is somewhat like personality for a person. Just as every individual has a
personality that makes each person unique, each organization has an organizational
climate that clearly distinguishes its personality from other organizations”.
Even though it cannot be measured or understood easily but it can definitely be

sensed by behaviour of the people working in that organization. It can be understood
by an example. The members of one organization may seem relaxed and calm while in
22
some other organization the members may seem anxious and stressed which can be
observed by their faces, by how they communicate, how they work etc. In some
organizations, the heads may be authoritative and domineering while in some other
organizations, the heads may be informal in their behaviour and do not stress much on
showing off their status in front of their subordinates without reducing the importance
of their role in the system. These minuscule differences characterize the psychological
environment and are the important domains which describe the climate of an
organization. “The term 'climate' is coined to refer to the general feeling tone of persons
in groups towards each other and some of the attitudes they reveal in their behavior”
(IGNOU, p. 38).
Ashforth (1985) viewed ‘Climate’ as a function of: a) the structure of the

organization b) the organizational membership and c) more recently the memberships’
efforts to understand the organization. The third is the interactionist approach to it. The
interactionist approach considers the roles of many factors such as the work group,
affective domain, corporate culture, symbolic management and the physical setting
provided by the organization. The climate of an organization is perceived differently
by different members at group, organization and individual level.
Understanding the meaning of ‘Climate’ with an allusion to organization,

climate is how a member perceives the environment i.e. how they feel to be working
there. A positive organizational climate motivates the employees and develops a feeling
of ownership in them. So, a manager must be conscientious enough to understand and
apply a framework, feedback and some other tools to provide a pragmatic positive
climate in which the employees may work. It would have a highly advantageous impact
on the organization. Schneider, Donaghy and Newman (1976) refer to climate as the
extent, which employees perceive empathy, encouragement for participation, and a
communication structure which meets their information needs.
Stringer (2001) was of the view that the set of measurable properties of a work
environment may be referred to as the ‘climate’. The measurable properties are based
on the inclusive perceptions of the people working in the organization and it may be
observed by the behavior and the motivation level of the employees. Brooks and Brown
(2002, p.330) perceive climate as “the feeling in the air” and “the atmosphere that the
23
employees perceive, is created in their organizations due to practices, procedures and

rewards.”
So, laconically it may be said that climate is the human environment created by
managers, group members, physical setting, culture etc., in which the employees work.
On the basis of the above discussed definition it can be concluded that the climate is
how an individual perceives their work environment and this climate has an impact on
the motivation level and behavior of the employees working there.
1.3.3 Concept and Definition of Organizational Climate
According to Shalihin et al. ((2018), the term organizational climate was first
used by Kurt Lewin in the 1930s. The concept and framework of organizational climate
has evolved over a long period of time with the earliest available reference on the
concept/framework of organizational climate being traced to 1939 (Lewin, Lippitt and
White), which was then referred as ‘Social Climate’ (Shintri and Bharamanaikar, 2017,
p. 653). Shared perceptions or prevailing, which are used to conduct activities of any
workplace, can be named as ‘Organizational Climate’. According to many scholars, a
function of the way employees perceive elements of the work setting including both
internal (structure, power distribution, supervisory practices etc.) and external factors
(social, economic, legal, etc.) is called ‘organizational climate’.
According to Swargiary and Adhikary (2018), organizational climate is how

members of an organization perceive the work climate. It may be regarded as the sum
of people’s perceptions related to their organizational procedures, strategies and
practices. It may be understood as the psychological impact of various day to day
activities going on with them or others in the organization over a long period of time.
So, it is the quantitative property related to the daily work environment as perceived by
various members of the group. This organizational climate influences the work
behavior of the members.
According to Stringer, organizational climate is a “collection and pattern of the

environmental determinant of aroused motivation” (as cited in Sunarsih and
Helmiatin,2017, p.265). Also, it is a collective, and an environmental pattern
determines the motivation. Newstrom and Davis (2006) stated that organizational
climate is a human environment where employees of an organization perform their job
24
and it affects the entire environment or hinders employees within the organization that
influences how they complete organizational tasks. Litwin and Stringer (1968) defines
organizational climate as the disposition of measurable properties of the work
environment and how it is perceived by the members of the organization and the
influence of the climate on the conduct and performance of the members.
The climate of the organization depends on its employees’ sentiments and view
of the organization’s practices, methods and reward frameworks. Organizational
climate can be characterized in various ways. According to James and James (1989),
organizational climate is a multidimensional construct that encompasses a wide range
of individual evaluations of the work environment.
Laghari and Goraya (2014, p.92) stated that researchers have defined
organizational climate in different proportions. It has no single definition because it is
a multi-dimensional concept. According to them, the characteristics of organizational
climate are:
1. It is an abstract and intangible concept. It has a significant impact on the behavior

and performance of organizational members.
2. It is a perceived characteristic of the internal environment of an organization.
3. It is relatively enduring characteristics that remain constant over a period.
4. It differentiates one organization from another because it gives distinct identity
to organization.
Atkinson and Frechette (2009) identifies six dimensions of climate, that

influence the work environment and employees’ motivation:
1. Clarity: People’s degree of understanding of the organization’s goals and

policies, as well as the requirements of their job;
2. Commitment: The expression of continuing dedication to a common purpose
and to achieving goals;
3. Standards: Management emphasizes high-performance standards and exerts
pressure on associates to meet them;
4. Responsibility: It may be understood as the level to which members themselves
feel liable for their work;
5. Recognition: The feeling that people are recognized and rewarded for doing good
work, and that they receive accurate performance feedback;
25
6. Teamwork: The feeling of belonging to an organization characterized by

cohesion, mutual support, trust, and pride.
Koys and deCotiis (1991) identified eight key dimensions to measure the
psychological climate of an organization namely autonomy, cohesion, trust, pressure,
support, recognition, impartiality, and innovation.
According to Haritha and Subrahmanyam (2013), researchers found that certain

characteristics describe the construct and differentiate it from other concepts. These
characteristics are as follows:
1. Climate is generally considered to be a molar construct that can change over time.
2. It is perceived by and shared among organizational members, which can result in
consensus among individuals.
3. It consists of global impressions of the organization that members form through
interacting with each other and organizational policies, structures and processes.
4. Climate perceptions are descriptions of environmental events and conditions
rather than evaluations of them.
5. The climate construct is multidimensional.
6. It refers to the ‘feeling of an organization’.
7. Climate can potentially influence an individual’s behavior.
Organizational climate represents how the employees feel about the

atmosphere. Organizational climate conveys the impressions people have of the
organizational internal environment within which they work. It may refer to the extent
to which persons are treated as “human beings” rather than as “cogs” in a machine.
(Singh and Chhabra, 2017, p.481). Organization climate is a relatively enduring quality
of the internal environment that is experienced by its members, influences their
behavior, and can be described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics
of the organization.
1.3.4 Importance of Organizational Climate
Organizational climate provides a useful platform for understanding such

characteristics of organizations as stability, creativity, innovation, communication and
effectiveness. Organizational climate is the manifestation of the attitudes of
organizational members toward the organization itself. An organization tends to attract
26
and keep people who fit its climate, so that its patterns are perpetuated at least to some
extent.
Environmental elements impact workers’ efficiency and confidence. An

organizational climate that permits a high level of autonomy and supports relationships
among companions, supervisors and subordinates brings about more fulfilled workers
(Li and Mahadevan, 2017). Brown & Leigh (1996) stated that organizations that can
create environments that employees see as benign and in which they can accomplish
their maximum capacity are viewed as a key source of competitive advantage.
Organizational climate can accordingly be viewed as a key variable in effective
organizations.
The climate in an organization is influenced by occasions and attributes

significant to the organization, which thus apply a strong impact on the members of
organization behavior. Organizational climate and the route in which people react to it
consistently associate. Organizational climate has the ability to bring out the general
psychological atmosphere of an organization, and subsequently, may influence the
behavior, fulfillment and inspiration of people in the work environment (Lawler, 1992).
Organizational climate is the extent to which the climate reflects the personality
of the organization’s member (Berman, 1989). By studying about the organizational
climate, a firm may identify the inadequacies in various fields such as- organizational
structure, employee compensation system, communication level, physical atmosphere,
organizational culture etc. Organizational climate and how it is perceived by various
members of a firm may enable the firm to work upon the deficiencies and make the
organization- a strong body. The better is the inhouse atmosphere for the employees the
better would be their performance and behaviour. It is to be noted that the conventional
attributes of school have a major influence on how the climate is perceived by teachers
(Lavanya, 2011).
Organizational climate studies the employees' perceptions and perspectives of

an organization. The surveys address attitudes and concerns that help the organization
work with employees to instill positive changes. Organizational climate surveys
increase productivity. Climate surveys give employees a voice to assist in making
desired transitions as smooth as possible. It also serves as a basis for quality
improvements (Bhagyalekshmi and Elizabeth, 2016, p.77).
27
Organizational climate exists in all dimensions and various parts of

organization, it impacts on conduct, organizational behavior, and organizational
performance of organization’s members. The impact may be motivating or weakening.
In any case, it impacts on human resources performance. A good organizational climate
may motivate employees, improve employee morale, involve employees in decision-
making, and be effective in increasing creativity and innovation. It may be an important
source of mental health of employees, and vice versa. Therefore, a change in any part
of organizational climate may lead to immediate and profound change in employees’
work method and performance (Mahmudiah, 2016).
Forehand and Gilmer (1964); Pritchard and Karasick (1973) stated that
organizational climate is the generally persisting characteristic in an organization which
recognizes it from different organizations: and (a) typifies members collective
perceptions about their organizations as for such measurements as self-sufficiency,
confide in, cohesiveness, innovation, acknowledgment, fairness and support; (b)
collaboration among the members; (c) fills in as a reason for interpreting the
circumstance; (d) reflects the culture for predominant standards, qualities and attitudes
of the organization; (e) serves as an impact for molding behavior; (f) distinguish one
organization from another; (g) are relatively enduring over a period of time; and (h)
influence the behaviour of people in the organization.
Schulte, Ostraff and Kinicki (2006) reported that both individual-level climate
perceptions and organizational climate are related to job satisfaction. The overall
climate in a work unit has significant influence on individual attitudes, after accounting
for individuals’ idiosyncratic perceptions of the climate. An organization’s climate
plays a strategic role in knowledge creation capability.
Organizational climate is everything available to employees and affects the way

employees carry out assigned duties. Organizational climate is necessary for a good and
healthy workplace to enable employees to feel more comfortable in completing work
assigned to them, because it can affect employees in producing goods or services.
Organizational climate as a perception of organizational members, either individually
or in groups, who constantly communicate with the organization associated with
anything that frequently happens within the organization and this condition affects
organizational behavior and employee performance, which finally determine the
28
performance of the organization. Therefore, a good organizational climate is a

prerequisite to achieving the best organizational performance (Sunarsih and Helmiatin,
2017).
Organizational climate serves as the guidelines for dealing with people, and has
a major influence on motivation and productivity of individuals as well as total work
groups. It governs employee behavior by prescribing what types of behavior will be
rewarded and what will be punished. Thus, an organization can influence and motivate
people to behave in desired manners that suit organizations.
An organizational climate that gives its members a clear vision of the

organization’s mission also presents a consistent image to its markets, customers and
client over time, the image can give an organization a competitive advantage by
building commitment to its products and services. The organizational climate factors
shape and improve employee’s perception towards organization and their jobs. An
environment of cooperation, opens access among group members and creative
individual motivation to exchange knowledge within the group members resulting in
more productivity. So, it is necessary that the management of corporations should strive
to create a congenial organizational climate in the organizations to improve the
economic condition of the country (Sharmila and Gokulakrishnan, 2013).
1.3.5 Influence of Organizational Climate on Teachers’ Professional Commitment
Organization climate is a medium for teachers to approach the work

environment with a positive outlook. Organizational climate is related with the
teachers’ achievement, motivation, satisfaction and performance. The Education
Commission (1964-66) stated that, “if an understanding is developed that educational
institutions are like temples of learning and should never remain closed, and if a proper
climate for sustained work is created, teachers, students and the local communities will
themselves discover innumerable methods of utilizing school facilities to the maximum
potential throughout the year” (Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, p.61).
Organizational climate is the working environment conditions, both material/physical
and non-physical/non-material that can affect the behavior/performance of teachers
within an organization (school) (Pratami, Harapan and Arafat, 2018, p.230). School
climate is a product of interpersonal relationships between students, families ,teachers,
support staff and administrators. According to Halpin and Croft (1963), organizational
29
climate refers to the social climate among principals and teachers, including both formal
and informal patterns of interaction. It involves the general flow of behavior, feeling
and interaction among teachers and principals in the school. School climate broadly
refers to: the principal’s interaction with teachers, the methods of rewarding and
punishing students and academic climate.
A positive school climate fostered through a shared vision of the teaching

system, respect and engagement. ‘The National School Climate Council’ of the United
States of America defines school climate as the “norms, values, and expectations that
support people feeling socially, emotionally and physically safe” (2007, p.5). Cohen et
al. (2009) identify five elements of the school climate;
1. Safety (e.g., rules and norms, physical security, social-emotional security),

2. Teaching and learning (e.g., support for learning, social and civic learning),
3. Interpersonal relationship (e.g., respect for diversity, social support from
adults, social support from peers),
4. Institutional environment (e.g., school connectedness, engagement, physical
surroundings) and
5. Staff relationships (e.g., leadership, professional relationships)
Likewise, U.S. Department of Education’s Safe and Supportive Schools model

of school climate (as cited in O’Brennan, Bradshaw and Hopkins, 2013) includes three
interrelated domains or features which is presented in Figure 1.1;
30
Three Aspect of School Climate
Engagement Safety Environment
Emotional Physical
Relationships
Safety Environment
Respect for Physical Academic

Diversity Safety Environment
School Substance
Wellness
Participation Use
Disciplinary
Environment
Figure 1.1 U.S. Department of Education’s Safe and Supportive Schools Model
Organizational climate has an impact on the processes and purposes of people.

It also has an effect on action, level of motivation, harmony and coordination in a group,
social bonding and incentives they get from performing well. Similar can be considered
when linking the role of organizational climate in schools also. The organizational
climate has an influence over the attitude and behavior of the teachers. It also has been
observed that the formal attributes of the school have a significant impact on the way
in which teachers discern the climate. Litwin and Stringer (1968) stated that
organizational climate plays an important role in deciding the behavior of employees
and therefore the performance of the organization. Organizational climate has both
positive as well as negative impacts. The positive climate encourages, whereas negative
climate inhibits discretionary efforts. Organizational climate has been influenced by
these characters such as organizational structure, individual autonomy, rewards, risk-
taking, support, tolerance, and control influences.
If a school has a positive working environment for a teacher, it would have a

constructive impact on the performance of a teacher which thereby would influence the
31
students’ achievements and the quality of graduates passing out from a school
(Gemnafle, Waimuri and Batlolona, 2018). Vedavathi (2017) reported that the position
of the school heads/ principals is evidently indispensable in consideration with the
multiplicity of commitments and responsibilities they organize, involving the teachers,
students, parents, society and the stakeholders. A clear understanding of employee work
value structure helps employers and managers in developing effective human resource
policies that meet employee’s needs and achieve satisfactory work outcomes in areas
that their employees valued most. Work values of individuals who take part in the
organization influence greatly on organization climate. National Curriculum
Framework (2005) emphasizes the need of a positive and democratic school climate in
the following words, “As much as the classroom needs to nurture a democratic, flexible
and accepting culture, so also the school institution and the bureaucratic structure need
to do the same. Not only should the teacher receive orders and information, but equally
the voice of the teacher should be heard by those higher up, who often take decisions
that affect the immediate classroom life and culture in the school. Relationships
between teachers and their heads and principals must be informed by equality and
mutual respect, and decision making must be on the basis of dialogue and discussion”
(p. 98). Draft National Education Policy 2019 (p. 124) also stated that “teachers must
feel a part of, and be invested in, the schools and communities in which they serve”.
Gemnafle, Waimuri and Batlolona (2018) believe that if the work climate in a
school is good, then the teacher can appreciate and enjoy a school atmosphere with a
sense of comfort and pleasure in carrying out their duties such as educating, teaching
and guiding with more enthusiasm, commitment and excitement, so that there will be
changes and improvement of teacher’s work is indicated on increasing student learning
outcomes as a whole. Conversely, if the school climate has a negative impact, then the
teacher will display less enthusiastic work behavior, and consequently is less than
optimal performance. For that, the working climate in schools should be strived to
always be on the positive line. Climate of the schools are able to encourage teachers to
improve their work commitment in developing their profession.
A major reason is that school organizational climate is often represented as the

heart and soul of the school and the essence of the school that causes teachers and
students to love the school and to want to be a part of it.
32
1.4 Role Conflict: An Overview
1.4.1 Concept and Definition of Role
The role in an organization may be understood by considering the elaborate

duties and responsibilities within the group and team. So, if a person is in charge of
managing and handling a specific task in an organization, he or she has to coordinate,
administer, make decisions and execute the action plan in the favour of the organization.
Any job interview should be explanatory enough so that interviewees know what role
and duties they would be devoted to.
In any organization, the employees are expected to carry out the roles and duties
allotted to them in an effective manner. The role continuously changes or evolves over
the time according to the competency and experience of the employees because the
employees’ skills get cumulated over the years, they gain experience and find the finest
way to complete the task given with efficacy. The change observed in an employee may
be taken as an ability test for promotion, training or to differentiate the overloaded
workers (Vu, 2019).
According to Turner (1956), role may be understood as a set of behavioral

patterns which constitute a significant unit and judged suitable for a person having a
particular status in society (doctor, father), occupying a casually defined position in
interpersonal relations (leader, compromiser), or recognized by a particular value he or
she possess (honest man, patriot). So, the role basically means what employees perceive
about the expected behavior from them. That is, employees often base their perceptions
of the duties and expectations associated with their chosen profession according to what
they are communicated (Kahn et al., 1964).
1.4.2 Concept and Definition of Conflict
According to Berger and Luckman (1966), conflict can be understood as the

irreconcilability of interests, motives, beliefs, demands, conjectures and/ or social
ideologies. The ideological conflicts may become venomous. In Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary conflict defined as: competitive or opposing action of
incompatibles : antagonistic state or action (as of divergent ideas, interests, or persons)
or mental struggle resulting from incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or
external or internal demands (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conflict).
33
According to McEnery (1985), conflict means the reciprocity of multiple value systems.
Conflict is either malignant or benign depending on whether the particular inter-action
of the value systems tends to destructive disruption or creative progress. Conflict may
arise due to lack of consideration, lack of appreciation, misunderstanding or bad
handling of situations and problems.
An action-system may be said to be in conflict if that system has multiple

antagonistic goal states. In the case of one actor the conflict is called a dilemma or intra-
individual conflict, consisting of incompatible motivational or behavioral tendencies.
A differentiation should be there between conflict, conflict attitude and conflict
behavior. The three may be depicted as the three ends of a triangle. All the three ends
of the triangle are equal and the process of conflict may get started at any end point of
the triangle. The conflict may be reconciled if one or more of the role-playing factors
are eliminated. The factor elimination may be done either by a destructive or a non-
destructive process. The destructive way would be a vicious conflict. Differentiation
may be done between the destructive and the non-destructive conflict behaviour. The
two of course are similar and not entirely contrasting things. The two ideas about
conflict to be considered are –A conflict behavior may lead to a noxious behavior (as it
creates a vicious cycle of exasperation and disappointment). The noxious destructive
behavior may thereby become self-reinforcing (Galtung,1965).
According to Coser (1956), a conflict behavior may destroy principles and

ethics of a person. It tends to shatter the reputation, power and assets of the opponents
in order to injure or eliminate the rivals. Further, he stated that, the clash of values and
interests, the tension between what is and what some groups feel ought to be. Conflict
is also defined from a communication perspective as “an expressed struggle between at
least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards and
interference from other parties in achieving their goals (Omisore and Abiodun, 2014,
p.119).
Fadipe (2000) sees conflict as a form of disagreement in an establishment

between two individuals or groups which according to Miller and King (2005) arise
from incompatible goals and behavior that may make another action less likely to be
effective because people are working against each other. Owens (1987) was of the view
that a conflict is a competition between contradicting forces and power, it is a scuffle
34
to withstand or defeat. According to Nlebedum (2005), “Conflict is an essential and

unavoidable human phenomenon because where there is human interaction; there is a
likelihood of personal likes and dislikes. These agreements and disagreements among
individuals and groups lead them to conflicts. Conflicts are neither constructive nor
disruptive but the ways these are handled make them either positive or negative”
(Nwachukwu et al., 2017, p.16449).
1.4.3 Concept and Definition of Role Conflict
What happens when others do not hold consensual expectations for a person's
behaviour? One possibility is that those others are formed into sets of persons whose
expectations are distinct and incompatible. In such cases, it is argued, the person will
be subjected to conflicting pressures, will suffer stress, will have to "resolve" the
problem by adopting some form of coping behaviour, and that the person and system
will both be disrupted. These ideas have given rise to the concept of role conflict, which
is normally defined as the “concurrent appearance of two or more incompatible
expectations for the behaviour of a person” (Biddle, 1986, p.82).
Role conflict is when an individual cannot understand what their role is;
therefore, they have mixed sentiments because they cannot meet the expectations
related to their role. For example, role conflict is a situation wherein none of the
expectations are met, when a salesperson thinks that the boss's expectations and desires
are incompatible with the customer's expectations. If there are significant differences
between the expectations, it can be said that there is a role conflict (Senturan et al.,
2017, p.61).
Parsons (1951) states that role conflict is a set of clashing but validated role
expectations such that satisfying both would not be practically possible. According to
Kahn et al. (1964), there may be two ways to conceptualize role conflict- in terms of
the opposition of sent role pressures(objective) and in terms of the opposition of role
forces (subjective). But according to them-the objective creates a subjective one.
Therefore, they are primarily interested in the former. They explained the above-
mentioned type of sent role conflict as the concurrent occurrence of two or multiple sets
of constraints such that the abidance of one would make the other onerous. So, this is
thus implicit that when the guidance for a certain role is clashing, the central most
important person would encounter some kind of role conflict. Such pressure situations
35
may be faced at various points in an organization such as the superior persons have
desires contrasting from that of their subordinates.
Katz and Kahn (1978) define role conflict as followed; role conflict may also
occur when the understanding of expected set of behaviours is different for the focal
person and the role senders. The focal person might discern the anticipated set of
behaviors differently from the role sender. Role conflict results from two or more sets
of incompatible demands involving work-related issues. Stress produces routine
behavioral patterns and generally interferes with novel or creative responses. Stress and
strain particularly hamper the motivational aspects of performance, such as manifest
effort or going beyond routine job responsibilities.
Shaw and Costanzo (1970); Brown (1965) reported that role conflict occurs
when the expectations associated with several positions an actor holds are incompatible
with one another (inter-role conflict) or when the expectations associated with a single
position an actor holds are incompatible (intra-role conflict). The source of role conflict
may be the actor (personality-role conflict), the actor's role partners, society at large, or
any combination of these. Intra-role conflict among role-partners originates from two
sources: disagreement on role-expectations within complementary groups, for instance
when there is little consensus among college faculty on what to expect from students,
or disagreements may occur between complementary groups (as cited in Rechlicz,
1986, p.16). It may be understood by a simple example of college students. The
members of faculty might be having some kinds of expectations from the students in
terms of their behavior, ideas, functions, roles etc. In the same way, students would also
be having some expectation for themselves. But, the two may not be agreeing over
student expectations. Role set is a complement of role relationships that an actor has
by reason of occupying a particular social status. Merton (1968) considers the source
of disagreements within a role-set to be structural, that is, an actor who occupies a
particular status has role partners who are differentially located in the social structure.
Thus, the actor and role partners will be relatively different in values and moral
expectations relative to the status in question, e.g., a teacher and school board members
or a teacher and students may occupy different social classes.
Role conflict has been defined as the incongruity of the expectations associated
with a role. Kahn et al. (1964) has identified the following types of role conflict:
36
1. Intra-sender role conflict: Incompatible expectations from a single role sender

(e.g., a regular teacher);
2. Inter-sender role conflict: Expectations from one role sender which are
incompatible with those from another role sender (e.g., regular teacher versus
administrator);
3. Person-role: Contradiction between the presumptions held by the existing role
and what is expected by a person who is at his or her position (e.g., substitute
teachers' expectation of what their job consists);
4. Inter-role conflict: The role pressure originating from one position which are
contrasting with the role pressure springing from the other position (e.g.,
substitute teachers may be required to do certain tasks in one building and quite
the opposite in another building);
5. Role overload: Expectation from the role bearer to be occupied in various role
behaviours, all these role behaviours might be bilaterally harmonious but the time
assigned is too short for the compliance of expected role behavior. (e.g. A
substitute teacher may be assigned with some piece of work and is also expected
to do his or her duty in time but it may act as a role overload as the duty is assigned
on a short notice and is expected to be done in time but the lesson to be prepared
is tough considering the time allotted.
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) identified three dimensions of role conflict which
included time-based, strain-based, and behavior based. Time-based conflict is a result
of multiple roles competing for the limited resource of an individual’s time. Strain-
based conflict results from strain or stress in one role, which spills over or affects
performance in other roles. Behavior-based conflict is a result of in-role behavior being
incompatible with expected behavior in other roles.
Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970) stated that role conflict can be understood
in terms of the dimensions of congruence-incongruence or compatibility-
incompatibility in the requirements of the role, where congruency or compatibility is
judged relative to a set of standards or conditions which impinge upon role
performance. Incompatibility or incongruence may result in various kinds of conflict;
1. a focal person’s standards or values and the behaviour defined for a role. This is
a person-role conflict or intra-role conflict of the focal person as he or she fills a
single position or role.;
37
2. a focal person’s time, resources or abilities and the behaviour defined for
performing a role. Where one other person in a related role generates the
incompatibility, this may be viewed as intra-sender conflict. It may also be
organizationally generated. From the point of view of the focal person, there is
intra-role conflict or person-role conflict, e.g., insufficient capability;
3. Conflict between several roles for the same person which require different or
incompatible behaviours, or changes in behaviour as a function of the situation.
i.e. role overload. This is an inter-role conflict for the focal person as he fills more
than one position in the role system.
4. Conflicting expectations and organizational demands in the form of incompatible
policies, conflicting requests from others and incompatible standards of
evaluation.
Role conflict arises from a situation of disagreement and irreconcilability of

expectations between the two roles. People might have various roles to play which may
entail different patterns. Sometimes, it may demand bilaterally contradictory behavior.
Due to these contrary behaviours, people might find it strenuous to comply with two
different sets of behaviours at a time. So, the individual won’t be able to behave in the
specified manner for either of the roles as expected by the society (Abidi, 1990).
So, it may be deduced that, role conflict situation arises when the
communication of task expectations from role-set members proves inadequate or
incompatible for the role holder. Role conflict arises when the person in a role is not
able to respond to the expectations of other persons. Role conflict is another source of
potential tension that may result in a loss of job satisfaction, lack of commitment,
decreased confidence in one’s boss, and/ or a tendency to avoid the unpleasant work
situation.
1.4.4 Effects of Role Conflict on Teachers’ Professional Commitment
The negative outcomes of role conflict include tension; lack of confidence; a

feeling of hopelessness; anxiety and depression; decreased job satisfaction; distrust in
the organization; ill relationship with members of role set and superior officers; poor
performance; which in turn affects the organizations’ overall performance (Bako, 2014,
p.16).
38
Role conflict can cause negative effects due to conflicting information; team
members are unable to fulfil their tasks and responsibilities and even feel more
demotivated. Since role conflict represents a lack of information and demotivation, they
have a negative impact on team performance. The stronger emotional relationship exists
in teamwork; the worse impact of role conflict exists in teamwork performance. When
team members work emotionally, there has been a tendency of working less or beyond
their role (Vu, 2019).
Under a result of role conflict, there are many contrary ideas under its effects
on teamwork performance. Role conflict leads to stress, dissatisfaction, distortion of
reality by the use of defence mechanisms, and therefore, less effective role performance
(Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman, 1970). Role conflict is a main factor leading to
dissatisfaction and increased work stress in an organization.
Work stress is a psychological process that yields short-term strains or long-

term changes in employees’ mental and physical health. Findings of negative influences
of work stress is considered clear benefits for organizations to eliminate work stress
among employees on both emotional or physical health. Furthermore, work stress
triggers constraints and demotivation in working, for instance, being absent from work
and an increase of health care expenses to treat different illnesses of work stress. Work
stress can be harmful to a person’s mental and physical health that causes anxiety or
asthenia (Vu, 2019). Since a school needs to take teachers’ health into consideration
and care about intelligent profitability when they seriously invest in human capital.
Additionally, higher levels of role conflict among teachers leads to increased
dissatisfaction towards jobs, inefficient utilization of time and a lower level of
commitment. Role conflict, due to increased levels of work stress, has a negative impact
on the health and well-being of employees (Ogbogu, 2013).
The effects of role conflict include:
1. Negative attitudes towards their organizations, its members, their jobs, and more
general perceptions of tension and threat;
2. Pessimistic beliefs about their strength, performance, and rewards in
organizations;
3. Ineffective performance (Driscoll et al., 1978).
39
According to ‘Role theory’, when behaviours expected of an individual are

incompatible he or she will experience stress, depression, become dissatisfied, and
perform less effectively than if the expectation imposed do not conflict (Rizzo et al.,
1970). Thus, it can be seen that role conflict can negatively affect an individual’s state
of mind. Another way to explain it, the individual commitment may be decreased due
to role conflict. An environment of the school organization affects the expectation of
the role of the teachers. “The expectations are pressures and norms to act as they have
directed. But the roles may not be in the range of his/her duties” (Quarat-ul-ain et al.,
2013, p.713). In general, role conflicts have been linked to a range of negative job
attitudes and behaviours. Nevertheless, some more positive effects have been recorded
(Tummers et al., 2012, p.5).
Despite the potentially negative effects of role conflict, contrary evidence

suggests that role conflict might enhance productivity. An individual’s promise of
multiple roles (e.g., work-family conflict) is a response to role demands that induce
strain (Lenaghan and Sengupta, 2007). Moreover, strain is often viewed as a negative
emotional response to stress that could eventually lead to a negative effect
(Rothbard,2001). Importantly, other studies have suggested that a negative effect of
role conflict might increase productivity/creativity. For instance, Ludwig (1992)
reported that depression and the level of creative achievement are slightly, but
significantly correlated with each other. According to George and Zhou (2002),
information provided by negative affective states can influence an individual’s effort
and creativity at work. Some studies adopt a positive view towards role conflict. For
instance, when individuals engage in multiple roles, it might create a positive affect
(Lenaghan and Sengupta, 2007). A positive affect leads to cognitive variation that
stimulates productivity. Role conflict can expose individuals to different perspectives,
make them more flexible, and expand their source of information (Jones, 1993). Such
changes may increase productivity. In sum, role conflict seems to enhance or reduce
creativity/productivity (Tang and Chang, 2010).
Wilson (1962) proposes six broad categories of conflicts and insecurities. These
categories are intrinsic to the teacher's role and circumstances in which teachers’
function. All of them emanate from the diffuseness of the teacher's role. Conflicts and
insecurities arise when (1) it is unclear when the role-players has fully discharged their
obligations; (2) when everyone in contemporary society has an opinion about the way
40
teachers should function; (3) when teachers teach marginal disciplines, e.g., humanities,
which a technical society and its students value little; (4) when the school is vulnerable
to pressures from outside: ultimately laymen determine the character of schools; (5)
when the teaching role which demands the care, concern and commitment of a sustained
relationship also is pressured by the expectation to "get on": achieve financial security
and social prestige; and (6) when a role implies certain value commitments which are
at best only partially supported by society.
Drugan (1979) found that teachers perceived (saw role conflict in a situation)
and experienced (personally felt) role conflict in four areas- role diffuseness (concern
for students beyond what is measurable); role vulnerability (susceptibility to a variety
of conflicting expectations); role commitment vs. career orientation (loyal service to
students vs. advancement and recognition) and custodian of traditional values, which
are increasingly questioned by society.
According to Grace (1972, p. 28), the extent to which teachers actually perceive
conflict situations as problems or feel personally troubled by them will depend upon a
considerable number of mediating variables. These are discussed in the following
heading: -
Characteristics of Conflicts: These will include the nature and intensity of the conflict
and particularly, in the case of teachers, whether the issues involved relate to problems
of ‘moral orientation’ or to ‘self-orientation’.
Characteristics of Teachers: These will include age, sex, professional qualifications,

role concept, teachers’ orientation to the conflict, their strategies of resolution and the
general personality characteristics of the individuals.
Characteristics of School: These will include the characteristics of the

heads/principals, the way in which they conceive and perform their role, the goals set
for the school, the size and organization of the school and the social class context.
Teachers are expected to transmit and preserve our cultural heritage. It is

assumed that the values to be transmitted are what may be called the core values of
society. Although core values are relatively stable, they may seem to shift because of a
new expression, or they may be undergoing essential transformation. Today, the latter
alternative is true as our society experiences a pervasive and deep change of values.
41
Predictions of the effect which this changing pattern of values will have on tomorrow's
society are impossible to make. The conflict is obvious. Teachers are expected to
transmit inherited values which are rapidly being transformed in order to prepare
students for a future which is unknown.
Conflict is due not only to the uncertainties and confusion surrounding the goals
of formal education, but also to the range of differing and sometimes contradictory
expectations about the role of the teacher within the school community. Teachers have
to deal with the expectations which administrators have for their role. They are also
vulnerable to pressures concerning their role from other groups: school board members,
community organizations and parents. Public support for mass education brought with
it the opportunity for the public to oversee the school's activities. This supervision can
impinge on the autonomy which teachers feel is their right as professionals. Teachers
do not ask for complete independence, but for the opportunity to direct matters that are
of a professional nature, such as decisions regarding curriculum, teaching method, and
selection of materials.
According to Musgrove and Taylor (1969), "changes in the organization of

education and more general processes of social change are combining to make a
troubled teaching profession. They further state that teachers feel their status is
threatened where school reorganization has occurred since there is anxiety and
uncertainty about their new role” (p.43).
Adams (1970) presents an interesting model of the teacher role which

incorporates the concepts of role theory, particularly role conflict. Accordingly, role
conflict occurs when the expectations of others (students, peers, superiors, parents,
external power groups) unite with unique or shared teacher behaviour in a setting which
is education-bound (classroom, school, school related, occupation related) or non-
education-bound (home, club etc.). It is when expected behavior is circumscribed by
the constraints of a situation that role conflict occurs.
School is a mini society where all types of faiths, creeds, religions, secular
values etc. are developed and school plays an important role in a democratic social
setup. Thus, a school represents a society. So, a school should be a systematic system
that has adequate and proper facilities for teaching-learning and a well satisfied
teaching staff should be there. After independence the Education Commission (1964-
42
66) has drawn specific attention to the teachers in the following words, "of all the
different factors which influence the quality of education and its contribution to national
development, the quality competence and character of teachers are undoubtedly the
most significant aspects. Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply
of high-quality recruits to the teaching profession providing them with the best possible
professional preparation and creating satisfactory conditions of work in which they can
be fully effective” (Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, p.74). The Right to
education also accentuates on the importance of basic facilities, trained and qualified
teachers and a good learning environment for a great teaching learning experience.
A teacher is deployed with various jobs and is expected to perform various roles
such as transmitting knowledge and skills, demonstrator, a planner, an evaluator who
can judge the knowledge and skills grasped by the students etc. All these
responsibilities roam around for the development and betterment of the students. A
better learning environment is created for the students when a teacher works along with
the other constituents of the school and the system of learning. So, the teachers should
be given freedom to act and perform. But, when the teachers face antithetical
expectations from various principle groups of the school and from the various sections
of the society, it intervenes with the working methodology of the teachers and thus
hampers the satisfactory performance of their role. Role conflict occurs when an
individual is assigned multiple roles at once, which are contradictory and thus not
possible to abide by it. The person has to fulfill his or her duties, expectations, norms
and is expected to act in a particular manner. But when the expectations are
contradictory, the situation of role conflict arises. The contradicting situations create a
grapple in a teacher’s mind which may give rise to an aggressive behavior. Such
situations may swerve away the teacher from the set group norms and the norms related
to teacher’s behavior. Since, the teachers know the utmost requirements of a learner
and the learning process, they should be the main decision maker but it is not generally
the case.
If proper opportunities are not provided, recognition is not given to creative and
innovative efforts of the teachers, efforts done are not appreciated, it may lead to a
negative effect on the teachers’ working capacity and their role. Role conflict may have
a major effect on the professional commitment, behavior of the teachers and their
tolerance level. So, the role conflict arises when a teacher is overburdened with
43
expectations and contradictory roles which may require many extra efforts in addition
to the teaching process. A teacher may feel stressed out because of various factors such
as overburden, insufficient salaries, poor physical conditions and infrastructure of
school, lack of resources and cooperation, traditional conflict in the community,
physical violence in the classroom or school etc. (Ruchi, 2012).
1.5 Gender: An Overview
1.5.1 Concept and Definition of Gender
The gender-based role has captivated our lives so much that the beliefs related
to it are considered to be true in all scenarios. It is ceaselessly present in our day to day
conversations, humor, conflict etc. We perceive different roles from driving style to
food preferences linked with gender only. Gender is embedded so thoroughly in our
institutions, our actions, our beliefs, and our desires, that it appears to us to be
completely natural. The world swarms with ideas about gender – and these ideas are so
commonplace that we take it for granted that they are true, accepting common adage as
scientific fact (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2010, p.9).
Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are
created in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also
includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours
of both women and men (femininity and masculinity) (UNESCO, 2003, p.17). Gender
refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female
and the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as the
relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and
relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes.
They are context/ time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected,
allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. “In most societies there
are differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned,
activities undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making
opportunities “(United Nations,2001, p.3). Gender refers to the economic, social and
cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female at a particular
point in time (WHO, 2001, p.43).
44
According to Connel (2002), “Gender” is the social difference “between males’

and females’ roles or men’s and women’s personalities” (as cited in Smith, et al.,
p.316). “Gender refers to those social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males
and females through particular social contexts” (The Sociology of Gender, p.4). The
gender perspective refers to how an issue, problem, objective or measure applies to the
different genders. Whenever an issue is reviewed from the gender perspective, it is
viewed from both the female and male perspective. Taking the gender perspective into
account in projects enhances the needs orientation, activities and impact of projects,
respecting both women and men (Haataja et al., 2011).
According to psychologists such as Sandra Bem, one cognitive process that

seems nearly inevitable in humans is to divide people into groups. We can partition
these groups on the basis of race, age, religion, and so forth. However, most of the time
we split humanity on the basis of gender. The first thing we instantly determine, when
meeting someone new, is their gender. This process of categorizing others in terms of
gender is both habitual and automatic. It's nearly impossible to suppress the tendency
to split the world in half, using gender as the great divider (as cited in Crespi, 2000).
In simple terms, gender explains the differences between men and women in
social terms as men, and as what a man can do or cannot do; as “woman”, and as what
a woman can or cannot do. Therefore, gender is an analytical category that is socially
constructed to differentiate the biological difference between men and women. The
term gender is also used to describe the differences in behavior between men and
women which are described as “masculine” and “feminine” (Basic Concept: Sex and
Gender).
1.5.2 Effects of Gender based Behavior and Gender on Teachers’ Professional

Commitment
Gender is one of the central social categories relevant to the perception and the
assessment of other people, and the individual person as well. In most cases the
categorization as male or female is unequivocal. Hence, the expectations surrounding a
particular social environment connected to gender play a significant role with respect
to the emergence of numerous traits and behavior patterns (Ulpe, 2012, p.6).
45
Over the course of development, Indian children (like children in many Western
countries) are immersed in a society where the lower status of women is normative.
Continual exposure to strongly differentiated gender roles is likely to shape children’s
beliefs about how well males and females perform across a variety of domains.
Broadly-held beliefs about social groups, such as males and females, are known as
stereotypes. Children’s school performance and their subsequent educational and
occupational outcomes are shaped in part by cultural stereotypes about differences in
boys’ and girls’ competence in various academic domains. Stereotypes shape
motivation and performance through several mechanisms, one of which is their
influence on academic self-concept. Whereas academic gender stereotypes are beliefs
about the academic competence of males and females in general, academic self-concept
refers to beliefs about one’s own abilities in academic domains (Costes et al., 2011).
The influence of teachers and educators on gender roles of their students immensely
impacts their educational outcomes as well as their roles in contemporary society.
Low commitment to teaching amongst teachers is a problem facing the teaching

profession in many countries. Gender might be an important factor in explaining what
kinds of prospective teachers are attracted to teaching. Research on commitment to
teaching shows inconclusive findings regarding gender aspects. In an international
review study by Guarino et al. (2006) it was reported that commitment, positive
attitudes to the teaching profession and intention to enter the teaching profession were
found to be higher among female teachers compared to male teachers. In their study of
Israeli pre-service and in-service teachers, Fresko et al. (1997) found higher levels of
job satisfaction and positive attitudes towards the profession among females compared
to males. Likewise, Maliki (2013) found that female student–teachers in Nigeria
showed more positive attitudes towards the teaching profession than males, and in
Belgium, more female than male student–teachers showed higher intentions to enter the
teaching profession after graduation (Rots et al. 2010). Nevertheless, Guarino et al.
(2006) identified higher attrition rates among female student–teachers as compared to
males; Ingersoll (2001) found that male teachers were less likely to depart than were
female teachers. In the USA, Mulkeen et al. (2007) found that female teachers were
less likely to work in remote areas than males in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Australia, Watt
et al. (2007) identified that gender was not a relevant factor for commitment to continue
46
in, or to leave, the teaching profession, while in Israel, Fresko et al. (1997) found that
gender was only indirectly related to commitment.
1.6 Need and Significance of the Study
The present study will be of much significance as it will contribute to the

knowledge concerning practical framework for understanding the combined influence
of role conflict and organizational climate on professional commitment of secondary
school teachers. Professional commitment is becoming an area of interest for many
educationists and organizational scientists and has acquired an independent status, but
a lot of research work is still needed to be done in this field. Though, a number of
research works have been conducted in the area of professional commitment, yet very
limited research work has been done regarding the combined effect of organizational
climate and role conflict on professional commitment of secondary school teachers in
India, as is substantiated by the review of related literature. The investigator found this
area very challenging because there is a wide scope of doing research work in this area
and that is why the investigator was interested to do her research in the area of
professional commitment. The work she proposes to undertake is related to the study
of the professional commitment of secondary school teachers in relation to
organizational climate, role conflict and gender.
We all know that the teacher are the most prominent persons in an educational
organization. Teachers are not only a students’ guiding lights but bring about a change
in the society at large. They agitate the mind of their students, explore their potential,
analyze it and reshape it for students so that they could use their potential to the
maximum. They are helpers in the process of not only what to think but how to think.
It is the teacher in which all aspects of education, knowledge, skills, understanding and
value are harmonized.
The teaching profession is a profession in which a teacher faces challenges on

a daily basis. So, teachers have to give their body and soul to this profession to
understand their students, solve their academic as well as social problems, and maintain
a healthy relationship with co- employees and the authorities, only then a school will
touch the new heights of success. Mohammadtaheri (2011) suggested that there should
be appropriate human relations between the employees and the authorities in every
organization so that they can establish mutual trust and willingness to perform their
47
duties. Students look upon their teachers for help and support but teachers who are not
entirely committed towards their profession can surely not do all the above functions.
The teachers who are zealous and passionate about their profession would
perform better, discharge all their duties well, get engaged with the students and their
problem areas and be ready to resolve them always. Hence, understanding the aspects
that would stimulate professional commitment of secondary school teachers is very
important. It would help policy makers, school managers and administrators to make
the climate of their organization conducive and vibrant, which is suitable for the
teachers and necessarily affects their professional commitment. Organization climate is
a medium for teachers to approach the work environment with a positive outlook.
Organizational climate is related with the teachers’ achievement, motivation,
satisfaction and performance. Raman et al. (2015) also confirmed that organizational
climate has a prime effect on the teachers’ conduct, behavior and their commitment.
Teachers would always perform better when they are in an environment that is secure,
comfortable and promising to them. Teachers’ motivation and commitment will
increase when they work in a secured and comfortable place. Similarly, a teacher
having role conflict can't be assumed to be professionally committed as role conflicts
give rise to many negative outcomes. Bako (2014) reported that the negative outcomes
of role conflict include tension; lack of confidence; a feeling of hopelessness; anxiety
and depression; decreased job satisfaction; distrust in the organization; ill relationship
with members of role set and superior officers; poor performance; which in turn affects
the organizations’ overall performance.
It is clear from the above discussion that role conflict among teachers is a factor
that may interact with professional commitment of teachers and with the organizational
climate prevailing in the organization. A link between three can easily be visualized.
However, without an empirical study, it can't be ascertained with any degree of
definiteness as to how the organizational climate of the school and role conflict among
teachers affect teachers' professional commitment. These necessitate undertaking some
research study in this area and enhance this study.
Thus, the investigator thinks that this study will be valuable for all concerned to
understand the condition of professional commitment of teachers of secondary schools
in relation to organizational climate, role conflict and gender. In the light of above, it
48
can be said that the present study is significant from the various educational angles.
That's why the investigator has decided to carry out this study to find out the
professional commitment of teachers in relation to the organizational climate of the
schools where they are working, role conflict and gender.
1.7 Statement of the Problem

More specifically the present study reads as:
“A STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL COMMITMENT OF SECONDARY

SCHOOL TEACHERS IN RELATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE,
ROLE CONFLICT AND GENDER”
1.8 Operational Definition of Technical Terms
Specific terms and words with regard to variables have been frequently used in
the title are defined as follows:
Professional commitment
Professional commitment of teachers used in the present study refers to a

mindset reflecting behavioral characteristics related to teaching- learning process,
showing strong acceptance of professional ethics, identifying with the profession and
showing willingness of professional development which will be measured through the
Professional Commitment Scale developed by Agrawal and Agarwal (2014) and
revised by the investigator, consisting of six dimensions namely: commitment to
learner, commitment to profession, commitment to society, commitment to institution,
commitment to professional development and commitment to professional ethics.
The score obtained by the respondent on the Scale taken as the index of
professional commitment in the present study.
Organizational Climate
Organizational climate used in the present study refers to the favorable and
unfavorable climate of organization which is individual’s perceptions of work
environment that distinguish one organization from another and influence the behavior
of its members which will be measured through the Organizational Climate Scale for
Teachers constructed and developed by Singh, 2015, consisting of four dimensions
49
namely: “leadership”, “organizational structures and design”, “interpersonal relations/

co-workers relations” and “member quality”.
The score obtained by the respondent on the Scale taken as the index of
organizational climate in the present study.
Role Conflict
Rizzo et al. (1970) described role conflict as the incompatibility of requirements

and expectations from the role. Role conflict occurs when individuals are faced with
incompatible or contradictory expectations by their superiors, or co-workers, or even
when these expectations contradict employees’ values, belief or goals.
Role conflict is described as a situation in which teachers are confronted with a

set of two or more demands such that compliance of one demand with the other
demands becomes difficult or impossible. In the present study, role conflict infers
work/planning implementation related conflict, school conflict, family conflict, social
conflict and personal conflict. The score obtained by the respondent on the Teacher’s
Role Conflict Scale developed by investigator taken as the index of role conflict.
Gender
According to Connell (2002), “Gender” is the social difference “between males’

and females’ roles or men’s and women’s personalities” (as cited in Smith, et al.,
p.316). Any significant difference in social and cultural traits that depends only on the
sex of individuals is called as gender difference. In this study, gender is the term used
for female and male secondary school teachers.
Secondary School Teachers
In this present study, secondary school teachers refer here to those permanent
teachers who teach 9th and 10th classes in aided secondary schools of Varanasi District
affiliated to U.P. Board Allahabad.
50
1.9 Objectives of the Study
The present study is undertaken with the following objectives;
1. To compare the professional commitment of secondary school teachers working

in different types of organizational climate.
2. To compare the professional commitment of secondary school teachers having

different levels of role conflict.
3. To compare the professional commitment of male and female secondary school

teachers.
4. To study the interaction effect of organizational climate and role conflict on

professional commitment of secondary school teachers.
5. To study the interaction effect of organizational climate and gender on

6. To study the interaction effect of role conflict and gender on professional

commitment of secondary school teachers.
1.10 Hypotheses of the Study
Corresponding to the objectives of the study the following hypotheses are

tentatively proposed;
1. There is a significant difference in the professional commitment of secondary

school teachers working in different types of organizational climate.
2. There is a significant difference in the professional commitment of secondary

school teachers having different levels of role conflict.
3. There is a significant difference in the professional commitment of male and

female secondary school teachers.
4. There is a significant interaction effect of organizational climate and role conflict

on the professional commitment of secondary school teachers.
5. There is a significant interaction effect of organization climate and gender on the

51
6. There is a significant interaction effect of role conflict and gender on professional

commitment of secondary school teachers.
1.11 Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations are boundaries of a study; an investigator has to delimit her study

with regard to different aspects such as variables, area, size of sample etc. due to
delimitation of time, energy and resources. Keeping in view all these things, the
investigator delimited the work as given below:
1. The present study is delimited to a sample of 270 secondary school teachers taken
only from aided secondary schools of Varanasi district affiliated to U.P. Board.
2. The study is delimited only to permanent teachers of these secondary schools.
3. The study is delimited to compare the professional commitment of secondary

school teachers in relation to organizational climate, role conflict and gender.
4. Only secondary school teachers have been covered as the subjects hence results
may not be generalized for all categories of teachers.
The following chapter deals with the review of literature in the concerned area.
52

09 Chapter1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

09 Chapter1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

09 Chapter1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1 The Problem and Its Background

Committed teachers are who related themselves with the teaching-related

Commitment is a word which is used to tell the characteristics of each other by

According to Skidmore (2007), professionally committed teachers are the ones

a) devoted to develop themselves for their profession by taking advanced degrees

The significance of teachers’ professional commitment is clear with this

1.2 Professional Commitment: An Overview

1.2.1 Concept and Definition of Profession and Professional

Profession can be defined as ‘a profession’ which requires specific studies and

A profession has some specificity. These are follows here;

i. A profession demands distinctive knowledge and an expanded practical

The National Education Association of the Institute on Professional and Public

i. Activities involving a profession are essentially cognition based.

Liberman (1956) in his monumental work “Education as Profession” in the

 A unique, definite and essential social service;

Almost all subsequent studies on ‘Profession’ is largely influenced by

Biswal (2006) also gave a detailed criterion of a profession and professional

According to Sen (2017), specific characteristics of a profession may be

i. A specific set of skills and knowledge is required for a profession.

A profession is characterized by a sufficiently long period of academic training,

So basically, A specific type of work or occupation which needs training or an

1.2.2 Concept and Definition of Commitment

The use of practice of the concept of ‘commitment’ increased in the context of

Commitment can be described as a cooperation in organizational direction

consequence of decisions. Commitment is a process and, in this process, any individual,

Generally, ‘commitment’ is used to see the level of cooperation of an individual

According to Robbins and Judge (2007), commitment towards an organization

In brief, ‘commitment’ is such a trait of honesty and devotion related

1.2.3 Types of Commitment

The social scientists have characterized some measures of commitment. Some

According to Kanter (1968) there are three analytically characterizable

1. Continuance Commitment: It means to participate in a system and continuing

From the above discussion, it can be said that commitment is a personalized

Allen and Meyer (1990) gave a three-component model of commitment. They

1. Affective Commitment (wants to stay): It refers to the employee’s attachment

Dannetta (2002) has divided teaching commitment in three types. First,

NCTE (1998) gave five commitment areas to a teacher. These are-

1. Commitment to the Learner including affectionate towards the learner, always

2. Commitment to the Society- Works to make the families, community and

3. Commitment to Achieve Excellence- Teachers should make the best possible

5. Commitment to the Profession- Teachers should accept the role and

According to Agrawal (2014), there are many aspects of teacher’s commitment

2. Commitment to the work/profession: Internal acceptance of the role and

1.2.4 Concept and Definition of Professional Commitment

Vandenberg & Scarpello (1994) have defined ‘Professional Commitment’ as

According to Ferris and Aranya (1983), professional commitment may be

So, professional commitment can be understood as being loyal towards a

1.2.5 Teaching as a Profession

According to Good (1973), professionalism in teaching is defined as the concern

Teaching is now being considered as a modern profession. Teaching as an

There are certain conditions which teaching fulfills that support it as a

1. Effective teaching requires careful skills and understanding. It is essentially an

3. Its tendency is of self-organized and by self-organized means individuals

Teaching is a profession which is considered as the mother of all professions.

by developed cognitive skills, shaped up personalities and characters modified or not

The soundness of a profession is directly dependent upon the level of

1.2.6 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Professional Commitment

A teacher has to have a high level of commitment to be effective because to

Teachers need to modify, improve and strengthen their professional activities