MGGL-001

Indira Gandhi National Open University

CARTOGRAPHY
School of Sciences

Vol

1
BLOCK 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY

BLOCK 2
THEMATIC MAPPING
 MGGL-001

Indira Gandhi National Open University

CARTOGRAPHY
School of Sciences

BLOCK

1
FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO CARTOGRAPHY
Exercise 1: Construction of Map Scales - Plain and Comparative
Exercise 2: Construction of Map Scales - Diagonal

UNIT 2
MAP PROJECTIONS
Exercise 3: Construction of Map Projection – Cylindrical
Exercise 4: Construction of Map Projection – Zenithal
Exercise 5: Construction of Map Projection – Conical

UNIT 3
MAPS

UNIT 4
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS

GLOSSARY
Programme Design Committee

Prof. K. R. Dikshit Prof. K. Kumaraswamy Prof. Subhakanta Mohapatra

Retd. Professor in Geography, Retd. Professor in Geography Discipline of Geography,
University of Pune, Bharathidasan University, School of Sciences,
Pune, Maharashtra Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Gopal Krishan Prof. Sachidanand Sinha Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Emeritus Professor in Geography, Centre for the Study of Regional Discipline of Geography,
Panjab University, Chandigarh, Development, Jawaharlal Nehru School of Sciences,
Punjab University, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. Nina Singh Dr. Satya Raj
Retd. Professor in Geography, Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Maharshi Dayanand University, School of Sciences,
Rajasthan Rohtak, Haryana IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Harjit Singh Prof. Debendra Kumar Nayak Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Centre for the Study of Regional Department of Geography, Discipline of Geography,
Development, Jawaharlal Nehru North-Eastern Hill University, School of Sciences,
University, New Delhi Shillong, Meghalaya IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. S. Padmaja Prof. M. S. Nathawat Dr. Vishal Warpa
Retd. Professor in Geography Former Director, Discipline of Discipline of Geography,
Osmania University, Hyderabad Geography, School of Sciences, School of Sciences,
Telangana IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Design Committee

Prof. H. S. Sharma Prof. M. C. Sharma Faculty of Geography Discipline
Retd. Professor, Dept. of Centre for the Study of Regional
Prof. M. S. Nathawat (Retd.)
Geography, University of Development, Jawaharlal Nehru
Prof. S Mohapatra
Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan University, New Delhi
Prof. V.K. Baraik
Prof. G.K. Panda Dr. S. Raj
Retd. Professor, Department of Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao
Geography, Utkal University, Dr. V. Warpa
Bhubneswar, Odisha

Programme Coordinators: Dr. S. Raj, Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao, & Dr. V. Warpa
Block Preparation Team
Course Contributors
Dr. Ramashay Prasad (Unit 1) Dr. Rameshwar Thakur (Unit 2 & 3)
Associate Professor Associate Professor (Retd.)
Department of Geography Department of Geography
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College,
University of Delhi, Delhi University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao (Unit 2, 5 & 6) Dr. Krishna Kumar (Unit 4)
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences, Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences,
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik (Unit 7) Prof. K. N. Prudhvi Raju (Unit 5 & 6)
Professor Retd. Professor
Discipline of Geography, School of Sciences, Department of Geography
IGNOU, New Delhi Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Content Editor

Prof. Anupam Pandey (Block 1) Prof. Ashis Sarkar (Block 2)

Department of Geography Retd. Professor
Allahabad University Department of Geography
Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh Presidency University, Kolkata, West Bengal

Transformation and Wetting (Vol. I) - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao, Assistant

Professor (Stage III), Geography Discipline, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

Course Coordinators - Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao & Dr. Vishal Warpa

Print Production

Sh. Rajiv Girdhar Sh. Hemant Parida

A.R., MPDD, IGNOU S.O., MPDD, IGNOU
Acknowledgements: Mr. Anil Kumar for word processing. Should any infringement have occurred, the publishers
and editors apologize and will be pleased to make the necessary corrections in future editions of this book.
Photographs/diagrams/maps/drawings and other academic materials and text used in this course for academic
purposes are gratefully acknowledged and credited. Special thanks to Survey of India and India Meteorological
Department for providing toposheets and other related maps.
Cover page designed by Dr. Koppisetti Nageswara Rao.

July, 2023
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2023
ISBN-
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on behalf of
Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi. Printed at:
COURSE INTRODUCTION: CARTOGRAPHY
The art and science of map-making is known as cartography. It forms the backbone of
geography subject by lending it an effective means of visual expression. Various scientific
disciplines of knowledge like geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, geographic
information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), mathematics and statistics, etc.
provide the sound underpinnings for the practice of cartography. Cartography-MGGL 001 is a
Laboratory Course of First Semester. It is an integrated part of the theoretical components dealt
in different units of this course. It consists of 04 blocks. The aim of this course is to introduce the
learners to the fundamentals of cartography, thematic mapping, data models, along with map
design and output. This course comprises of 26 Laboratory Exercises, with solutions. These
exercises are mainly based and related to the contents already explained in respective units.
You are required to complete all the exercises given in the Geography Laboratory book and
submit the same to the Academic Counsellor in your study centre. It is expected that after the
completion of these exercises, you will gain hands-on experience and skills for reading,
constructing and solving various aspects of geographical inquiry related to this laboratory
course. The mesh of theory embedded with practical exercises will definitely help in training the
post-graduate learners and acquisition of critical skills to obtain a competitive edge in the
processional world.

This course is printed in two volumes. Volume-1 consists of first two blocks namely: Block 1:
Fundamentals of Cartography and Block 2: Thematic Mapping; and the other two blocks
namely: Block 3: Data Models and Block 4: Map Design and Output are printed in Volume-2.

Cartography encompasses a wide range of geographical dimensions, from mapping and

representation of Earth’s features to data analysis and presentation. The history of cartography
may be traced back to the ancient and classical periods of Greek and Roman scientists and
thinkers.

Block 1 is divided in to 04 Units covering with 05 Exercises. The history and development of
cartography, scope, and representing the Earth are discussed. You will also learn about types,
classification and significance of maps and maps projections along with development trends in
cartography in this block. Exercise 1 and 2 deals with the map scales which consist of plain,
comparative, and diagonal. The next three exercises are dealing with the construction of
cylindrical projections (Exercise 3), zenithal projections (Exercise 4) and conical projections
(Exercise 5).

Block 2 describes the thematic mapping. It has 03 Units dealing with 11 Exercises. Landforms
identification and mapping along with drainage analysis are explained under terrain elements,
land use and land cover classification and mapping, and representation of socio-economic data
in details under Block 2. We have developed a total of 11 Exercises namely Exercise 6:
Landform Mapping, Exercise 7: Geovisualization, Exercise 8: Drainage Analysis (Linear),
Exercise 9: Drainage Analysis (Aerial), Exercise 10: Drainage Analysis (Relief), Exercise 11:
Analogue (LULC Classification), Exercise 12: Digital (LULC Classification), Exercise 13:
Change Detection (LULC Classification), Exercise 14: Data Processing, Exercise 15: Maps and
Diagrams, and Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps under this Block 2.
Volume-2 includes two blocks: Block 3 deals with Data Models and Block 4 deals with Map
Design and Output. Block 3 contains 03 Units, with 09 Exercises (from 17 to 25) in total. It deals
with regional analysis and characterization, spatial data models, along with applications. All the
nine Exercises are discussed with solutions on diverse themes of data models of contemporary
importance. These themes are differentiation through patterns, terrain pattern and facets,
synthesis, slope processes, soil erosion, weather map reading and interpretation, land surface
temperature, flood hazard, and landslides hazard.

Block 4 consists of 03 Units, with 01 Exercise (Exercise 26) only. This last Block deals with
basics of design, map composition, and symbolization. In this Exercise, a very important and
core theme of map design and output has been discussed i.e., layout preparation of physical
and social aspects.

DAY Session 1 Session 2

1. Exercise 1: Construction of Map Scales: Exercise 2: Construction of Map Scales:
Plain and Comparative Diagonal
2. Exercise 3 : Construction of Cylindrical Exercise 4 : Construction of Zenithal
Projections Projections
3. Exercise 5 : Construction of Conical Exercise 6: Landform Mapping
Projections
4. Exercise 7: Geovisualization Exercise 8: Drainage Analysis (Linear)
5. Exercise 9: Drainage Analysis (Aerial) Exercise 10: Drainage Analysis (Relief)
6. Exercise 11: Analogue (LULC Exercise 12: Digital (LULC Classification)
Classification)
7. Exercise 13: Change Detection (LULC Exercise 14: Data Processing
Classification)
8. Exercise 15: Maps and Diagrams Exercise 16: Single and Composite Maps
9. Exercise 17: Differentiation through Exercise 18: Terrain Pattern and Facets
Patterns
10. Exercise 19: Synthesis Exercise 20: Slope Processes
11. Exercise 21: Soil Erosion Exercise 22: Weather Map Reading and
Interpretation
12. Exercise 23: Land Surface Temperature Exercise 24: Flood Hazard
13. Exercise 25: Landslides Hazard Exercise 26: Layout Preparation of
Physical and Social Aspects
14. Evaluation and Viva-Voce

We hope that after studying and performing the exercises of this course, you will acquire the
practical knowledge and skills to identify, draw and interpret various themes and sub-themes of
geographical inquiry and will also be able to construct different types of map projections,
statistical diagrams and thematic maps. The skills which you would acquire in this course would
not only help to learn the basics of cartography and highlight different types of problems but also
visualize the same through the art and science of cartography for holistic solutions.
Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour always.
We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: [email protected]
and [email protected]
MGGL-002: CARTOGRAPHY
VOLUME - 1
BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY

Unit 1 Introduction to Cartography

Exercise 1: Construction of Map Scales - Plain and Comparative
Exercise 2: Construction of Map Scales – Diagonal

Unit 2 Map Projections

Exercise 3: Construction of Map Projection – Cylindrical
Exercise 4: Construction of Map Projection – Zenithal
Exercise 5: Construction of Map Projection – Conical

Unit 3 Maps

Unit 4 Development Trends

BLOCK 2 THEMATIC MAPPING

Unit 5 Terrain Elements

Exercise 6: Landform Mapping
Exercise 7: Geo-Visualization
Exercise 8: Drainage Basin Analysis – Linear
Exercise 9: Drainage Basin Analysis – Areal
Exercise 10: Drainage Basin Analysis – Relief

Unit 6 Land Use and Land Cover

Exercise 11: Analogue
Exercise 12: Digital
Exercise 13: Change Detection

Unit 7 Representing Socio-Economic Data

Exercise 14: Data Processing
Exercise 15: Maps and Diagrams
Exercise 16: Single and Composite
BLOCK 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF CARTOGRAPHY
This block introduces you to fundamentals of cartography dealing with introduction to
cartography, map projections, maps and development trends in cartography in four units. A total
of five laboratory exercises namely Exercise 1: Construction of plain and comparative map
scales, Exercise 2: Construction of diagonal scale, Exercise 3: Cylindrical map projections,
Exercise 4: Zenithal map projections and Exercise 5: Conical map projections and are also
introduced for enhancing the learner skills in understanding map making process.

Unit 1: Introduction to Cartography

This unit explains history and development of cartography, cognition and communication, Earth
as a cartographic problem and representation of the Earth by scales and contents. The two
exercises such as Exercise 1: Construction of plain and comparative map scales and Exercise
2: Construction of diagonal scale given at the end of this unit for providing hands on experience
to carry out them in the laboratory.

Unit 2: Map Projections

The Earth has three dimensions. Map projection is the mathematical translation of Earth's three-
dimensional surface into a two-dimensional plane on a map. In this unit, we discussed map
projections and their qualities, as well as their classification and significance. To help learners
enhance their map projection skills, we offered three types of projections through laboratory
exercises (Ex-3 to 5): cylindrical, zenithal, and conical.

Unit 3: Maps

This Unit describes Maps. We explained definition and meaning of maps, history of maps, types
and their significance. A map is an essential tool in geography. It is a scaled-down visual
depiction of the entire or a portion of the Earth on a planar surface.

Unit 4: Development Trends

With the rising availability of new data sources, such as remote sensing and social media, new
mapping approaches and tools have emerged. The capacity to handle and analyse massive
volumes of data has resulted in the creation of new mapping techniques capable of identifying
patterns, trends, and anomalies. Cartographers have been able to develop maps that give
useful insights into complicated social, economic, and environmental challenges as a result of
this. As a result, maps that are more dynamic, interactive, and tailored to the requirements of
individual users may be developed. All of these cartographic development trends are discussed
in Unit 4.

We hope after studying this block, you will better understand the fundamentals of cartography
by studying development of subject of cartography, basic concepts of maps, representation
methods of map scales, map projections, and development trends in the subject of cartography.
Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour.

We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact at: [email protected]
and [email protected]
 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO
CARTOGRAPHY
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.6 Laboratory Exercises
Expected Learning Outcomes Exercise 1: Construction of Map
1.2 History and Development of Scale-Plain and Comparative
Cartography Exercise 2: Construction of Map
1.3 Cognition and Scale-Diagonal
Communication 1.7 Summary
1.4 Earth as a Cartographic 1.8 Answers
Challenge 1.9 References and Further
1.5 Representing the Earth: Reading
Scales and Contents

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Cartography is both art as well as science of map making. Its initial
development could very well be traced from the walls of caves made by our
ancestors in prehistoric times. The drawings were crude in form, but very
important and useful for them to understand the surroundings. It was basically
presentation of observed things and their distribution in their vicinity. Later on,
it was made on the skins of animals they were using or the nearby big trees.
Its progression has a long history. It has marched from crude sketches to very
precise presentation of Earth’s surface as well as celestial bodies with
application of scientific knowledge that we have acquired over time. Hence,
the journey of cartography has been a changing affair based on the scientific
developments during different phases.

All of you have read books on Geography during your school and graduation
days. Everyone has studied maps through books and atlas. But have you
ever thought as to how those maps are made? In your higher classes, you
also studied about the cartography which was a part of practical paper in
Geography. This unit will introduce you to some essential aspects of
cartography, especially about its nature, scope, and historical development.
This unit will also help you in learning about the cartographic challenges
primarily due to the shape of the Earth. Earth is geoid in shape and accurately
Ramashay Prasad 11
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

transferring the curved 3D Earth on a 2D surface has a problem which is a

prime concern to discuss in this unit. Its transformation is done on certain
proportion known as scale that is also dealt here along with a discussion on
how it could be developed.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Define cartography;
 Explain the nature and scope of cartography;
 Discuss the evolution and development of cartography in historical
perspective;
 Elaborate the cartographic challenges in mapping the Earth; and
 Construct the scale of map by doing the given exercises.

1.2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF

CARTOGRAPHY
What is Cartography?

Under cartography, map making activity is associated with several

techniques, ideas, aspects and used technology. Many of them have changed
and supposed to further change with advancing technologies. Hence, it is
very difficult to give one universal definition of cartography.

According to International Cartographic Union, “Cartography is a discipline

dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps.”

According to J. Smith, “Cartography is the science of constructing maps and

charts. It includes the making of original surveys, the selection of suitable map
projection and decisions on colours, layer tinting and other visual
representations”.

The Britannica Encyclopaedia explains cartography as an ancient discipline

that dates from the prehistoric depiction and delineation of hunting and fishing
territories. It defines “Cartography as the art and science of graphically
representing a geographical area, usually on a flat surface such as a map or
chart.”

Overall, cartography is the associated with representation of the surface of

Earth or celestial bodies on certain ratio/scale. It involves preparing maps,
charts, models or globes and their designing, formatting, symbolizing, editing
and ultimately finalizing them for better visual understanding of the space.

Nature of Cartography

The nature of cartography is concerned with knowledge and awareness of our

surrounding in prehistoric days to the entire Earth and universe today. It was
drawing on the walls of the caves in those days to a complex system of
mathematical computerised modelling today.

12
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

It is mentioned above, cartography is the art and science of representing

space on a smaller size on certain scale. Hence, its nature is to acquire
information of selected space. All qualitative and quantitative data are
represented so that one can have a visual conceptualization of the area. With
advancement of knowledge and technologies, now, it is comparatively easy to
get the information about the space in a short possible time. Apart from our
conventional surveying techniques, geographical information system (GIS)
has played a very important role in acquiring information and helping in
preparing visual illustrations. Finally, before releasing the map for common
people, researcher and cartographer used to get the details on the maps
verified and confirmed from the real field.

To represent this information, we need to have an areal true demonstrating

boundary which is prepared using different projections. Map projections are
prepared with the help of physics, mathematics and geometry. Preparing
maps as well as showing information on it is an art. In other words,
cartography is a combination of physics, geometry, mathematics, geography,
geodesy, surveying, engineering, technology and mental visualisation and
presentation of facts. Hence, it is an interdisciplinary subject.

Advancement in space technology, remote sensing, GIS, global positioning

system along with sophisticated computer-based software have enhanced the
capability of cartographer. The much older survey and manual-based tasks
have now become almost automated.

Scope of Cartography

There is extensive use and scope of cartography in our knowledge and

research domain. It has increased immensely with time and fulfilling ability of
requirement by technological development. Primarily, cartography includes
everything pertaining to map making. It encompasses the skill of data
collection, compilation tabulation, storing, map preparation, overlaying,
analysis, ascertaining relationships, and arriving at conclusions. The scale of
study may differ from a minute study area to a large global one. For example,
cadastral map or a drawing of your own house plan for construction at smaller
spatial unit to the world map. Maps are reduced representation of the Earth or
celestial bodies prepared with certain theme and objective.

The maps can be either of the two aspects – physical or cultural – of present
or past. The physical maps are those which represents natural phenomenon
like physiography, geomorphology, geology, soils, forests, rivers and water
bodies, etc. The cultural maps are those which show the distribution of
landscape modified by human activities. Like maps showing land use, area
under several crops and plantation, roads, railways, settlement, dams and
reservoir etc. are cultural in character. Demarcation of the Earth surface on a
piece of paper is very complex process. It happens so because of the shape
and dimensions of the Earth. For this purpose, we need to use map projection
depending on the areal expansion and the purpose of representing any
aspect on the map. It includes both 2D or 3D representation of the surface.

Let us now discuss the history of cartography in three major periods.

13
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.2.1 History of Cartography
The history of raw cartography in the form of sketches of surroundings on the
walls of caves started in prehistoric time. Those people must have required to
know their surroundings to fulfil their day-to-day needs. In that way, they
developed the skill of drawing primitive sketches and charts. The oldest
known map made on clay dates back to about 2300BC, about 4300 years
before present time. It was discovered in the ruined city of Ga-Sur,
approximately 300 km north from Babylon. Later on, Ptolemy depicted the
world map between 30 degree south to 60 degree north and created a
landmark. Many of the Kings prepared maps of their jurisdiction for the
collection of taxes.

The advanced cartography emerged during First World War when aerial
photography was introduced. It helped in preparing accurate and precise
maps. Modern cartography started during 1970s and 1980s. It marked the
period of introduction of automation. Due to this, data storing and map making
became comparatively easy. The development of technology has increased
the pace of map making and producing and still improving exponentially.

The Ancient Period (upto 600AD)

Since prehistoric period, people have been using to draw sketches of their
surroundings and conveying others that what are available nearby. These
were made on cave walls, animals’ skin, trees, tree leaves, clothes and later
on papers. Further afterwards, it was engraved on metallic plates. It was
presented by Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks in comparatively improved
versions. In fact, Greek scholars started working on modern cartography.
Some of the important names are Aristotle, Anaximander, Hecateus,
Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Ptolemy etc. They considered the
Earth to be spheroid in shape. They were the pioneers’ of developing modern
cartography.

Ancient Romans are known for preparing Peutinger Map showing the physical
features and road network under Roman Empire (Fig. 1.1). In India, the
cartographic roots go back to Vedic Period (1500 to 500 BC) and ancient
period. Many of the scholars like Aryabhatta, Varahmihira, Bhaskara, etc.,
conducted astronomical studies and mapped their observations. The
important discoveries like the rotation of the Earth and calculation of Earth’s
circumference are other major contributions.

The Medieval Period (600 to 1500 AD)

The term cartography was used for the first time during this period of its
history. It is derived from two French terms – Charte (map) and Graphie
(writing) coined in 1839 by Purtuguese scholar Viscount de Santarem. Copper
plate was made and printing technology was developed by this time. Hence,
map making and its prseservation was popularised. The multiple copies of the
same was easily done compared to the earlier manual making. Precision and
accuracy enhanced substantially during this period.

14
Unit - 1 Introduction to Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 1.1: Peutinger Map (Map of Roman Empire)

(Source:http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s/roman300s.html)

This was the period of description and exploration of the world. Various
voyagers travelled across the world and thus their travelogues helped in
synthesizing their routes and world map. It is considered to be the
‘Renaissance Period of Cartography’.This period witnessed important
development due to the advancements in mathematical geography by Arab
Geographers. It was the era of great travelers like Columbus, Marco Polo,
Magellan, Darke, etc., and their contributions in the preparation of maps of
various explored lands.

The Modern Period (1500 AD onwards)

Various surveying and navigational instruments were invented by this time.

Plane Table and Theodolite surveying and map making instruments played
vital role in preparing maps. Many of the countries and continents were known
to people through voyages by this time. Cylindrical orthomorphic Mercator’s
projection in 1569 was a landmark achievement in mapping the world (Fig.
1.2). It was the era of surveying, data acquisition, storing and map making.
Initially, it was manual preparation and then reproduction through printing. In
the beginning, it started within the developed world and subsequently it
spread worldwide. After World War I, introduction of aerial photography gave
impetus to map making in a big way. Mapping of topography with precision
resulted into quick map delivery. Inaccessible area was easily surveyed and
supervised remotely. It led to increased momentum in preparing maps.

The development of fast computing, plotting and printing technology have

made mapping easier and affordable. Application of modern-day technology
like aircraft/drone photography, remote sensing, Geographical Information
Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Electronic Total Station
(ETS) along with computer and appropriate software have revolutionized
cartographic analysis. They have made the possibility of mapping the Earth
on almost real time basis. The details of information on image depend on the
spatial resolution. Temporal analysis depends on the repetivity of data
collected. Together they help in finding associations among various factors
and ascertaining the cause-and-effect relationship.
15
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 1.2: Mercator’s World Map, 1569.

(Source: https://dl0.creation.com/articles/p121/c12138/Mercators-original-1569-map.jpg)

The availability of very high-resolution satellite data in various forms like

multispectral stereo data (IKONOS, QuickkBird, OrbView, Cartosat), Light
Detection Ranging (LIDAR) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
give information at very-very high resolution at much faster rate with 2D and
3D surfaces that makes, very high photo quality large scale mapping possible.
Moving in unknown areas by using application-based maps in our computer
and mobile guide us to reach our destination. Knowingly or unknowingly, we
are using mapping and cartography in our day-to-day life.

Chronology of Indian Cartography

Maurya Period: Kautilya’s Arthashastra (about 300 years BC) mentions

about revenue collection from productive land in its empire which signify the
known land to the king.

Shukra Niti: Shukra Niti is supposed to be written around 3rd or 4th century
AD mentions about revenue collection from cultivated land.

Survey of India: It was established in 1767 as a central agency with aim for
surveying and mapping. The same aim continues even today.

Geological Survey of India: It was set up in 1851 primarily to explore coal

for the railways. Now, its aim is to carry out geological studies and mapping of
the same.

Indian Marine Survey: It was established in 1874 with the aim to estimate
and map the damage caused along the sea coast. It was renamed as
National Hydrographic Office in 1997.

16
Unit - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Introduction to Cartography

India Meteorological Department: It was established in 1875 to study and

report to the government about the weather conditions in the country.

Botanical Survey of India: It was set up in 1890 with an aim to explore plant
resources of the country for better mapping and utilization of the same.

Zoological Survey of India: It was launched in 1916 to promote survey,

exploration and research to know the flora and fauna.

Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation Commission (now Central

Water Commission): It came into existence in 1945 with the aim to evaluate
multipurpose projects, collect, publish and compile hydrological data.

All India Soil and Land Use Survey: It was set up in 1958 to provide
detailed scientific database on soil and land characteristics.

Town and Country Planning: It was established in 1962 for formulating

policies, programmes and strategies for urban development in the country.

Indian Institute of Remote Sensing: It was established in 1966 for research

in higher education and training in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics
and GPS technology.

Indian Space Research Organisation: It was established in 1969 to

harness, sustain and augment space technology for national development as
well as pursue space research and planetary exploration.

Central Ground Water Board: It was set up in 1970 to provide scientific

inputs for management, exploration, monitoring, and assessment of ground
water resources.

National Remote Sensing Agency: It was established in 1974 with an

objective of undertaking and facilitating remote sensing activities in the
country.

Central Pollution Control Board: It was prevention constituted in 1974 for

advising the central and state government on matters related to prevention,
improvement and control of air and water pollution.

National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation: It established was in

1978 to shoulder the responsibility in the field of thematic cartography and
geographical research.

Forest Survey of India: It came into existence in 1981 to prepare and

provide assessment of latest forest cover in the country.

Cartosat 1, 2 and 3: Cartosat is Indian Remote Sensing Satellite capable of

providing high resolution image of Earth surface. So far, its series 1, 2 and 3
has been launched in 2005, 2008 and 2019, respectively.

SAQ 1
a) What is cartography?
b) Name the major periods identified as development of cartography.

17
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

c) Which of the following organisations was established in 1978?

(i) Town and Country Planning
(ii) Indian Space Research Organisation
(iii) National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation
(iv) Survey of India

1.3 COGNITION AND COMMUNICATION

In a simple term, cognition refers to understanding and visualising something.
Communication is the conveying of idea to someone else. In this context, map
cognition is the understanding of any event pertaining to some area or any
concept with regard to any set of data. When the same is conveyed to
someone else in a meaningful way through maps or diagrams, that is called
map communication. In another words, it is basically designing of map or
diagram and presenting the information through them.

A psychologist, Edward Tolman, for the first time explained in 1948 that
human construct map-like representations in the brain. It is basically a mental
representation which facilitate spatial learning, thinking and translation of the
same in the form of map. In other words, it is a spatial cognition. Whatever we
see or visualise or analyse the spatial data in our mind, the same is finally
shown by spatial organised phenomena in the form of map. Final presentation
is equivalent to communication cognized in our minds.

With the advent of new advanced technology, the whole lot of changes have
taken place. In conventional methods, cartographers used to design the map,
decide map drawing, fonts, symbols, signs, graphics, presentation etc. and
finally prepare the map and distribute the same to the reader/user/consumer
(passive) along with interpretation. It was the initial map communication
methods. The modern map communication method adds readers/ user/
consumer as an active player with several permutations and combinations.
They can change the variables and establish the relationships once the soft
files are created in GIS environment. Therefore, new technology has added
an important dimension in map cognition and its visualisation.

SAQ 2
Differentiate between cognition and communication.

1.4 EARTH AS A CARTOGRAPHIC

CHALLENGE
The biggest cartographic challenge is to prepare a base map for presentation
of information pertaining to the concerned area. Here, the reference is about
the Earth. Earth is not flat but it has curved surface. Curvature bearing
characteristics of Earth is a challenge for the surveyor/cartographer to
prepare a two-dimensional map without any distortion. Take an example of a
coconut and consider it to be the “Earth”. Can the shell of coconut be
flattened the way your books or notebooks are there? No, that is not possible
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because of the curvature of the shape. Cutting and breaking of the coconut
shell is not so easy. Can football which is soft be flattened like your notebook
by cutting with knife without any compromise? Your answer will be “NO”. It is
all due to curved surface (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3: Big Challenge to Represent on Two-Dimensional Surface.

1.4.1 Earth as a Sphere

Sphere is a geometrical feature. It is defined as a three-dimensional object of
which all points on its surface are equidistant from its centre. This distance
from the surface of the sphere to its centre is known as radius. When two radii
are in straight direction, the complete length is termed as diameter. It passes
through the centre of the Earth. The two end-points of diameter A and B (Fig.
1.4) is referred as antipodes. They are 180 degrees apart on the Earth’s
circumference.

Fig. 1.4: Earth as a Sphere.

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In ancient times, it was believed that Earth is flat and universe is Earth centric.
All celestial bodies rotate around the Earth. With passage of time, the origin of
solar system as well as universe were known to us. Around 500BC,
Pythagoras mentioned that the Earth is spherical in shape. But for the first
time, Eratosthenes (240BC) calculated the circumference of the Earth which
comes close to our modern calculation. For this purpose, he studied the
angles of sun rays at Syene (known as Aswan today) and Alexandria, both in
Egypt. Syene is near to Tropic of Cancer. He found that the sun is vertical at
noon on summer solstice and there was no shadow on the wall of the well. On
the same day, a tall tower was casting a shadow of 7º 12' at noon at
Alexandria (Fig. 1.5). Alexandria is925 km (5000 stadia) away in northerly
direction from Syene. Eratosthenes divided 360º by 7º 12'and found it to be
50. In another words, the distance between these two places (925 km; 1
stadia=0.185 km) is 1/50th of the circumference of the Earth. So, he multiplied
925 by 50 and got 46250 km. It is the circumference of the Earth. His unit of
computing more than 2250 years before from now was not very precise, but
still, it is very near to the actual one computed by modern methods– about
40075 km.

Fig. 1.5: Measurement of Earth’s Dimension by Eratosthenes.

With further advancement of our knowledge in the field of science and

mathematics, it was found that is Earth is not like a perfect sphere. Since the
radius of the Earth from poles is smaller than that of the equatorial, the shape
of the Earth was described as ellipsoid.

1.4.2 Earth as a Ellipsoid

The concept of sphere is based on the circular shape a body. Circle and
sphere are geometrical shape with complete uniformity and smoothness.
Later on, we came to know fact that the radius of the Earth from pole and
equator is not equal. Equatorial radius is 6378.1 km whereas that of polar is
6356.8 km. Hence, this shape is termed as ellipsoid. An ellipse is oval in
shape and it is explained by two radii. The longer radius (equatorial ‘a’) is

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called as semi-major axis and the shorter radius (polar ‘b’) is termed as semi-
minor axis.

The amount of polar flattening is determined by the ratio, F = (a-b)/a. The

ellipse is a two-dimensional feature. If the ellipsoid is rotated along ‘b’
axis(semi-minor axis), an ellipsoid is created (Fig 1.6).

Fig. 1.6: Circle, Ellipse and Ellipsoid.

The equatorial radius is bigger than the polar radius. It happens due to long
term effects of Earth’s rotation and centrifugal force. Earth is spinning with
higher velocity at equator than higher latitudes. That is why, equatorial bulges
is higher. The same reason is applicable for flattening at the poles where
effective velocity is very low. We know that our surrounding is not as smooth
as a geometrical shape we have read in our science and geometry books.
The surface is irregular with lots of ups and downs in the altitude. Varying
relief is found in our own observations from our surroundings. It becomes
more apparent when we compare different land features like mountain,
plateau and plain. Therefore, the shape of the Earth is said to be geoid which
includes every sort of irregularities found on the surface.

1.4.3 Earth as a Geoid

Geoid refers to an imagined sea level surface that is wavy or irregular in
character that correlates with the Earth's gravitational field. Generally, it
matches with sea level. Since the gravity of the Earth is towards the centre of
the Earth, the gravity field is always perpendicular to it. The variations in size,
shape and rock mass distribution of the Earth cause slight variation of gravity.
Hence, the line of geoid and ellipsoid differ from each other (Fig. 1.7).These
variations control the shape of the water bodies of the Earth. In the absence
of relief on the Earth’s surface, there would be complete conformity and
similarity between geoid and spheroid. As mentioned above, the centrifugal
force is greater on/nearby equator while the gravitational force is
comparatively less. Contrary to it, at poles/nearby, the gravity is relatively
more in comparison to that at the equator. The gravitational pull is about half
percent less at equator than that at poles.

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Fig. 1.7: Earth as a Geoid.

(Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png)

1.4.4 Earth’s Rotation and Time

We know that the Earth rotates once in every 24 hours on its axis. One
rotation is equal to 360º. If we divide 360º by 24 hours, it comes to 15º in one
hour. In one hour, there are 60 minutes. 60 when divided by 15 is equal to 4
minutes. That means, one degree of angular distance is covered in 4 minutes
through rotation. Since the equatorial circumference of the Earth is around
40075 km, its one rotation takes 24 hours. Therefore, its velocity is around
1670 km per hour. The length of 60º north or south latitude is approximately
half of the equatorial length. The 60º latitude also completes its rotation in 24
hours, hence the velocity along this latitude is half of the equatorial velocity.
The velocity is reduced to 660 km per hour along Arctic or Antarctic circle.

The date and time of any country is determined by the appearance of the
Sun. For this purpose, a standard meridian/longitude is decided. Its decision
is taken on the basis meridian passing through the middle of the country. But
that must be divisible completely by 7º and 30'. If it is not divisible, any other
meridian is selected which is nearby the central meridian. Based on it, the
standard time of the country is determined. Many countries with large east
west extension have more than one time zone. The determination of date and
time is done from International Date Line. Eastern located places have time
ahead in comparison to the western location. As mentioned above, their time
is ahead or behind by 4 minutes per degree of longitude.

SAQ 3
a) What is geoid?
b) In an hour, Earth rotates how many degrees of angular distance?

1.5 REPRESENTING THE EARTH: SCALES

AND CONTENT
The representation of the Earth surface on paper is based on certain
proportion. That proportion is called scale of the map. Map scale is defined as
“relationship between a distance on map and the corresponding distance on
the Earth”. For this, identify any two distinct points/places on the map as well

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as the same on the ground. Measure both distances – map (in centimetre)
and ground (in km). Get the ratio between the same. It becomes the scale of
that map. It is expressed as:

When any map is prepared, it occupies certain area. That area represents the
same of which map is prepared. Hence, there is a fixed ratio between the two.
It is done so, because the real area is much bigger than the paper, we do
have to draw map. Area represented may be very small like your village/town,
tehsil, district, state country or entire Earth. On the same piece of paper, a
world map may be drawn. On the basis of these facts, it is quite obvious that
details of information included on the map and the area incorporated have
certain limits. Hence, three factors are there to take into account for the same:

 The size of area to be represented.

 The size of the paper available.

 The details to be shown on the map.

Based on these three points, two types of maps could be prepared. They are
(a) small scale maps and (b) large scale maps.

(a) Small Scale Maps are those maps on which only less details are shown
because of the larger areal coverage. Since, area is very big and paper
is small, more details presentation has a big hurdle. It is not possible to
show many details. Atlas maps or maps given in your books are
examples of small-scale maps.

(b) Large Scale Maps are those maps in which areal coverage is small and
it is possible to show more details. Therefore, most of the important
features are shown on this type of map. A cadastral map or topographic
maps are examples of large-scale map.

Both large and small maps are subjective and comparative which is
ascertained on the basis of details available and areal coverage. For
example, in general a wall map has greater details in comparison to atlas
map. But if you compare the wall map with topographic map, the reverse is
the case. Topographic map has very large details than the wall map.
Topographic map becomes small scale map with reference to cadastral map
because cadastral map has comparatively more details than topographic
map. So, between these two, topographic map is small-scale map and
cadastral map is large-scale map. When you compare your house plan map
and cadastral map, the situation changes completely. Between these two,
cadastral map is small-scale map while your house plan map is large scale
map. Example of cadastral map is shown at Fig. 1.8.

You must be very well aware that the increase in the ground distance
decrease the characteristics of the scale of the map. That means, the map is
said to be of small scale. When the ground distance is decreased, the scale of

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the map is said to be of large scale. Therefore, there is a negative relationship

between the map distance and the scale of the map.

Fig.1.8: Cadastral Map of Village –Bhagwanpur of Dhenkanal District, Odisha.

(Source: http://bhunakshaodisha.nic.in:8080/bhunaksha/)

1.5.1 Methods of Scale Representation

When we draw map of any area, we show the scale on the map. Scales are
represented by three ways:

 Statement Scale
 Linear or Graphical Scale
 Representative Fraction (R.F.)

A) Statement Scale
This scale is represented by a statement. The statement is about the
relationship between map and ground distance as explained before about
scale. For example, 1 cm = 1 km. It means one cm map distance is equal to
one km on the ground. It is very simple to state and be placed put on the map.
It is non-flexible as the statement remains the same and is of no use once the
map is reduced or enlarged while reproducing. On map, written 1 cm = 1 km
remains the same when the map was initially drawn. When the map is
reduced, one cm distance will become less than one cm. in the same way,
when it is enlarged, one cm on map will be bigger than one cm. Hence, it is
good enough when the original map always of same size and no reduction or
enlargement is done.

B) Linear/Graphical Scale
This scale is represented by drawing line or graph divided into major and
minor divisions. These divisions and subdivisions are generally shaded
alternately by black colour for visually looking good and impressive. Divisions
and subdivisions are at equal distances and their values are marked along for
reading and understanding. Distance on the graphical scale has certain
relationship with the ground distance of the represented area on the map. In
general, first primary division on the left side on the scale is subdivided into

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secondary subdivisions. Though, simple linear/graphical scale is given on the

map, but it has different types as well like comparative scale and diagonal
scale.

C) Representative Fraction
Representative Fraction (RF) is a ratio between the map distance and
corresponding ground distance without any specific unit mentioned thereof. It
is evident that the unit of length you take for map distance, the same unit of
length is applicable to ground distance. For example, if you are measuring the
map distance in centimeter, the ground distance is also in centimeter
equivalent to the value mentioned in the RF. It could be applicable to
millimetre, inch or feet as well. It is expressed as:

The numerator is always expressed as one (1) and remains constant which
denotes map distance. The denominator always representative of ground
distance. Denominator varies as it is dependent upon the area covered on the
map. When the area covered in the map is large, a larger denominator will be
there. Larger denominator signifies smaller details about the features
presented on the map. On the other hand, when the area covered is smaller,
denominator will be smaller and greater details about the features is possible
to show on the map.

Suppose you have two maps of which RFs are (1) 1:50,000 and
(2)1:1,000,000 respectively. Here, with respect to first RF, one unit of map
distance is equivalent to 50,000 units on the ground; or one centimeter on
map equal to half a kilometre on the ground (1km = 100,000 cm). With
respect to second RF, one unit length on map distance is equivalent to
1,000,000 unit length on the ground; or one centimeter on map = 10 km on
ground. It is obvious that you are utilizing the same map distance (one cm) for
both maps but on map one, only half a km ground distance is covered while
on map two, 10 km length is shown. In other words, 20 times {10 km (map
two) ÷ 0.5 km (map one) = 20 times} detailed information is possible to
represent on map one in comparison to map two.

1.5.2 Conversion of Scales

All the three scales mentioned above are interchangeable. You must have
seen and read topographical sheets very well. You also must be remembering
that all these scales are given on these sheets. All of them represent the
same but in different ways. Hence, they could be converted very well and in
an easy manner.

Statement Scale to Representative Fraction

Let us take an example:

Example 1: Convert the statement scale of 1 cm is equal to 10 km into RF.

Solution: You know that in one km, there are 1000 meters and there are
100 cm and in one meter.

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Therefore, if you convert 10 km into centimeter,

It is: 10x1000x100 = 10,00,000 cm.

Hence, RF is 1:1,000,000. This is the converted RF.

These unites are in cm. When we finally convert it into RF, the unit is removed
so that it becomes unit less figure.

Representative Fraction to Statement Scale

Let us take an example:

Example 2: Convert the given RF 1:1,000,000 into statement scale.

Solution: In Metric Unit

1:1,000.000 means one unit length on the map is equal to 1,000,000 units
length on the ground.

Suppose, you are taking the Metric Unit of measurement into consideration.

Then, 1 cm on map is equal to 1,000,000 cm on the ground. You know that in

one km, there are 100,000 cm. Hence, divide the given ground distance in the
RF by 100,000. You will get the statement scale in metric unit.

1,000,000 ÷ 100,000 = 10 km. Therefore, statement scale is one cm on map

represents 10 km on the ground; this is you answer.

Solution: In British Unit

In British Unit; inch, feet, yard, etc., are considered.

According to given RF, one inch length on map is equal to 1,000,000 inch
length on the ground.

You also must be knowing that:

In one foot, there are 12 inches
In one yard is equal to 3 yards
In one mile, there are 1760 yard
Now, you can find out the total number of inches in one mile by multiplying
them, like:
One mile = 12x3x1760=63,360 inches
Therefore, 1,000,000 ÷ 63,360 = 15.782 Miles; this is your answer.

SAQ4
a) Define scale of a map.
b) Which of the following map scales is best in every situation?
i) Representative Fraction ii) Statement Scale iii) Linear Scale
iv) Comparative Scale

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1.6 LABORATORY EXERCISES
Let us now perform the laboratory exercises. The following laboratory
exercises will enhance the skills in construction of map scales. You are
required to complete all the exercises given in the laboratory and submit the
same to the counsellor/lab instructor as per the given instructions. It is
expected that after completion of these exercises, you will gain hands-on
experience and skills in understanding map scales. The following two
exercises are based on map scales dealing with the Construction of Map
Scales-Plain and Comparative (Exercise 1) and Construction of Map
Scales –Diagonal (Exercise 2).
Requirements: To perform this exercise, you need the following materials/
tools.
 Ruler or scale
 Pencil/Pen
 Sharpener and Eraser
 Divider
 Protector
 Set-squares
 Scientific Calculator
 Drawing Sheets or White Sheets

Precaution and General Information

 Distance value mentioned on the scale should be in round figure. For

examples 10, 20, 30 or 100, 200, 300 meter/km/miles, etc.
 The length of graphical scale depends upon the size of paper you have. For
ordinary book or notebook, 4 to 6 inches or 10 to 15 cm is ideal but for when
you are preparing on A3 size paper/drawing sheet, the length may be
increased conveniently.
 The divisions of scale are always uniform and of equal size. The leftmost
division is usually used for subdivisions. Drawing of scale is scientific and it
should be very precise.
 The values on the scale is generally written above the graphical presentation
but the divisions/ subdivisions along with the units of the values.
 Usually, graphical scale is drawn by at least two parallel lines and a third
one drawn from the centre. Alternate divisions and subdivisions are
blackened for a clear presentation.
 It is also mentioned that the pen or pencil for drawing the scale has to be
sharp for appropriate drawing.
Simple scales are those which show one or two units through divisions and
subdivisions/secondary divisions. This scale consists of a line divided into a
number of equal primary divisions. First division is divided into smaller parts. At the
end of the first division, zero (0) is marked. From zero, values of
subdivisions/secondary divisions keep on increasing leftward. For primary
divisions, the values keep on increasing rightward. Conventionally these values are
written on top of the scale and their units are also written at the two ends.

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EXERCISE-1

CONSTRUCTION OF MAP SCALE-

PLAIN AND COMPARATIVE
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
1.2 Construction of Plain Scale
1.3 Construction of Comparative Scale
1.4 Practical Exercises

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt the concept, meaning and use of map scales. Now, you will
carry out laboratory exercises on construction of map scales. The graphical
map scales include plain, comparative and diagonal scales.

In this Exercise-1, you will perform the construction of plain and comparative
map scales. As we know that scale is represented by a ratio of map distance
to the ground distance. Let us now start to learn the method of construction of
map scales.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After working through this Exercise, you will be able to:
 Understand the method of construction of graphical map scales;
 Construct a plain map scale; and
 Draw a comparative map scale.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF PLAIN SCALE

Exercise 1.1: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a simple scale to read
km and secondary divisions in multiple of 100 meters.

Solution:
Before constructing the scale, you need to find out that how much linear map
distance is representing how much ground distance.

 R.F. mentioned in the example is 1:50,000.

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 Since, the question is asking to show km and meter, you should consider
the R.F. in metric units of measurement. Hence, 1 cm on map is showing
50,000 cm on the ground.

 If 50,000 cm is converted into km, it comes to 0.5 km (because 1 km =

100,000 cm). In other words, 2 cm on map will be equal to 1 km on the
ground.

 According to the size of the paper you are drawing the scale, select an
appropriate line. Let us take a line of 12 cm, equal to 6 km on the ground.

 Divide the line into six equal divisions. These are the primary divisions.

 As mentioned in the precaution and general information above, prepare

the scale as given below (Fig. 1.1).

 Finally, the graphic scale is to be displayed in the below format. This scale
represents for RF 1:50,000 in kilometres. Here, primary divisions are
shown in kilometres and secondary divisions are represented in meters.

Fig. 1.1: A Simple Scale.

1.3 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVE SCALE

Exercise 1.2: The RF of a map is 1:150,000. Construct a scale to compare
miles and kms.

Solution:

In comparative scale, there are two scales with different units of measurement
for comparison. In this scale, R.F. remains the same for both scales.
Comparative scale helps in comparing the two units of measurement
graphically. It is necessary that the origin (zero) of both scales should be from
the same point so that the remaining lengths are easily compared.

Calculation-I:

 As explained above, R.F. 1:150,000 means 1 cm on map represents 1.5

km on ground (Metric units of measurement).

 To represent 20 km, you need to take a line of 13.333 cm (20 ÷ 1.5).

 Take a line of 13.333 cm and divide it into 5 equal parts; each part will
represents 4 km.

 Subdivide the first division into 5 parts; each part will represent one km.

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Calculation-II:
 In British unit, it would be 1 inch represents 150,000 inches on the
ground. Hence, 150,000 ÷63360 = 2.3674 miles of the ground (Because
63360 inches is equal to one mile)
 To represent 12 miles, you need to take a line of 5.069 inches (12 ÷
2.3674).
 Take a line of 5.069 inches and divide it into four equal parts; each part
will shows three miles.
 Both the kilometre and mile scales are put one over the other, where the
zero points of both the scales must coincide with each other.
 Finally, the comparative scale is to be displayed in the below given format
(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2: Comparative Scale.

1.4 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Construct a plain scale to show 100 kilometre for RF 1:1,000,000.

Exercise 2: The RF of a map is 1:250,000. Construct a simple scale to read

km and secondary divisions in multiple of 100 meters.

Exercise 3: Construct a comparative scale to show yards and meters. The

RF is 1:25,000.

Exercise 4: Draw a comparative scale to show kilometres and miles when the
RF is 1:1,000,000.

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EXERCISE-2

CONSTRUCTION OF MAP
SCALE-DIAGONAL
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
2.2 Construction of Diagonal Scale
2.3 Practical Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt the construction of plain and comparative map scales in the
previous Exercise-1.

The ordinary scale has only primary and secondary divisions but tertiary
division is not possible for the ordinary scale to read precisely. Primary
divisions are complete figures, secondary division is first figure after the
dismal point, but tertiary reading is second place after the dismal. The
diagonal scales help us to depict precise length up to second place after the
dismal. For reading of meter, centimeter and millimetre; or kilometer,
hectometer and decameter; or yard, feet and inch; or mile, furlong and yard
can be read from the same scale. It has the beauty of representing all up to
three units read at a time with complete precision.

In this Exercise-2, you will perform the construction of diagonal map scales.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After working through this Exercise, you shall be able to:
 Understand the method of construction of graphical map scales;
 Construct diagonal map scale.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF DIAGONAL SCALE

Exercise 2.1: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a scale to read
3.56km. (3 kilometer 50 hectometer and 6 decameter).

Solution:
 As explained earlier, 1 cm on map represents 0.5 km on the ground, or 2
cm on map will represent 1 km on the ground.

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 To represent 5 km on the ground, a line of 10 cm will be required.

 Take line of 10 cm and divide it into five parts equally. Each part will show
1 km.
 At the end of first division, put zero as the beginning of the distance
measurement.
 Take an appropriate width with scale to make a rectangular figure and
divide the rectangle as mentioned above.
 Subdivide the first division of the rectangle into 10 parts; both vertically
and horizontally. Extend the horizontal and vertical lines for entire
rectangle.
 Put your scale on the zero at the down point and set the scale to first
tertiary division of the first division diagonally and draw the line precisely.
Repeat the same with all other divisions. Now your diagonal scale is final.
 To read 3.56 km, take the first figure 3 from written main division. Now you
need to take 5thsubdivision of the first division on the horizontal axis. Next
you have to go to the 6th tertiary division on vertical axis of first
subdivision. The meeting point is marked as “M” on the figure. Hence, M-
N line is representing 3.56 km length on the ground.

The diagonal scale showing 3.56 km is given in Fig 1.3.

Fig. 1.3: Diagonal Scale.

2.3 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Construct a diagonal scale for RF 1:100,000 to show 3 kilometres
1 hectometres 20 meters.
Exercise 2: The RF of a map is 1:50,000. Construct a scale to read 4.26 km.
(4 kilometer 20 hectometer and 6 decameter).

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1.7 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied:
 Cartography is a study of making map and it has evolved through time. It
is both art and science for representing different aspects pertaining to
certain area or space. It involves preparing maps, charts, models or
globes and their designing, formatting, symbolizing, editing and ultimately
finalizing them for better visual understanding the space.
 Cartography is concerned with acquiring information about a certain
area/space of which a map is to be prepared on a piece of paper/ flat
surface. It provides a way of visualisation of the area/space and helps in
making mental map. Therefore, it has immense scope to use it in our
enhancing arena of knowledge and research.
 Cartography has evolved a lot since time immemorial to the present day. It
has happened with the development of technological knowhow and it is
still improving very drastically with passage of time.
 Transforming three-dimensional object into two-dimensional flat surface
has many limitations and impediments. In spite of the best efforts, it
cannot be represented truly, it is a great challenge. Historically, Earth has
been compared as sphere-like, apple-like, pears-like or geoid (Earth-like).
Hence, representation of Earth surface on two-dimensional surface has
certain compromises – with area, shape, direction – we have to agree.
 Map scale and it three representation methods.
 The construction of three different map scales such as plain, comparative
and diagonal in laboratory exercises is given as Exercise 1 and Exercise 2.

1.8 ANSWERS
Short-Answer Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Map making technique

b) Three periods
c) (iii)
2. Perceiving about the concerned area and representing the same on the
map
3. a) Like-Earth b) 15
4. a) Ration between map distance and ground distance;
b) (iii) Linear

1.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Khullar, D.R. (2015). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.
2. Madan, P.L. (1997).Indian Cartography: A Historical Perspective. New
Delhi: Manohar
33
Block - 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Fundamentals of Cartography

3. Misra, R.P. & Ramesh, A. (1969/1986). Fundamentals of Cartography.

New Delhi: McMillan.
4. Monkhouse, F.J. and Wilkinson, H.R. (1971). Maps and Diagrams.
London: Methuen & Co Ltd.
5. Peterson, G.N. (2009). GIS Cartography: A Guide to Effective Map
Design. Roca Raton: CRC Press.
6. Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimmerling, A.J. &
Gupltill, S.C. (eds.) (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: Wiley
and Johnson.
7. Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:
Orient Black Swan.
8. Sharma, J.P. (2013). Prayogik Bhugool (Hindi Medium). Meerut: Rastogi
Publications.
9. Singh, G. (2004). Map Work and Practical Geography. Delhi: Vikas
Publication House.
10. Singh, L. R. & Singh, R.P.B. (1979/2003). Elements of Practical
Geography. Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.
11. Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1979). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
12. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/early/roman300s/roma
n300s.html
13. https://dl0.creation.com/articles/p121/c12138/Mercators-original-1569-
map.jpg
14. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:APN2002-figure201.png
15. http://bhunakshaodisha.nic.in:8080/bhunaksha/

34
 UNIT 2

MAP PROJECTIONS
Structure
2.1 Introduction Exercise 4: Construction of
Expected Learning Outcomes Zenithal Map Projection
2.2 Map Projection and its Exercise 5: Construction of
Properties Conical Map Projection
2.3 Classification and 2.5 Summary
Significance of Map 2.6 Answers
Projections 2.7 References and Further
2.4 Laboratory Exercises Reading
Exercise 3: Construction of
Cylindrical Map Projection

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In geography map making is becoming more important because the concept
of geography has undergone several significant changes in recent times. The
study, now, involves cartographic analysis of relevant data so that the
conclusion arrived at are scientifically correct and mathematically accurate.
Techniques have been developed to cartographically express various
statistical conclusions, so that the result becomes presentable. Many
achievements have been made; techniques have been developed; still a map
maker has to discover many novel ways to achieve the desired end.

Cartography is concerned with the designing, constructing and producing

maps. Map projection is one of the techniques through which the spherical
shape of the Earth is represented on the plane surface of the paper. You are
introduced to map projections in this Unit. Section 2.2 explains meaning and
the properties of map projections. Classification and significance of
projections are explained in Section 2.3.

Further, we have a dedicated Section 2.4, which facilitate to learn the skills in
making map projections. You have been introduced to some exercises with
suitable examples. This will enable you to draw map projections and their
utility in representing the real world phenomena. Broadly the map projections
are categorized in to three types such as cylindrical, zenithal and conical
which are explained through hands-on Exercises 3 to 5, in Section 2.4.

Rameshwar Thakur and K. Nageswara Rao 35

Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Expected Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Define a map projection;
 Describe classification of map projection;
 Discuss the significance of map projections; and
 Draw different types of map projections including cylindrical, zenithal
and conical in the part of laboratory exercises.

2.2 MAP PROJECTION AND ITS PROPERTIES

We may easily construct a map for a small region/area, but creating a flat
map for the entire nation/world is a complex undertaking. So, how do you
create an accurate flat map of a very large area? Geographers particularly
cartographers all across the world have created various ways and procedures
for creating such maps throughout history. However, it is clear that no map
can accurately portray the genuine form of the Earth. The cartography is a
part of geography that deals with the study of maps and map making. A
cartographer is someone who creates or draws maps. For making/drawing an
accurate map we generally use map projections. Then, let us understand
what a map projection is? Yes, the Earth is a three dimensional surface. The
transformation of Earth’s three-dimensional surface into two-dimensional
plane on a map using mathematical formulae is called a map projection.
Therefore, we can understand that the map projection transforms a spherical
surface to a flat surface.

Cartographers have to devise complex graphical, geometrical and

mathematical methods of transforming the Earth. In the case of map
projection, we project the network of latitudes and longitudes of a globe on a
plane surface. A globe is a true representation of the Earth or it is true map of
the Earth. Since a map represents a flat surface and a globe, a spherical
surface, the shape of the network of the parallels and the meridians that we
obtain after representation is what projection is all about. Other terms which
are more suitable for this network are a graticule, or a grid or a net, or a
mesh. But the term ‘projection’ is most commonly used in practice.

We can define “a map projection is a systematic network of lines of latitudes

and longitudes on a plane surface, either for the whole Earth or part thereof”
(Singh and Singh, 1979). In other words, map projection is a method of
representing a parallels and meridians of the Earth on a plane surface at
certain scale, so that any point on the Earth’s surface may correspond to that
on the drawing. The globe is true map of the Earth, which is divided into
various sectors by the online of latitudes and longitudes. The network of these
lines is known as a gratitude. On the globe the meridians and parallels are
circles. When they are transferred on the plane surface, they become
intersecting lines, curved or straight. Thus, a map projection may be defined
as the transformation of the spherical network of latitudes and longitudes on a
plane surface, irrespective of the method of transformation.

A globe is the true representation of the Earth and it gives three dimensional
effect of the Earth. Although size, shape, distance and direction of an area
36
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
correctly represented on a globe. Therefore, it shows very accurately the
shape and size of the continents and the oceans. But the use of globe is not
always convenient. Maps are more convenient and easier to carry than the
globe. Thus, the globe which is of three dimensions has to be transformed
into two dimensional surfaces very carefully in order to maintain the area,
shape and the direction of places on map. However, the resulted map will not,
represent the Earth truly and it will have some limitations in form of errors. As
such it is not possible to achieve all properties simultaneously that are
required to make a perfect map.

On the other hand, globes have many practical disadvantages. They are
difficult to reproduce, cumbersome to handle, awkward to store and difficult to
measure and draw on. All those drawbacks are eliminated when a map is
prepared on a flat surface. The spherical surface must be transformed to a
plane (flat) surface. The transformation of a spherical surface into plane
surface is a hard nut to crack without modifying the surface geometry. There
are many transformations in geometric qualities of the globe in the process of
it being transformed into a map.

The crux of the problems as already enunciated is the transformation of a

spherical surface into a plane surface, many possibilities have been explored
to solve this complex puzzle. However, we have a satisfactory classification
by adopting the constructional approach a projection can be obtained through
projecting light. A globe made of glass with parallels and meridians marked
upon it, so that the shadows of these lines are cast on the paper. The
projection with the help of light will give a shadowed picture of the globe which
will be distorted in those parts which are farther from the point. The obtained
projection is called perspective or geometrical projection. But if we modify the
layout to a great extent with the aid of mathematics is, therefore, known as
no-perspective or non-geometrical projection.

A large part of a spherical surface cannot be represented on a flat surface

without shrinking, breaking or stretching it somewhere. The major alternations
have to do with angles, areas, distances and directions. As Misra (1969)
suggests it is possible to develop projections which have one or more
properties through not all of them. They are: conformality, equal area,
equidistant, and azimuthal.

2.2.1 Conformality or Orthomorphism

In the construction of map projection true shapes can be preserved only if the
parallels and meridians intersect each other at right angles and the scale is
the same at a point. Preservation of the right angle and the maintenance of
the same scale both along the parallel and meridians make a projection
conformal. An orthomorphic projection is also known as a conformal
projection. Both the term conformal and orthomorphic means "true shape". As
the area scale varies from point to point, large areas are rather imperfectly
represented with respect to shape. Hence, no projection can provide true
shape to areas of wide dimensions.

37
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
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2.2.2 Equal Area or Equivalence
In this group of projection the graticule is prepared in such a way that every
quadrilateral on it may appear proportionately equal in area to the
corresponding spherical quadrilateral. To have the property of equivalence, a
projection must possess two properties. The parallels and meridians should
be drawn to scale, and the spacing between the parallels and meridians
should be true. This type of projections is derived mathematically. It is also
known as Equal area or Equivalent or Homolographic projection because
areas are kept correct. Equal area property is maintained by making proper
adjustment of scales along the parallels and meridians.

2.2.3 Equidistant
The distances between specific locations are well preserved, which is an
important feature of equidistant projections. Equidistant means that one point
is equal to all other points, or that a few points are equal to others. Remember
that none of the equidistant projections are valid from all points to all other
points. Scale however is not uniform throughout the map. Scale is
appropriately maintained when the length of a line on a map is the same as
the length of the same line on the globe, regardless of whether it is a large or
tiny circle, straight or curved line. Hence, scale will be uniform along the lines
whose distances are true.

2.2.4 True Bearing or Azimuthal

The azimuthal projection attempts to present true bearings or azimuths. The
projection which show directions or bearing correctly are called azimuthal
projections. The direction of all points from the centre of the map projection
remains correct. These projections are, therefore, known as azimuthal
projections. In such projections, directions of all point on a map, as taken from
the central points, will be the same as between corresponding on the ground
(Misra, 1969).

Thus, the nature of all projections is so complex that they often possess one
or more common properties. There is no projection which can be grouped in a
single class. Moreover, it is difficult to obtain a rational classification of map
projection. There can be as many as classifications may be suggested
depending on different bases (Singh 1979). Let us study the classification of
map projections after answering the given short answer question below.

SAQ 1
a) What is the meaning of map projection?
b) What are the properties of map projection?

38
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.3 CLASSIFICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
MAP PROJECTIONS
Projections are drawn by various methods and the resulting projections differ
from one another. It can be classified on the basis of a number of criteria.
Generally, the more commonly adopted criteria for this purpose are:

a) The nature of the developable surface;

b) The properties of the projection; and
c) The method of derivation or the source of light in the globe.

Let us look into further sub-divisions of classification.

A. Based on the Developable Surface Used

1. Cylindrical Projection
2. Conical Projection
3. Zenithal Projection or Azimuthal
4. Mathematical or Conventional

B. Based on the Property or Qualities

1. Equal Area or Equivalent or Homolographic Projection

2. True Shape or Orthomorphic or Conformal Projection
3. True Bearing or Azimuthal Projection
4. True Scale or Equidistant Projection

C. Based on Construction or Derivation or Source of Light or Position

of View Point

1. Perspective
2. Non-Perspective
3. Mathematical or Conventional

D. Based on the Position of Tangent Surface

1. Polar
2. Equatorial
3. Oblique

E. Based on Conventional Projection

1. Mollweide's Projection
2. Interrupted Mollweide's Projection
3. Sinusoidal Projection
4. Interrupted Sinusoidal Projection.
5. Globular projection
6. Hammer's projection

39
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 2.1: Classification of Map Projections.

Perspective projections are those which can be derived by the image of the
network of parallels and meridians of a globe on any developable surface.
Most of the Zenithal projections are perspective projections. These
projections are also called natural projection.

The non-perspective projections are drawn without the help of the shadows
from an illuminated globe. Their construction depends upon mathematical
principles. They acquire special property such as equal area, correct shape,
true scale, etc. The lines forming the network are straightened or curved and
the spacing between the parallels and meridians are reduced or enlarged to
make a perspective projection equivalent, orthomorphic or azimuthal. Such
projections are called non-perspective projections.

A developable surface is one which can be flattened and which can receive
lines projected or drawn directly from an assumed globe. The developable
projections are classified as cylindrical, conical and zenithal (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2: Developable Projection Surfaces a) Zenithal b) Cylinder and c) Cone.

40
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Cylindrical projection can be derived through the use of a cylindrical
developable surface. When the globe is covered by a cylinder made of paper
touching the equator and the parallels and meridians are projected on it. To
derive a projection on a cone, we will have to wrap a cone around a globe. If
we place a light in the centre of the globe, it will cast shadow of a geographic
network as the inner surface of the cone. The shadow is drawn and the cone
is cut open and laid flat to get conical projections. When a plane paper is
put on the globe touching it on one point and the graticule is projected on it,
we get polar Zenithal projection. The position of light source is also of very
great importance, when it can be placed at the centre of the globe, or at any
other point of the equator, or at any point outside the globe. Accordingly, the
Zenithal projections can be divided into three classes:

Gnomonic – When the light is at the centre of the globe.

Stereographic –When the light is placed at the periphery of the globe at a

point diametrically opposite to the point at which the plane surface touches
the globe.

Orthographic – when the light is at infinity so that the rays of the light are
parallel.

According to point position of the plane of Perspective Zenithal Projection,

each class having three sub-classes. Thus, there are nine types of
perspective zenithal projection shown in Figure 2.3.

Fig. 2.3: Types of Perspective Zenithal Projection.

In addition to these perspective zenithal projections, there are a number of

non-perspective zenithal projections. Only two of them which are most useful
and are also quite popular in atlases are: Zenithal Equidistant Projection
(Polar case) and Zenithal Equal Area Projection (Polar case). The spherical
surface of the globe cannot be projected on planer surface accurately, no
map projection can be absolutely accurate or a true representation of the
Earth. Some inaccuracies do occur in all projections. On the basis of the
global criteria the projection can be classified as equivalent, orthomorphic and
correct bearings. Such projections can be developable as well as non-
developable. They can be Cylindrical, Conical and Zenithal.

The above classifications of map projections reveal that there is no way of

classifying projections into initially exclusive classes. According to specific
requirements, a projection can be drawn in a manner so that the desired
quality may be achieved. The important qualities or properties sought in any
projection are classified as: equal-area projection, true shape or
orthomorphic, true bearing or azimuthal, true-scale or equidistant projections.

41
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.4 CONSTRUCTION OF SCALE FOR MAP
PROJECTION
You have already studied the Map Scales and its construction in the previous
Unit 1. In the construction of map projection, the scale has great importance.
It is generally expressed by a fraction which is called Representative Fraction
(R.F.). It can be expressed in different units for example 1:1,000,000. It
means that one unit of the map is equal to the million units of the ground. The
scale as R.F. is used in map projections so that it may be translated into any
standard of measurements.

We know that equatorial circumference of the Earth is about 25,000 miles

(40,075 km) and the mean radius 4000 miles (6371 km). As a round number,
it may be regarded 250,000,000 inches because other figures in thousands
will little affect ordinary scale.
The length of equator of the globe will be equal to the circumference 2R.
In case R = 1 inch, the length of the equator will be equal to
22
2 1  6.3 inches approximately.
7
SAQ 2
a) Differentiate between perspective and non-perspective map projections.
b) What is the classification of map projections based on Tangent surface position?

2.4 LABORATORY EXERCISES

Let us now perform the laboratory exercises. The following laboratory
exercises will enhance the skills in construction of map projections. You are
required to complete all the exercises given in the laboratory and submit the
same to the counselor/lab instructor as per the given instructions. It is
expected that after completion of these exercises, you will gain hands-on
experience and skills in understanding map projections.

The following three exercises are based on map projections dealing with the
Construction of Cylindrical Projections (Exercise 3), Construction of
Zenithal Projections (Exercise 4) and Construction of Conical
Projections (Exercise 5).

Requirements: To perform this exercise, you need the following

materials/tools.
 Ruler or scale
 Pencil/Pen
 Sharpener and Eraser
 Compass
 Divider
 Protector and Set-squares
 Scientific Calculator
 Drawing Sheets or White Sheets
42
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE-3

CONSTRUCTION OF
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
3.2 Construction of Simple Cylindrical Projection
3.3 Construction of Mercator’s Projection
3.4 Practical Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have learnt the concept, meaning and use of map projections. You have
also studied the classification of map projections. Before performing the
exercise work you have learnt the basic concept and the calculation of scale
for constructing map projections. In fact, map projections portray the three
dimensional (3D) Earth surfaces into two dimensional (2D) features on a flat
sheet. Cylindrical projections are one of the types of map projections.

In this Exercise 3, you will learn the construction of simple cylindrical map
projection and Mercator’s projection. The well-known types of other
cylindrical map projections are Cylindrical Equal Area, Gall’s, Transverse
Mercator’s projection.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After doing this exercise, you should be able to:
 Understand the method of construction of cylindrical map projections;
 Construct a simple cylindrical map projection; and
 Construct Mercator’s projection.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE CYLINDRICAL

PROJECTION
A globe is presented to be enclosed in a developable cylinder. A cylinder
wrapped around the globe to touch it along the equator. Light is placed at the
center of the globe, to cast the image of the graticule of the transparent globe
on the cylinder. The true cylindrical projection is obtained.

43
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Properties:
1. The exaggeration of the parallel scale as well as meridian scale would
continue to increase away from the equator.
2. On the projection the scale would be true only along the equator.
3. The poles cannot be shown because their distances from the equator
become infinite.
4. In this projection, the parallels and meridians are drawn as straight lines
cutting each other at right angles.
5. The meridians are equal spaced but the intervals between parallels
increases towards the poles.
6. All the parallels are equal in length.
7. Both the east-west and north-south scales are increasingly exaggerated
but the exaggeration is not the same in both the directions.
8. Distances are correctly represented along the equator.
9. This projection is rarely used as the exaggeration of area and shape is too
much in higher latitudes and only a narrow strip along the equator is
correct.
10. The polar area cannot be shown on this projection.

To avoid the defects of the perspective cylindrical projection, a number of

non-perspective cylindrical projection have been developed. One of these is
the simple cylindrical projection. It is also known as Plate Carree’s Projection
or the Cylindrical Equidistant projection because in this projection both the
parallels and meridians are equidistant. They are drawn as straight lines,
cutting one another at right angles. As the distance between the parallels and
meridians is the same, the whole network represents a series of equal
squares. All the parallels are equal to the equator (2R). The scale along the
equator is true but exaggerated at an increasing rate away from the equator.
This leads to great distortion in shape particularly in high latitudes. Therefore,
the projection is neither orthomorphic nor equal area: This projection is not
appropriate for representing areas in the higher latitudes. It can be used for
areas which extend along or near the equator as Africa and South-America.

Let us start to learn the construction of graticule of Simple Cylindrical

Projection through the following exercises. Here, we will learn two methods:
Method 1: Graphical construction and Method 2: Mathematical
construction.

Example 1: Construct a Simple Cylindrical Projection for a world map on a

scale of 1: 250,000,000 and projection interval is 10°.

Solution:

METHOD 1: GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION

In the preliminary stage, we have to calculate the values for constructing the
map projection. Then, the calculated values are to be used for making the
projection in the next stage.

Find out the radius of the reduced Earth according to scale. Draw a circle with
the given reduced Earth radius. Draw the equatorial diameter equal to the -
required length of the equator or 2R. Draw an angle showing the latitude of

44
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
the given interval and making an arc at the circumference of the circle. This
arc distance is the interval along the parallels and the meridians both. Mark
the intervals along the equator. Erect perpendicular at both ends of this line
so that one of these perpendiculars is a tangent to the circle. From the centre
of the circle draw various radii to mark parallels from the points of intersection
draw lines parallel to the equator, these will be the parallels of latitude. You
have to write labels and the scale of projection as given below for finishing
projection (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1: Simple Cylindrical Projection (1: 250,000,000 Scale).

METHOD-2: MATHEMATICAL CONSTRUCTION

Calculations for Constructing the Projection:

Step 1: Calculate the radius (R) of the generating globe for the given scale.

Let us note down the R.F.

1
R.F. = 1: 250,000,000 =
250,000,000
1
Radius R = (cm) Earth radius (cm)
250,000,000

1 64
= (cm)  640,000,000 (cm) =  2.56 cm.
250,000,000 25
We have now obtained the value of radius i.e., R = 2.56 cm.

Step 2: Note the longitudinal extent of the globe i.e. 180W-180 E and the
intervals between the meridians i.e. 10. So the following meridians are to be
drawn.

180W, 170W, 160W, 150W, 140W, 130W, 120W,110W, 100W,

90W, 80W, 70W, 60W, 50W, 40W, 30W, 20W, 10W, 0, 10E, 20E,
30E, 40E,50E, 60E,70E, 80E, 90E, 100E, 110E, 120E, 130E,
140E, 150E,160E, 170E, 180E.

Step 3: Also record the latitudinal extent of the globe, i.e., 90N  90S and
the interval between the parallels i.e., 10. The following parallels have to be
drawn.

45
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
90N, 80N, 70N, 60N, 50N, 40N, 30N, 20N, 10N, 0, 10S, 20S,
30S, 40S, 50S, 60S,70S, 80S, 90S.

Step 4: Calculate the length of the division (d1) on the equator at 10 intervals
using the standard equation as follows:

2 R 2  3.14  2.56 16.07

d1   interval (o )  10   0.44 cm.
360 360 36
22
Where    3.14 (constant) ( is pronounced as 'Pi').
7
Now, the length of division on each parallel for spacing the meridians
i.e. d1 = 0.44 cm.

Step 5: Draw a circle with the measurement of radius R = 2.56 cm from the
centre (0). With the help of protect mark the angles on the circle for the given
interval (10) towards north (90N) and south (90S). Then, draw lines
through these markings that will represent 10N, 20N, 30N, 40N, 50N,
60N, 70N, 80N, and 10S, 20S, 30S, 40S, 50S, 60S, 70S, 80S.

Measure the arc length between any two latitude which will be the value of a
division on central meridian i.e., d1 = 0.44 cm.

Step 6: Take a drawing sheet and place it on plane surface. With the help of
pencil and scale, draw a pair of straight lines on the sheet. The lines must be
intersected with 90 angle. The horizontal line is to be treated as equator 0
(EW) and other vertical line 90 (NS) is central meridian.

Step 7: Set the divide with a measurement of d1= 0.44 cm and mark the
division on the equator in E and west directions. Now the equator of line is
divided by the value of d1 for spacing the meridians. All the parallels are also
placed at equal distances as result of which it is also known as equidistant
projection.

Fig. 3.1: Simple Cylindrical Projection (1: 250,000,000 Scale).

Properties:

1. Al the parallels and meridians are straight lines.

2. Both the parallels and meridians are equally-spaced, hence it is also
called the Equidistant Cylindrical Projection.
46
Unit 2 Map Projections
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Parallels and meridians intersect one another at right angles.
4. The scale along the equator is correct, so that distances are shown
correctly along the equator.
5. The scale along meridians is correct.
6. The projection is neither equal-area nor orthomorphic.

Uses:

This projection is of little uses because it can show correctly only a narrow
strip along the both sides of the equator that the area can be called correct
that too by courtesy. The distances are correct in a narrow step only along the
equator. It is highly unsatisfactory for a world map due to its demerits. The
projection suffers from defects of both area and shape.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF MERCATOR’S

PROJECTION
Mercator’s projection is a cylindrical projection. This projection was designed
by Gerhardt Kramer of Holland in 1569. Kramer is a Dutch word which is
called Mercator in Latin and this projection is popularly known as Mercator’s
Projection.

This projection is also known as Cylindrical Orthomorphic Projection. Like all

other cylindrical map projections, the scale along parallels is exaggerated
away from the equator. In order to maintain correct direction and shape
Mercator increased the scale along meridians in the same ratio as the
increase in parallel scale.

The projection is derived by the lines of equally spaced longitudes and

horizontal lines of latitudes. The parallels and meridians are intersected at
right angles. The distances between the parallels are wide apart moving
towards the poles. The poles cannot be shown in this projection. All the
parallels are of the same length as the equator. Shapes are represented more
accurately whereas areas are distorted greatly toward the Polar regions.

Any straight line drawn on this projection represents an actual compass

bearing, hence it is useful to sailors. These true direction lines are known as
rhumb lines. Scale is true along the equator or along the secant latitudes.

The main advantage of this projection is that it can be used to map the
regions near the equator.

Exercise 1: Construct a Mercator’s projection for the world map on RF

1:500,000,000 scale at 20º interval.

Solution:

METHOD-1: MATHEMATICAL CONSTRUCTION

In the preliminary stage, we have to calculate the values for constructing the
map projection. Then, the calculated values are to be used for making the
projection in the next stage.

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Calculations of the Projection:

Step 1: Calculate the radius (R) of the generating globe for the given scale.
Let us note down the RF.

We have now obtained the value of radius i.e., R = 1.28 cm.

Step 2: Let us note the longitudinal extent of the globe i.e., 180ºW-180ºE and
the interval between the meridians i.e., 20º. So, the following meridians are to
be drawn.

180ºW, 160ºW, 140ºW, 120ºW, 100ºW, 80ºW, 60ºW, 40ºW, 20ºW, 0º, 20ºE,
40ºE, 60ºE, 80ºE, 100ºE, 120ºE, 140ºE, 160ºE, 180ºE.

Step 3: Also record the latitudinal extent of the globe i.e., 90ºN-90ºSand the
interval between the parallels i.e., 20º. The following parallels have to be
drawn.

80ºN, 60ºN, 40ºN, 20ºN, 0º, 20ºS, 40ºS, 60ºS, 80ºS

Step 4: Calculate the length of a division (d1) on the equator at 20ºinterval

using the standard equation as follows.

Now, you got to know the length of a division on equator for spacing the
meridians i.e., d1 = 0.45 cm.

Step 5: Calculate the length of a division (d2) on the central meridian (0º)
using the standard equation as follows.

To get the value, you shall prepare the following table with given interval
i.e, 20º for determining the division using the above equation. You can use
the scientific calculator to get the Logarithm (log) and Tangent (tan) values
directly or refer to the annexures provided at the end of this exercise.

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Unit 2 Map Projections
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R Constant
(cm) value (cm)

20º (N&S) 55 1.4281 0.1547 1.28 2.3026 0.456

40º (N&S) 65 2.1445 0.3313 1.28 2.3026 0.976
60º (N&S) 75 3.7320 0.5719 1.28 2.3026 1.685
80º (N&S) 85 11.430 1.058 1.28 2.3026 3.118

You have now all the calculated values. Let us start the construction of the
projection. Keep ready with you a drawing sheet, pencil, ruler, protractor and
divider etc.

Construction of the Projection:

Step 6: Take a drawing sheet and place it on plane surface. With the help of
pencil and scale, draw a pair of straight lines on centre of the sheet. The lines
must be intersected with 90° angle. A horizontal line is to be treated as
equator and other vertical line as central meridian.

Step 7: Set the divider with a measurement of d1 = 0.45 cm and mark the
divisions on the equator in E and W directions. Now, the equator line is
divided by the value of d1 (refer to Step 4), for spacing the meridians.

Step 8: Take a scale and pencil, and draw straight lines perpendicular to the
equator by connecting each of these division points. These lines will represent
meridians.

W E
0.45 cm

Now, the meridians have been drawn for both W and E directions (from 0º to
180º with 10º interval).

Step 9: Let us now start working on the central meridian. Mark the divisions
on central meridian in North and South directionswith the help of the divider.
Using the values of dɸ from the calculated Table (refer to Step 5), the
divisions are done for spacing the parallels.

Step 10: Straight lines are drawn perpendicular to the central meridian
connecting through these divisions. These lines will representparallels.

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N
3.12 cm

1.7

0.98
0.46 cm
W E
0.45 cm

Step 11: You have now successfully completed the construction of Mercator’s
projection. But you have to finish it with proper labelling as given below. All
the graticules and the scale of projection must be written legibly.

W E

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
180 160 120 80 40 0 40 80 120 160 180
S
R.F. 1:500,000,000

Now, you have understood the construction of Simple Cylindrical Projection

(both mathematical and graphical methods), and Mercator’s Projection
(Mathematical method). You should carry out the following laboratory
exercises for your practical record for its submission.

3.3 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 1: Construct simple cylindrical projection for a world map whose
scale is 1:400,000,000 at 15° interval.

Exercise 2: Construct simple cylindrical equal area projection for the globe on
RF 1:300,000,000 scale at 20º interval.

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Exercise 3: Construct Mercator’s projection for the globe on RF
1:250,000,000 scale at 20º interval.

Exercise 4: Construct Mercator’s projection for the globe on RF

1:100,000,000 scale at 10º interval.

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EXERCISE 4

CONSTRUCTION OF ZENITHAL
PROJECTION
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
4.2 Construction of Polar Zenithal Equidistant Projection
4.3 Construction of Polar Zenithal Orthographic Projection
4.4 Practical Exercises

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Zenithal map projections are obtained by projecting the lines of latitude and
longitudes on a plane surface, which is tangent to the globe at a point. They
are known as Azimuthal or Zenithal projections. The word Azimuthal carries
the full connotation of the nets in the sense that they show the correct
bearings or azimuths of all the points from the centre of the maps. This is a
unique property possessed singularly by the projections of this group. Further,
it can be used for mapping any part of the world and for any purpose,
because a plan surface can be tangent to the globe at infinite points. In
Zenithal projections, the directions of all points from the centre of the map
projection remain correct. It has two broad divisions: 1) Perspective Zenithal
Projection, and 2) Non-perspective Zenithal projection.

All the perspective types of Zenithal map projections are derived by

supposing a plane surfaces tangent to the globe. The plane can be a tangent
to a globe and can occupy several positions, e.g. at one of the poles, or at
any point on the equator, or at any other point on the globe. The position of
light is of great importance because the distances between various lines of
latitudes and longitudes will be determined by the relative positions of the
point to be projected and the position of the source of light. The light can be
placed at the centre of the globe, or at any point of the equator or at any point
outside the globe. In addition to these perspective zenithal projections, there
are a number of non- perspective zenithal projections. Only two of them which
are most useful and are also quite popular in atlases are: Zenithal Equidistant
Projection (Polar case) and Zenithal Equal-area Projection (Polar case).

One of the important properties of Zenithal map projection is that they show
the correct bearings, correct directions or azimuths of all the points from the
centre of the globe. This is a unique property possessed singularly by the
projections of this group. Further, it can be used for mapping any part of the
world and for any purpose, because a plane surface can be tangent to the
globe at infinite points.

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Here, you will learn the construction of Polar Zenithal Equidistant
Projection and Polar Orthographic Projection. Accordingly, you will learn
two methods for constructing the projections: Graphical, and Mathematical.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After doing this exercise, you should be able to:

 Understand the method of construction of Zenithal Map Projections;

 Construction of Polar Zenithal Equidistant projection; and
 Construct Polar Zenithal Orthographic projection.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF POLAR ZENITHAL

EQUIDISTANT PROJECTION
This is a non-perspective Zenithal projection. In this projection, the parallels
cannot be projected equidistant in any case of view-point and the parallels are
placed at their true distances. The interval between the parallels are
calculated using the formula:

Where, D is the distance, R is the radius of the reduced sphere and d is the
given interval.

Example: Draw a network of a Polar Zenithal Equidistant projection for the

Northern Hemisphere on a scale of 1:200,000,000 when the graticule interval
is 15°.

Solution

Radius of the globe according to the given scale =

Now, draw a circle with O as centre and radius equal to 0.8 cm. This circle
represents 15 parallel. To draw a circle representing 60N parallel, double
the length of the arc subtended by 15 and with O as centre draw a circle.
Similarly circles with the same centre and radii equal to 0.8 cm  3 = 2.4 cm,
0.8  4 = 3.2 cm, 0.8  5 = 4.0 cm and 0.8  6 = 4.8 cm will represent parallels
of 45N, 30N, 5N and equator (0) respectively. For meridians, draw lines
at15 interval at the centre using a protector. All meridians will be straight
lines from the common centre of the concentric circles. The projection is easy
to construct and is commonly used for the map of polar areas. The scale
along the parallels increases greatly and the distances along parallels are
exaggerated. The projection may be fairly good only for small areas around
the pole not exceeding 30 in latitudinal extent. The distances and bearing of
any point from the pole are correct. It is neither an orthomorphic nor an equal
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area projection. If the objective is to show correct distances and directions
from the centre, this projection can be fruitfully used for a hemisphere. Large
area cannot be shown satisfactorily.

Fig. 4.1: Polar Zenithal Equidistant Projection (1:200,000,000 Scale).

Properties:

1. All parallels are drawn as concentric circle.

2. Parallels are spaced at their true distances apart from one another.
54
Unit 2 Map Projections
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3. Meridians are straight lines.
4. Either of the poles is the centre of the projection.
5. Parallels and meridians intersect each other at right angles everywhere.
6. Distances as well as directions are correct from the central point to the
other point, because the meridional scale is correct.
7. The scale along parallels is not correct, and the distances along parallels
are exaggerated, because meridians on the projection diverge more
rapidly than on the globe so that away from the centre areas are also
exaggerated.

Uses:

This projection is commonly used for preparing general purpose map of the
polar areas or, occasionally, a hemisphere. The distances and bearings in
different directions from the centre are correct and this map is useful for
showing missile ranges, radio waves and air routes with reference to the
centre of the projection.

4.3 CONSTRUCTION OF POLAR ZENITHAL

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
This is also a perspective projection in which the source of light is presumed
to be at infinity so that the rays passing through the globe come parallel to
each other. If the plane surface touches the globe at the North pole, the rays
of light are supposed to be coming from the south and vice versa.

Example 1: Construct Polar Zenithal Orthographic Projection for Northern

Hemisphere on a scale of 1:150,000,000 when the graticule interval is 15°.

METHOD 1: GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION

To construct this projection, draw a circle to represent the Earth according to

the given scale.

Radius of the Earth according to the given scale:

1
=  640, 000, 000  4.26 cm
150, 000, 000
 Now draw a circle NWSE with C as centre and 4.26 cm as radius so that it
represents the globe and draw NS and NE as polar and equatorial
diameters.
 Also NB tangent to the circle NWSE at N to represent the plane of the
projection.
 Draw CF, CG, CH, CI and CJ at the given interval of 15.
 Further, draw lines parallel to NS through E, F, G, H, I and J so that they
meet NB, at E', F', G', H' I' and J'.
 Thus, NE', NF', NG', NH', NI', and NJ' are the radii of the circles showing
parallels at 0, 15N, 30N, 45N, 60N band 75N respectively.

55
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
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 Now draw N as centre and circles with radii NE', NF', NG', NH' NI' and NJ'
so that these circles represent parallels of 0, 15N, 30N, 45N, 60N
and 75N respectively.
 Further, draw lines at 15intervals at the centre to represent the
meridians.

Fig. 4.2: Polar Zenithal Orthographic Projection (1:150,000,000 Scale).

METHOD-2: MATHEMATICAL CONSTRUCTION

In this step the problem is to find out the radii for drawing various parallels.
Accordingly, the value of PB, PA etc. may be calculated in the right-angled
LMO.

LM
 sin MOL = cos OLM
OL
or

LM = OL sinMOL = OL cos OLM

= R sine Co-latitude = R cos. latitudes,

Where R is the radius of the reduced sphere and OLM = LOQ = latitude

Since PB = LM; So PB = R sin co-lat or R cos latitude.

r = R sine co-lat or R cos Latitude.

Now, with this formula the radii of all the parallels may be calculated.

Properties:

1. On this projection the parallels are concentric circles. They are not
equally-spaced.
2. The distances between two parallels decrease away from the centre of the
projection.

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Unit 2 Map Projections
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3. Meridians are straight lines radiating from the common centre and are
uniformly spaced. The direction from the centre to any other point on this
projection is also correct as in all Zenithal Projection.
4. As a result the scale along the meridians decreases rapidly away from the
centre of the projection.
5. Because of the excessive shortening of scales along the meridians both
the area and shape are excessively distorted particularly away from the
centre and towards the periphery.
6. It is neither equal-area nor orthomorphic. The shapes are much distorted
near the margin of the projection.
7. It is only a small area in the central part of the projection that can be
represented in a satisfactory way. This projection is used for a limited area
near the pole.

Uses:

Since the source of light being at an infinite distance, the projection becomes
suitable for astronomical purposes. It prevents a site which is visible when the
globe is viewed from a distance exactly above the pole. Therefore, this
projection is used to prepare astronomical charts.

4.4 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 4.1: Construct polar zenithal equidistant projection for southern
hemisphere on scale 1:250,000,000 for covering an area of 90°S - 50S° at
interval of 20°.
Exercise 4.2: Construct a polar Zenithal Orthomorphic projection for Asia on
the scale 1:250,000,000.The projection interval is 10°.

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EXERCISE - 5

CONSTRUCTION OF CONICAL
PROJECTION
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Expected Learning Outcomes
5.2 Construction of Polyconic Projection
5.3 Practical Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A conical projection is derived by projecting the image of the network of
parallels and meridians of a globe in such a way that its vertex is above on of
the poles and it touches the globe along a latitude which is termed as
standard parallel. The cone is unrolled into a flat surface. The light is
supposed to be located at the centre of the globe. The scale along the
standard parallel on a conical projection is always correct. The position and
length of other parallels on either side of the standard parallel are distorted.
Its length is also considerably increased. The distortion of shape and area
away from the standard parallel is progressive in this projection.

There may be one or two standard parallels in conical projections. The axis
along which the cone is flattened, forms the central meridians of the map.
Other meridians are straight lines radiating from the vertex of the cone at
equal intervals, dividing the standard parallels into equal arcs. Other parallels
will be concentric with the standard parallel. So the scale along the meridians
becomes correct.

To minimize the distortion of shape and area a number of non-perspective

conical projections have been developed. A few of the important ones are;
Simple conical projection with one standard parallel, simple conical projection
with two standard parallels, Bonne's projection and Polyconic projection.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After doing this exercise, you should be able to:
 Understand the construction method of conical map projection; and
 Construction of Polyconic projection.

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5.3 CONSTRUCTION OF POLYCONIC
PROJECTION
This projection is a modified form of the Simple Conical Projection in which all
the parallels are drawn as well as divided as standard parallels. The
projection is derived by considering a number of cones placed over a globe. It
was developed by Ferdinand Hassler, from the Coast and Geodetic Survey of
the U.S.A.

While constructing this projection, it is assumed that each parallel on the

globe is touched by a different cone. Consequently all these parallels are
standard parallels and representation is correct along all of them. This is why
the projection has been given the name of polyconic projection which means
many cones.

Example: Draw a graticule of a Polyconic projection for the northern

hemisphere on a scale of 1: 320,000,000 when the parallels and meridians
are placed at 15interval.

METHOD 1: GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION

The construction of this projection is similar to that of the simple conic

projection. Find out, the radius according to the scale and draw a circle with
this radius and draw tangents at this latitudes as shown in Figure 5.1.

Draw a straight line to represent the central meridians. With respective

tangents being the radius, the parallels are drawn through equally spaced
points marked on the central meridians, i.e. at 15 interval. Now draw lines,
OA, OB, OC, OD and OE making angles at 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75 with
OQ a O. Produce ON upon 'A' and draw perpendiculars at AA', BB', CC', DD'
and EE' at ABCD and E respectively. These points A' B C' D' and E' represent
the apexes of the cones which will help in drawing parallels. Fix the pencil-
bearing handle of the compass fall anywhere on the central meridian in the
direction of N. pole. Non-concentric arcs are thus drawn to represent the
various parallels and join the respective points of division by smooth curves.
These will be meridians.

Fig. 5.1: Polyconic Map Projection (1: 320,000,000 Scale).

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METHOD-2: MATHEMATICAL CONSTRUCTION

The following calculations can be used for mathematical construction.

Calculate radii (r) of the parallels of the projection with the formula:

r = R cot 

When  is the latitude and R is the radius of the reduced sphere.

The length of the parallels = 2R cos lat.

Interval
Intervals along various parallels = 2R cos lat. .
360o
Interval
Interval along central meridian = R.
360o
In the Polyconic Projection, there are a number of radii to be found out, the
values of which are found by multiplying R by the cotangent of latitude in
question with these values determined the map projection can be constructed.

Properties:

1. Each parallel is projected as standard parallel. The equator is shown as a

straight line.
2. The meridional scale increased as we proceed away from the central
meridian.
3. The scale is true only along the central meridian and parallels.
4. The shapes are distorted away from the central meridian towards the
eastern and the western margins of the projection.
5. The other meridians are curves diverging towards the equator.
6. Except the central meridian, the meridians do not intersect the parallels at
right angles.
7. The projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic. Near the central
meridian both area and shape are approximately correct, but away from it
both become inaccurate. Hence various sheets of a country adjoining east
and west cannot be correctly filled together on this projection.

Uses:

The projection is not suitable for covering big regions. It is excellent for
depicting regions on small sheets with northern and southern ends that fit
together. Countries in the temperate zone with a wide latitudinal but restricted
longitudinal extent can be displayed successfully on this projection. The
framework of international map projection is a modified version of this
projection. In reality, the projection is insufficient for a nation that extends
beyond 30° on either side of the centre meridian. The projection is appropriate
for a map of Europe. It is also used for preparing topographical sheets of
small areas.

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Unit 2 Map Projections
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5.4 PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Exercise 5.1: Draw a graticule of Polyconic projection on a scale of
1:125,000,000 for an area extending from 30° S to 75°S and 15°
W to 135°E. Graticule interval is 15°.

Exercise 5.2: Draw the graticule of polyconic projection for an area extending
from 0° to 90°Nlatitude and 60° W to 60°E longitude on a scale
of 1: 240,000,000 and interval is 10°.

Now you have completed all the exercises. You need to submit the practical
record to the concerned academic counselor/lab instructor for its evaluation.

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2.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied:

 Definition of map projection as it refers to the transformation of Earth’s

three-dimensional surface into two-dimensional plane on a map using
mathematical formulae is called a map projection.
 Cartographers have to devise complex graphical, geometrical and
mathematical methods of transforming the Earth.
 Projection properties and types of projections and their significance.
 The construction of cylindrical, zenithal, and conical map projections.
 The construction of different map projections such as Simple Cylindrical
and Mercator’s projections in Exercise 3, Polar Zenithal Equidistant and
Polar Orthographic map projections in Exercise 4, and Polyconic
projection in Exercise 5.

2.6 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) A map projection is the mathematical transformation of the Earth's
three-dimensional surface into a two-dimensional plane on a map.
b) The four properties are including conformality, equal area, equidistant,
and azimuthal.
2. a) Perspective projections are those which can be derived by the image of
the network of parallels and meridians of a globe of any developable
surface. The non-perspective projections are drawn without the help of the
shadows from an illuminated globe.

b) The classification of map projections based on the position of Tangent

surface are Polar, Equatorial and Oblique.

2.7 REFERENCE AND FURTHER READING

1. Sarkar, A. (2008). Practical Geography: A Systematic Approach. Kolkata:
Orient Black Swan.
2. Singh, G. (2004). Map Work and Practical Geography. Delhi: Vikas
Publication House
3. Robinson, A.H., Morrison, J.L., Muehrcke, P.C., Kimmerling, A.J. &Gupltill,
S.C. (eds.) (1995). Elements of Cartography. New York: Wiley and
Johnson.
4. Misra, R.P. & Ramesh, A. (1986). Fundamentals of Cartography. New
Delhi: McMillan.
5. Singh, L. R.& Singh, R.P.B. (1979/2003). Elements of Practical
Geography. Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.

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Unit 2 Map Projections
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6. Khullar, D.R. (2015).Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.
7. Singh, L.R. and Singh, R. (1979). Map Work and Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
8. Monkhouse, F.J. and Wilkinson, H.R. (1971). Maps and Diagrams.
London: Methuen & Co Ltd.

63
 UNIT 3

MAPS
Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.5 Classification of Maps
Expected Learning Outcomes 3.6 Significance of Maps
3.2 Meaning and Definition of 3.7 Summary
Map 3.8 Answers
3.3 History of Maps 3.9 References and Further
3.4 Types of Maps Reading

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In previous units you have studied the basic concepts, history and development
of cartography, scales along with map projections. Projection is a mathematical
and graphical transformation of spherical surface of the Earth into two
dimensional flat surfaces to show the whole or part of the globe in the form of a
map. In Unit 3, you will study about maps including their definition, history,
types, classification, significance and usages. Map is an important tool of
geography. It is a pictorial representation of the whole or a part of the Earth on
plane surface to scale. You will study about the maps meaning, definition and
their history in Section 3.2and 3.3. Basic types and classification of maps, and
significance of maps are discussed in Section 3.5and 3.6, respectively.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Define what is a map and understand its meaning;
 Describe the history of maps;
 Explain types and classification of maps; and
 Explain the significance of maps.

3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MAP

Geography is concerned with different branches of knowledge, thought and
logic. Cartography is one of them. It is concerned with the designing,
constructing and producing of maps. This includes the whole process from
original field work to final printing. Misra (1969) suggests that it is also a

Rameshwar Thakur 65
Block - 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
science of human communication. Cartography now includes scientific,
technical and artistic efforts in producing a map. It demands skills which are
more fundamentally cartographic then the skills of making original drawings.
Thus, the important aspect of cartography is the co-ordination of the entire
map making process that is both scientific as well as artistic.

A map is an indispensable tool of geography. It portrays the features of the

part or whole of the Earth. These features include the natural and cultural
phenomena. Apart from this, maps also show the features of heavenly bodies
as well as location and distribution of stars and planets. Recently, maps of
moon showing physical attributes are also coming up. Whether it is part of the
Earth or whole of the Earth, or it is a natural or cultural phenomenon, or
whether it is a part of moon or other heavenly bodies, the question arises
about the nature and quality of the portrayal of their complex reality. It is the
displaying of these complexities that a map maker has been attempting for
since the last several hundreds of years. Many achievements have been
made, techniques have been developed, still a map maker has to discover
many novel ways to achieve the desired end.

The word 'map' has been taken from a Latin word 'Mappa' which means a
table cloth or a cloth cover. Earlier maps were drawn on cloth or on tree
leaves. The use of paper for drawing maps came at much later stage. A map
is defined as a representation to scale of the features of the whole of the
Earth or a part of it on a plane surface. Size of a map is, however, very small
as compared with the size of the Earth’s surface it represents. It, therefore,
represents only important features of the Earth. The maps showing Earth or a
part, therefore are called terrestrial maps while those showing celestial bodies
are known as Celestial maps.

Several scholars have tried to define a map in their own way. A map is simply
a picture - a picture of a piece of country drawn on a flat surface. Map is a
representation of the Earth's surface or a part of it, its physical and political
features, etc., or of the heavens, delineated on a flat surface of paper, or
other material, each pointing the drawing corresponding to a geographical or
Celestial position according to a definite scale of projection (Stamp, 1968).

Map is representation on a plane surface (paper, card, plastic, cloth or some

other material) of the features of part of the Earth's surface, drawn to some
specific scale (Monkhouse, 1971).

'A map is, in its primary conception, a conventionalized picture of the Earth's
pattern as seen from above, to which lettering is added for identification
(Raisz, 1948).

From these definitions, we draw the conclusion that a map is a very strong
device to depict and to understand the picture of the Earth surface. The better
the map, the better will be the quality of the picture conveyed to the reader's
mind. Today there are many different kinds of map making, and the objectives
and techniques seem very different. It is important to realize, however, that all
maps have the same aims of communicating spatial relationships and forms.
However, dissimilar the maps may seem, the cartographic methods are
fundamentally alike.

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A map is quite different from a photograph. Photographs display all visible
items of the area photographed. A photographer cannot ignore objects other
than his selected objects. Irrespective of the selection, every detail lying within
the focal range of the camera comes out in the picture. In addition, a
photograph cannot represent a theoretical surface, for example, distribution of
population per capita income, population structure, perception of environment
etc. One thing is important that a photograph correctly represents the shape
and size of objects which a map cannot do. "A map being a mental and
manual creation of man, gives only these details which its creator wants to
give. Instead of showing details in their true or visible shape and size, it uses
symbols which may or may not have similarities with the shape and size of
the objects represented (Misra, 1969). Also, a map can show the boundary
lines and a pattern derived from the statistical analysis of data which are not
found on the ground. Considering all these characteristics, a map has been
defined as a 'selective, symbolized and generalized picture on a much
reduced scale of some spatial distribution of a large area usually the Earth
surface. So, map in the general sense is associated with Earth and not with
other heavenly bodies except under unusual condition.

A map is evidently smaller in size than the corresponding area of the Earth it
represents. Every map is drawn to scale which determines the ratio between
the distance of two points on a map and their actual distance on the ground.
That is why a cartographic representation which does not carry a scale is not
a map, rather it is a sketch. Direction is also an essential element of a map. It
helps in locating a particular place or feature with reference to known point.
Generally, it is indicated by the lines of meridians and parallels which run
north-south and east-west respectively. Hence, north is often at the top of a
map. A map is a conventional representation of the Earth's surface pattern.
This is because the various features of landscape are depicted on the map
with the help of conventional signs or symbols. Every symbol, sign and letter
which has been adopted for representing topographic forms conveys a
definite meaning; so, the map becomes a kind of code which cannot be fully
interpreted without a complete knowledge of the used conventional signs.

A careful study of the definitions of map given by different scholars brings us

to a conclusion that a map has a proper title, scale on which the map is made.
But modern science of making maps include sketch, diagram diagraph,
cartogram, graph, three dimensional models, and globes in representing the
Earth features. A sketch is a rough drawing of the features of landscape
without scale and care. Generally, it is drawn for those areas for which maps
and photographs are not available. Therefore, sketch maps of unsaved areas
are of utmost importance to the researcher interested in that area. A diagram
is a plain representation of the essential elements of the data. It shows inter-
relationships of the data by means of lines and symbols and is designed to
give an orderly and logical visualization of their relationships. A cartogram is
defined as a diagrammatic representation of statistical map with a purpose
showing the distribution pattern of the particular elements. A graph is also a
cartographic product and is the equivalent of tables. In fact, a graph cannot be
prepared unit the corresponding table has been prepared. A graph shows the
numerical data by lines and reveals the pattern of the total distribution. The
recent cartographic products are three-dimensional models and globes which

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are not constructed on a plane surface. But they are similar in design and
construction. The main utility of a three-dimensional model is to simulate the
features of the Earth's surface in their true form. A three-dimensional model
represents a part of the Earth's surface while a global represents the Earth in
its nearest to true shape. These recent developments of cartography are
basically different from a map. But maps can also be classified because each
map is unique in construction, content and design.

In the past, map-makers design their products aesthetically attractive. But in

recent years attention has been paid to principles of map design, balance and
layout of their visual effectiveness as per consumer demand. In fact, a map is
a two dimensional representation of the Earth's surface or part of it, drawn
with the help of conventional signs and symbols, to a scale on a flat surface.
The scale is the most important element of a map. The ratio between the
distance on the map and the actual distance on the ground is the scale of the
map. Each map has a dimensional relationship between reality and the map.
This relationship is called scale. Maps are abstractions of reality. Maps
portray only the information that has been chosen to fit the use of the map. All
maps use signs to stand for elements of reality. The meanings of these signs
make up the symbolism of cartography. Few symbols used on map have
universal meanings as few words mean the same thing in all languages. All
map symbols use to portray various kinds of marks like – lines, dots, colours,
and patterns so on. Map user can compare the symbols with those in legend.
The look of a map depends largely on the intended use. Since map design
principles are flexible to accommodate a wide range of needs, maps are of
many purposes and specialized. The blurring of purposes makes it difficult to
develop one taxonomy of map types. A plan and chart are also maps. A plan
is a large-scale map on which every object of the ground is drawn to scale.
For example, on a topographical map, the conventional signs representing
roads, railways, wells, temple, etc. are not drawn to scale. Maps used for air
and marine navigations are called charts. A map showing weather conditions
is called Weather chart in some countries. An air navigation charts are also
called aeronautical chart that delineates lending - grounds and hills, peaks
and high towards which may prove dangerous to airplanes. The sea
navigation charts depict coast-lines, depth of the seas, light houses, etc. A
weather chart shows weather conditions such as atmospheric pressure, wind
direction, precipitation etc.

A map at a glance gives so much information which if written in words could

cover several pages. Maps have been in use since ancient times. In recent
years, their importance has increased manifold. The advancement in the field
of transport and communication has made our world smaller and men have
become more mobile. Hence our dependence on maps has increased
tremendously. The modern map making in India began after the arrival of
Europeans in India. Till the beginning, the maps of India have been based
mainly on route surveys, military or otherwise. With the advancement of
science of map making and the improvement of the instruments used,
mapmaker discover ways to prepare accurate and prefect maps based on
various ways of surveys. The scientific map making efforts started with the
inception of the Survey of India in 1767, during British rule. In those days
making of land record become important to collect revenue from the land

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owners. Hence, the East India Company appointed the first Surveyor General
of India in 1767. Later on, all maps were prepared by the Survey of India.
Today the pioneering work of the National Atlas of Thematic Mapping
Organization (NATMO) is commendable. It surveys the area, prepares the
maps and provides authentic information to the common people through
maps.

No doubt, it is an age of science and technology which has helped all in

preparing maps with less involvement of money having very accurate and
time efficient. In this regard, National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC), is the
pioneering organization in India. It uses the digital data received from satellite
to prepare maps. Other agencies like National Atlas and Thematic Mapping
Organization (NATMO), National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning (NBSS&LUP), India Metrological Department (IMD), Geological
Survey of India (GSI), etc. are important among organizations that prepare
maps.

3.3 HISTORY OF MAPS

Maps have a long history behind them. The history of maps is older than
history itself (Raisz, 1948). A chronological history of its evolution is a baffling
problem. Early maps were of very notional kind without proper
measurements. Egyptians have been the pioneers in making systematic
maps for the purpose of revenue. Greek geographers laid the foundation of
our present day cartography after 16th century. They recognized the spherical
shape of the Earth with its pole, equator and tropics. They also developed the
latitude and longitude system and designed the first projection. Greek
geographer Eratosthenes in the third century B.C. estimated the size of the
Earth with an appreciable degree of accuracy. Various maps including that of
world drawn by Ptolemy in his great work ’Geographia’ is the landmark of
Greek cartography. He has tried to show the entire world using mathematical
aspects of geography, though, the maps were not refined ones. In 15 th
century AD, the Arab geographers also prepared world maps after publication
of Geographia. The Roman approach to cartography was rather utilitarian.
They made maps which suited their military and administrative purposes.
They prepared ‘Peutinger Table’ showing major roads with military posts.

The 15th and 16th centuries are generally regarded as the period of
decadence. The 15th century ushered in a new cartographic era when
Ptolemy was rediscovered and his ‘Geographia’ got wide circulation through
its Latin translation. His maps inspired a new enthusiasm in the non-Arabic
world and some important school of cartography. In the 16th century, map
publishing became a lucrative business with the Italians, the Spaniards, the
Portuguese, the Germans and the Dutch.

The French cartography began in the 17th century under the influence of
Nicolas Samson (1600-1667) who was himself influenced by the Dutch
school. The National Survey was initiated in France by C.F. Cassini and the
‘Carte Geometrique de La France” was prepared on 1:86,400 scale in 1789.
Other European countries also started the National Surveys. A map called T-
O or T and O Map was also popular in medieval period with religious
importance where Jerusalem was placed at the centre of the world.
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th
The 18 century dawned with new hopes and new aspirations and
cartography made an unprecedented bid for reformation and transformation to
become modern. This century saw the advent of modern map making and the
entry of the state into competition with private map making and publishing.
The first general map of the whole country based upon extended triangulation
and topographical survey, in England, 1 inch to 1 mile was prepared in 1801.
First modern survey was started in 1802 with Geographical and Mathematical
Survey in India by Colonel William Lambton, a Geographer and Geodesist.
This survey was later on designated as Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS)
IN 1818 and led by Albert Everest after Lambton.

During 19th and 20th centuries, the map-making techniques further developed
due to remarkable advancements in science and technology and also the
printing technology. Mono colour maps were replaced by the multi-colour
maps. A number of national atlases were prepared during this phase. These
were further accentuated by the aerial photography during the First World
War, which kept progressing with the refinement of computing, computer
graphic and printing technology. The rapid advancements in the satellite and
GIS technologies, transformed maps into smart maps.

Till the beginning of the 19th century, the maps of India have been based
primarily on route surveys, military or otherwise. The scientific map making
efforts started with the inception of the Survey of India in 1767, during the
British rule. The East India Company started survey of India work in 1767 and
carried forward by the Government of India from the Imperial Government
after independence for survey and mapping of the country. Today all the
maps are to be authenticated by the Survey of India. The pioneering work of
the National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization (NATMO) is also
commendable. It surveys the area, prepares the map and provides authentic
information to the common people through maps.

In more recent times, the realm of cartography is revolutionized by the

introduction of aerial photographs. Photogrammetric, a new branch of modern
cartography, envisages interpretation of aerial photographs for preparation of
precision maps. The concept of “Remote-Sensing”, remarkably developed by
NASA, United States of America has brought a new dimension in the art and
science of map-making.

SAQ 1
a) What is map?
b) Write any two organizations map the country needs.

3.4 TYPES OF MAPS

Map is unique in its design and a type by itself. There is an unlimited variety
of maps. It is difficult to provide an all-embracing classification of map
because of their multitude in number as well as uses. They are used not only
by geographers but also by military personnel, planners, economists, air and
marine navigators and a host of other users. Therefore, many types of maps
are drawn for various kinds of users. It is difficult to give an accurate and all-
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embracing classification. Still based on certain common features like the
scale, content and purpose, maps can be classified into several types. On the
basis of the amount of topographic details given, maps can be classified as:

1. Hypsometric maps and

2. Planimetric maps

The hypsometric maps show relief and terrain in detail. Topographical sheets
come under this category. In contrast to topographic maps, the planimetric
maps show other details and limit the portrayal of relief. Most of thematic
maps represent the cultural feature so the landscape falls in this category.

3.4.1 Based on Scale

On the basis of scale maps can be classified as:

1) Large scale maps

2) Small-scale maps

Maps are drawn on different scale depending on the area covered by the map
and the size of the map. Large scale maps represent a large amount of
details with greater accuracy because of their larger surface space (Singh and
Singh, 1958) and include Cadastral maps and topographical maps. On the
other hand, small scale maps depict large areas on a restricted space so that
only important features are shown and include wall maps and atlas maps.

1) Cadastral maps

Cadastral maps are drawn on very large scale varying from 1 inch to 110
yards or 1 cm to 40 metres to 1 inch to 55 yards or 1 cm to 20 metres and are
kept with village patwari. The very large scale permits full details such as
boundaries of properties and individual buildings etc. to be sown on these
maps. Therefore, these maps are drawn to register the ownership of landed
property by demarcating the boundaries of fields, buildings etc. The village
maps and city plan maps are good example of cadastral maps. They are
specially prepared by government to realize revenue and tax from the owner
of land.

2) Topographical maps

Topographical maps are official maps. They are also prepared on a fairly
large-scale based on precise scale. They are drawn on the scales varying
from 1 cm to 250 metres to 1 cm to 2.5 km. It is a multipurpose map and
represents the natural features such as relief, swamps, rivers, forest, etc. as
well as manmade features like road, railways, means of communication,
canals, settlements etc. Topographical maps are of immense value. They are
extremely useful for planning, defense, tourism etc. For geographer, these are
most valuable tools for a detailed geographical study of some area. As such
other categories of maps are based on these maps.

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3) Wall Maps

Wall maps are drawn on small scaled varying from 1 cm: 5 km to1 cm: 40 km
or even less than that. It depicts micro-features with details and provides a
distant view. It is used as a teaching aid in a classroom. Its size is, therefore,
much larger than that of an atlas map. Like atlas maps they are small-scale
maps and represent boldly so that details given on them are easily read from
a distance. Wall maps are also prepared for a continent or country, large or
small according to need.

4) Atlas Maps

Atlas maps are drawn on much smaller sale than that of topographical maps
and represent the world, continents and countries. It gives a condensed and
generalized picture of physical and cultural features of different areas of the
world. The features generally shown by the atlas maps include relief,
drainage, vegetation, soils, crops, minerals, industries, means of
transportation, population, cities, etc. Since the scale is very small, only the
important features are shown and insignificant details are omitted. Despite
lack of details, atlas maps are suited for educational purposes.

3.4.2 Based on Purpose

Some maps are made on the basis of content or the purpose of the map.
They are classified into the following types as well:

1) General maps

2) Thematic maps, and

3) Special maps

1) General Purpose Maps

General purpose maps are those maps which give general information to
the reader. It includes those maps where scale is more than 1:1,000,000 and
shows only broad topographical features. They are usually made by public
agencies, using photogrammetric methods and are issued in series of
individual sheets. Great attention is paid to their accuracy in terms of
positional relationships among the features mapped. In many cases they have
the validity of legal documents for boundary determination tax assessment
and other such functions that require great precision. Small-scale general
reference maps show similar phenomena to those on large scale maps. But
due to being reduced and generalized, they cannot depict the detail and
positional accuracy of large-scale maps.

2) Thematic Maps

Thematic maps are characterized by dealing with one theme or objective.

Maps pertaining to a single factor such as geomorphology, rainfall, crops,
population towns etc. are classified as thematic maps. But, the meaning of the
term theme will make all maps to be thematic. There is no map without a
theme or purpose. One has to draw a line somewhere if the term 'thematic'
has to be used meaningfully. It is, therefore, suggested that the use of term

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thematic may represent only one type of data in which other types of data are
either not given or given to highlight the basic data. Thus, the population map
showing physiography in the background will be called, thematic map.

3) Special Maps

A special purpose maps are those which are prepared for a group of people
having special reading of perceptual problems. Thus, the maps for the blind
fall in this category. The maps for the children and neo-literates are also
called special purpose maps.

3.4.3 Based on Military Use

There are certain maps which are drawn specially for the use of military
personnel. From a soldier's points of view, they are classified as:

i) General Maps
ii) Strategic maps
iii) Tactical maps, and
iv) Photomaps

For military purposes, maps are classified as general, strategic, tactical and
photomaps (Misra, 1969). A general map includes those maps whose scale is
more than 1: 1,000,000. It depicts the broad topographic features and is
generally used for planning purposes. A strategic map incorporates scales
ranging from 1: 500,000 to 1,000,000 and is generally useful for planning
purposes and more concentrated military effort. A tactical map combines all
those maps with scale between 1: 250,000 to 1:500,000, and imparts more
information at the time of patrolling to battalions. A photomap is an air
photograph showing the details of the area concerned on the scale 1: 5,000 to
1: 60,000 and is comprehensible. These maps show almost all the relief and
planimetry and are used in planning the tactics of smaller units.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS

Based on the purpose and content maps are classified into two broad
categories (Singh, 1979):

Fig. 3.1: Classification of Maps.

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The pattern of the Earth is not uniform. Both natural and manmade features
over different areas may be shown on map. A map showing heavenly features
is known as astronomical map. The map showing surface form is termed
orographic or relief map. A geological map is an important tool to assess the
structure of land they represent. A climate map denotes the average condition
of temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation over a short period, which
may range from a day to a season. When averages of weather conditions
over a long period are charted out on map, they are defined as climate maps.
The maps showing natural flora are called vegetation maps. The soil map of
an area exhibits different (various) types of soils in a particular area. They are
very useful in agricultural planning.

On the other hand, cultural landscapes over the surface of the Earth are also
represented on the map, such maps calls ‘cultural maps’. Different types of
maps under this category have been evolved. A political map provides a
visual picture of the continent or the country or sub-divisions their off, either
by bold boundary lines or by tints of colours. Other features are neglected into
the background. Various spheres of influence of nations may be expressed on
political maps. Military maps are those which record strategic points, routes
and battle plans in space. Social organizations like tribes and races and their
language, religious are also depicted on maps which may be called social
maps. Maps exhibiting the nature and character of land use may be termed
land utilization maps. Some maps are pictorial and diagrammatic maps in
which precision and true proportions are illustrated in such a manner as to
make them more impressive and appealing to the mind. Graphs and diagrams
are example of such maps.

The map showing only one aspect or features may be termed as

communication map. For example, roads, railways, airways etc. When many
features are shown on a map, it may be named either on the basis of the
main idea reflected by it or total aspect shown by it. For instance, showing the
distribution of agricultural, mineral and industrial products termed is as
economic map because from it the nature of economic development of the
region may be interpreted.

A map showing the distribution of a commodity or objects may be grouped

under the head of 'Distribution Maps'. The distribution maps may be further
sub-divided according to the method of construction. It may be presented by;
colour, symbol, regular lines, dots, shading, bars, blocks circles and spheres.
Statistical data may be shown by lines of equal value. To show equal amount
of rainfall, temperature and pressure, etc. isohyets, isotherms and isobars etc.
are used respectively. All maps in which lines of equal values are shown are
called isopleth maps. Similarly, different shades to show some different
density of population, location factors for industries, forest types etc. are
termed as choropleth maps.

SAQ 2
What are two types on the basis of scale?

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3.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF MAPS
A map is a great source of information in one way or another as every science
is dependent upon maps and diagrams to illustrate their facts and data. It is
because all are directly or indirectly related with the science of the Earth and
they all seek the help of maps for the purpose of research, teaching and
propagation of their accomplishments. The Earth is so large in size that it
presents a variety of scenery and topographic features. Naturally it is difficult
for any individual to have personal observation of things all over the world. In
that perspective maps can keep a record of various facts and can make a
direct appeal to the mind and even the unknown and unseen landscapes may
be unfolded in their original form. We can conclude, therefore, that maps are
indispensable tools of geographers, in a sense that they easily bring forth
spatial relationship that exist in this complex world (Robison, 1962). For
example, a settlement map showing towns of different sizes portrays the
factual data along with their spatial inter-relationships. A map of population
distribution of a particular region shows the organization and disorganization
of population with space therein. A topographical map systematically
describes the regional geography of that area, while many complicated
landforms can be successfully explained in a simplified manner with the help
of a map.

The planners make use of maps to of depict the plans, particularly the
deficient areas in respect of public utility services to focus upon the attention
of administrators and planning authorities. Map provides guidance and
assistance to the administrators in a visual and integrated picture of the area.
In this age of planning, the importance and uses of maps are great,
consequently, they have become a part and parcel of our life and we cannot
do without them.

Accordingly (Crone, 1968) the most important use of maps is to express

graphically, the relations of points and features on the Earth's surface to each
other determined by distance and direction. Location can be tersely explained
in terms of latitude and longitude and the distance of an unknown point from a
known point in a particular direction. The increasing mobility of the people
these days has increased the use of maps in locating places by travelers and
tourists. Recently, maps have entered the realm of advertisement. For
showing the location of industries, productions, marketing centers, and land,
lay-out maps are marked on the maps.

Maps are essential for academic purposes in education and reach. They are
used as models in understanding the reality of the world because they contain
the essence of some generalization about reality (Board, 1959). In this way
they are useful analytical tools and help the researchers to perceive the real
world. Sometimes they are also used as visual aids in the classrooms. Wall
maps serve this major purpose in the class rooms. It is often seen that maps
appear in many textbooks. One of the chief aims in putting maps is that they
save thousands of words in visual expressions. Not only that, goods maps
have the capacity to crystallize the facts and figures in a fashion which makes
them comprehensible and clear. In modern geography particularly in the
application of statistical methods to research problems, the utility of maps as

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research tools has considerably increased. The outcome of the quantitative
revolution in geography is that a large number of thematic maps are being
produced. Maps are of immense impotence to the military personnel for
planning strategy. During war between the two nations, military advances are
not free from dangers in unmapped areas. Therefore, maps render much help
by indicating routes and positions of the enemies. Terrain evaluation is a must
prior to the movement of troops in a particular direction. This evaluation gives
an idea of the details of topography including roads, canals, ditches, ridges,
walls etc. In the part, it has been seen that many operations have failed due
to lack of good maps. This is why the topographical maps are prepared
specially for defense purpose.

Judging from the preceding analysis and discussion about the importance and
uses of maps in different activities, one can argue that the number of maps
produced or sold in a particular country is a useful guide to the level of
economic development or standard of leaving (Dickinson, 1967). In other
words, as the complexity of our physical environment increases, more maps
are required to keep record of it. Similarly, as the standard of living rises, so
does the demand for maps to tell us more about other places. It is no
exaggeration to say that a map is an integrated part of our present civilization
and a tool of promoting future civilization. In conclusion, it may be stated that
maps are most useful analytical and descriptive tools as well as the medium
for communication or research of geographers. Geography is incomplete
without maps. Therefore, one should know about the science and art of
making maps that is cartography.

SAQ 3
What is the importance of a settlement map?

3.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied so far:

 The meaning and definition of maps.

 The types of maps based on scale, purpose or usage.

 History and evolution of maps from ancient time to the modern period
characterized by different sophisticated technologies.

 Significance and usage of maps which have become the inevitable part of
our everyday lives in some form or the other.

3.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Map is representation on a plane surface (paper, card, plastic, cloth or
some other material) of the features of part of the Earth's surface, drawn
to some specific scale.

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b) Survey of India and National Remote Sensing Center.
2. Large scale and small scale maps
Small-scale maps.

3. A settlement map showing towns of different sizes portrays the factual

data along with their spatial inter-relationships.

3.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Board, C. (1969). Maps As Models in Models in Geography (eds.) R.J.
Chorley and P. Haggett. London: Methuen and Co.
2. Crone, G.R. (1968). Maps and their Makers: Introduction to the History
of Cartography. London: Hutchinson University Library.
3. Dickinson, G.C. (1967). Statistical Mapping and the Presentation ln
Statistics. London: Edward Arnold.
4. Fundamentals of Cartography (Second Revised and Enlarged Edition-
2014) (Contributions from R.B. Singh, Brijesh Misra and Anupam
Pandey) by R. P. Mishra (Author), Concept Publishing: New Delhi.
5. Misra, R.P. (1969).Fundamentals of Cartography. Prasaranga:
University of Mysore.
6. Monkhouse, F.J. and Wilkinson, H.R. (1971). Maps and Diagrams.
London: Methuen.
7. Raisz, E. (1962). Principles of Cartography. New York: McGrow Hill.
8. Robinson, A.H. (1962). Elements of Cartography. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
9. Singh, R.L. and Dutt, P.K. (1960). Elements of Practical Geography.
Allahabad: Students Friends.
10. Singh, R.L. and Singh, L.R. (1958).Map Work and Practical
Geography. Allahabad: Central Book Depot.
11. Stamp, L.K.D. (1968). Glossary of Geographical Terms. London.

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 UNIT 4

RECENT TRENDS IN
CARTOGRAPHY
Structure
4.1 Introduction Perspective Aspects
Expected Learning Outcomes 4.3 Summary
4.2 Recent Trends in Cartography 4.4 Answers
Descriptive Aspects 4.5 References and Suggested
Analytical Aspects Reading

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units of the block, you have studied in details about the historical
development of cartography, different types of map projections and types of
maps and their classification. In this unit you will be learning about the
development trends in the cartography with their different aspects like
descriptive, analytical and perspectives. It will be very interesting to know that
how the descriptive, analytical and perspective aspects of the cartography have
changed over the time period.

You have already studied in the previous unit that Cartography is the method
through which maps are created, designed and studied. It guides the principles
and practical standards behind maps and map making and thus it is said that it is
a confluence between science, art and practice. Cartography not only helps us in
understanding our place in the world, but it also helps in analysing the
geopolitical relationships, and reflect on geography's impact on our daily lives.
Cartography has been helping in the mapping our changing geopolitical world
since centuries. Be it early voyages, expeditions or in modern days use of GPS,
Cartography is playing a great role not only in the mapping but also in finding out
our desired routes for different purposes.

"Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps, together with
their study as scientific documents and works of art" (Robinson, 1952) and it has
a long and fascinating history dating back to ancient times. Maps have been used
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for various purposes throughout history that included navigation, exploration, and
military strategy. The evolution of cartography as a subject has been driven by
technological advances and changes in cultural and societal needs.

Early cartography can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as the

Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks, who created maps to depict their known
world. Maps in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia date back to around 3000 BC.
These early maps were simple, schematic representations that lacked accurate
scales or compass directions. As trade and exploration increased during the
Middle Ages, maps became more detailed and accurate, with the use of the lines
of latitude and longitude, compass directions, and distance measurements. The
ancient Greeks also made significant contributions to cartography, with Ptolemy
creating some of the earliest known maps of the world. Other civilizations, such
as the Chinese and the Islamic world, also made important contributions to
cartography during this period (Edney, 2011).

The Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries led to significant advances
in cartography, as explorers created more accurate and detailed maps of new
territories. The first circum-navigation of the world by Ferdinand Magellan in 1522
led to the creation of more accurate maps of the Earth (Edney, 2011). During the
period of age of exploration, explorers like Christopher Columbus and Vasco da
Gama pushed the boundaries of known geography. Map-making became an
essential tool for navigation and trade, and cartographers developed new
techniques to create more accurate and detailed maps, including the use of
triangulation and topographical surveys.

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century brought about further advances in
cartography, as printing technology allowed for the mass production of maps and
atlases. During this time, the use of maps expanded beyond navigation and
exploration to include land use planning, urban development, and resource
management. In the modern era, cartography has become increasingly scientific
and technical. The development of aerial photography and satellite imaging has
enabled the creation of highly accurate and detailed maps. Advances in digital
mapping technologies have made it possible to create interactive and dynamic
maps, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have revolutionized the way
spatial data is collected, analyzed, and displayed (Monmonier, 1993).

In the 20th century, the advent of computer technology revolutionized

cartography once again. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and other digital
mapping tools allowed for the creation of highly detailed and customizable maps
that could be updated in real-time. This led to the development of new
applications for mapping, such as satellite imagery analysis and location-based
services.

Today, cartography is a highly interdisciplinary field that combines elements of

geography, computer science, design, and data analysis. Cartographers continue
to push the boundaries of map-making through the use of advanced technologies
such as augmented reality, machine learning, and 3D mapping. As society's
needs evolve, so too does the field of cartography, with an increasing focus on
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creating maps that address issues such as climate change, social justice, and
global health.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you will be able to:

 Discuss the development trends in Cartography

 Explain the changes in the descriptive aspects of Cartography
 Analyse the changes in the analytical aspects of Cartography
 Explain the changes in the perspective aspects of Cartography

4.2 RECENT TRENDS IN CARTOGRAPHY

Cartography has undergone significant changes in recent years, driven by
advances in technology, changing user needs, and new approaches to
cartographic design. In this section, we will discuss some of the recent
development trends in cartography. One of the most significant recent trends in
cartography is the increasing use of digital mapping technologies. The
widespread availability of geographic information systems (GIS) software and
online mapping platforms has made it easier than ever before to create and
share maps. This has led to a democratization of cartography, allowing non-
experts to create their own maps and interact with geographic data (Dodge et al.,
2015).

Another trend in cartography is the emphasis on user-centered design.

Cartographers are increasingly designing maps that are tailored to specific user
needs, rather than creating one-size-fits-all maps. This approach involves
conducting user research, understanding the context in which maps will be used,
and designing maps that are intuitive and easy to use (Peterson, 2018).

Another trend in cartography is the use of interactive and animated maps. Rather
than static maps, which present a fixed view of the world, interactive and
animated maps allow users to explore and interact with data in real-time. This
approach can enhance understanding and engagement with geographic
information, and can be particularly useful for presenting complex data in an
accessible way (Slocum, et al. (2009).

With the advances in satellite imagery and LiDAR technology, creation of highly
detailed 3D maps has become possible which provides a more immersive and
interactive user experience, while Augmented Reality Mapping technology has
enabled the creation of interactive maps that allow users to overlay information
onto the real world and this technology is particularly useful for applications such
as navigation and tourism. Similarly, machine learning algorithms can be used to
automatically extract and analyze data from satellite imagery and other sources
to create more accurate and detailed maps.

With the advancement in the GIS technology, interactive and customizable maps
have allowed users to tailor the display of information to their specific needs and
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preferences. Technological advancement in GIS also helps in Geo-visualization,

in which the use of visual techniques to explore, analyze, and communicate
spatial data is made possible. This approach has led to the development of new
tools and techniques for analyzing and presenting spatial dat.

Overall, these recent developments in cartography have enabled the creation of

more accurate, detailed, and interactive maps that provide valuable insights into
complex spatial relationships and phenomena. Now we will learn the recent
developments in cartography under three sub aspects i.e., descriptive aspects,
analytical aspects and perspective aspects.

4.2.1 Descriptive Aspects

Descriptive development trends in cartography refer to the ways in which
cartography has evolved in terms of its descriptive capabilities over time. The
descriptive aspects of cartography refer to the elements of a map that are used to
describe and represent spatial information like scale, projection, symbols and
colors, labels and annotations, legend, orientation, grids and coordinates.
Overall, the descriptive aspects of cartography are used to create maps that
accurately and effectively represent spatial information, helping users understand
and navigate the world around them.

One of the earliest descriptive development trends in cartography was the use of
pictorial maps, which depicted geographic features in a stylized, representational
manner. These maps were popular in the medieval and early modern periods
and were often used for artistic and decorative purposes rather than as practical
navigational tools (Woodward, 1992).

With the advent of scientific mapping techniques in the 18th and 19th centuries,
cartography shifted towards a more systematic and accurate representation of
geographic features. This period saw the development of contour lines,
topographic mapping, and other techniques that allowed for a more precise
depiction of the natural landscape (Robinson et al., 1995).

In the 20th century, there was a move towards simplification and standardization
in cartographic design. This led to the development of standardized symbols and
colors, which were used to represent geographic features in a consistent and
easily recognizable manner (Dent, 1999).

More recently, there has been a shift towards a more user-centered approach to
cartographic design, with an emphasis on creating maps that are tailored to
specific user needs. This has led to the development of more interactive and
customizable maps, which allow users to manipulate and explore geographic
data in real-time (Peterson, 2018). Overall, the descriptive development trends in
cartography reflect the changing needs and priorities of map users over time, as
well as advances in technology and mapping techniques.

Cartography as a subject has undergone significant changes over time,

particularly in terms of its descriptive aspects. Earlier, cartography was primarily

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limited to the creation of maps that provided a snapshot of the political
boundaries and physical features of a region. These maps were typically hand-
drawn and lacked the level of detail and accuracy that modern cartography
offers.

However, with the advent of technology and the availability of advanced tools,
cartography has evolved into a multidisciplinary field that combines geography,
geology, mathematics, computer science, and graphic design. Modern
cartography now not only depicts political boundaries and physical features, but
also includes advanced mapping techniques that capture various aspects of
human activity and environmental factors.

One of the major changes in cartography is the shift towards digital mapping.
Modern cartographers use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to create
digital maps that can be easily modified, updated, and shared across various
platforms. This has led to the development of interactive maps that can be
customized according to the needs of specific users.

Moreover, cartography now incorporates data visualization techniques that can

visually represent complex data sets. Cartographers can now create thematic
maps that depict data related to population density, climate change,
demographics, and other social and economic indicators. This has led to the
development of modern tools and applications that make it easier for users to
access and analyze large data sets.

The changes in technology have transformed cartography from a discipline that

primarily focuses on the creation of maps to a multidisciplinary field that
combines various aspects of human activity and environmental factors. The tools
and techniques used in modern cartography make it possible to accurately and
efficiently represent complex data and provide users with valuable insights into
various aspects of the world around them.

4.2.2 Analytical Aspects

Analytical aspects in cartography refer to the ways in which maps have been
used for analysis and decision-making purposes. One of the earliest analytical
development trends in cartography was the use of thematic maps, which
depicted spatial patterns of data related to a particular theme or topic (Slocum et
al., 2009). Thematic maps were used to support a wide range of analytical tasks,
from identifying areas of high or low population density to mapping the spread of
disease outbreaks.

In the late 20th century, the development of geographic information systems

(GIS) revolutionized the field of cartography and introduced new analytical
capabilities (Longley et al., 2005). GIS allowed for the integration of spatial data
with non-spatial data, making it possible to analyze complex relationships
between different types of data. It also helps in spatial analysis where the use of
GIS and other spatial analysis tools helps in identifying patterns, relationships,

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and trends in spatial data. This can include techniques such as spatial clustering,
spatial auto-correlation, and spatial interpolation (Anselin, 1995).

Like spatial modelling, Cartographic modeling can be also performed which

involves the development of models that integrate spatial and non-spatial data to
support decision-making processes. Cartographic models are being used in a
variety of fields, including land use planning, environmental management, and
transportation planning (Cova and Church, 1997). Similarly, web-based mapping
is also used which involves the use of web-based platforms to create and share
interactive maps that allow users to visualize and analyze spatial data. Web-
based mapping tools have become increasingly popular in recent years, and
have been used in a variety of applications, including disaster management,
public health, and environmental monitoring (Haklay, 2013).

More recently, there has been a move towards the use of interactive and web-
based mapping tools, which allow users to conduct sophisticated analyses
without the need for specialized software or technical expertise (Krygier and
Wood, 2011). These tools allow users to interact with geographic data in real-
time, and can be used for a wide range of analytical tasks, from identifying
patterns in crime data to predicting the impact of climate change on coastal
ecosystems. 3D mapping technologies are used to create interactive
visualizations of spatial data. 3D cartography can be used in a variety of fields,
including urban planning, architecture, and archaeology (Kraak and Ormeling,
2010).

With the advancement in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

techniques, some major development has taken place in the analytical approach.
Recent developments in cartography have included new analytical approaches
and tools that have expanded the ways in which maps can be used to analyze
spatial data. Here are some examples:

 Machine learning: Machine learning involves using algorithms to

automatically analyze large amounts of spatial data. This approach can be
used for a wide range of applications, from predicting the spread of diseases
to identifying areas at risk due to natural disasters. One common example of
machine learning in cartography is the use of support vector machines
(SVMs) for land use classification. SVMs are a type of supervised machine
learning algorithm that can be trained to classify spatial data based on a set
of input features. In this application, SVMs can be trained using labeled
satellite imagery, where each pixel is labeled with a specific land use class,
such as residential, commercial, or industrial (Bhaduri et al., 2008). The SVM
learns to recognize patterns in the input features, such as spectral bands and
texture measures, and makes decisions about the land use class based on
these patterns. This type of automated land use classification can be useful
for urban planning and land use management. By analyzing changes in land
use over time, SVMs can be used to track urban growth and development,
and to identify areas of potential conflict between different land use types.

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 Spatial econometrics: Spatial econometrics involves using maps to analyze
economic data, such as housing prices or employment rates. This approach
can help to identify spatial patterns and relationships that may not be
apparent through traditional statistical analysis. One common example of
spatial econometrics in cartography is spatial auto-correlation analysis to
identify spatial patterns in data. Spatial auto-correlation refers to the degree
to which observations in space are similar to each other, and can be used to
identify clusters of similar values or patterns of spatial variation in data.

For example, spatial auto-correlation analysis has been used to identify hotspots
of crime in urban areas (Braga et al., 1999), patterns of deforestation in tropical
forests (Gibbs et al., 2010), and clusters of disease outbreaks in public health
data (Jacquez et al., 2005).

Spatial auto-correlation analysis can be performed using a range of statistical

methods, including Moran's I, Geary's C, and spatial regression models (Anselin,
1995). These methods can help identify and quantify the degree of spatial
dependence in data, and can be used to model and predict spatial patterns in a
range of applications.

Overall, spatial econometrics and spatial auto-correlation analysis are important

tools in cartography and spatial analysis, allowing for a better understanding of
spatial patterns and processes in a wide range of spatial data.

 Web mapping: Web mapping involves creating interactive maps that can be
accessed online. This approach has revolutionized the way that the spatial
data is shared and accessed, enabling users to explore and analyze spatial
data from anywhere in the world (Haklay, M, 2010).

A common example of web mapping in cartography is the use of online maps

to display and interact with geospatial data. Web mapping has become an
important tool for sharing and visualizing spatial data, and is used in a variety
of contexts, from urban planning and environmental management to social
media and e-commerce (Sui, D, 2015).

One of the most widely used web mapping platforms is Google Maps, which
provides an extensive range of features and tools for displaying and
interacting with geospatial data. Google Maps allows users to search for
specific locations, view satellite imagery and street-level views, and obtain
directions and travel times between different locations.

 Big data mapping: Big data mapping involves using maps to analyze and
visualize large data sets, such as social media data or satellite data. This
approach can help to identify trends and patterns that may not be visible
using traditional analytical methods (Hansen et al.,2013)

A common example of big data mapping in cartography is the use of satellite

imagery and remote sensing data to monitor and analyze large-scale
environmental changes, such as deforestation, urbanization, and climate
change. With the increasing availability of high-resolution satellite imagery
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and advanced image processing algorithms, researchers and practitioners

are using big data mapping to gain insights into complex environmental
phenomena and inform decision-making processes.

One example of big data mapping in cartography is the Global Forest Watch
platform, which provides real-time data on deforestation and forest loss
around the world. The platform uses satellite imagery and machine learning
algorithms to identify changes in forest cover, and provides users with
interactive maps and tools to explore the data and analyze trends over time.

Another example is the Land-Use Harmonization (LUH2) dataset, which

combines satellite imagery, census data, and other sources of information to
create a high-resolution map of global land use patterns. The LUH2 dataset is
being used to study the impacts of land use changes on climate, biodiversity,
and other environmental factors, and to inform policy and management
decisions related to land use and conservation.

Overall, big data mapping is a powerful tool in cartography and environmental

management, providing researchers and practitioners with new ways to
monitor and understand complex environmental systems and make informed
decisions about their management and conservation.

 Time-series mapping: Time-series mapping involves using maps to visualize

changes in spatial data over time. This approach can be used to analyze
changes in land use, population, or other features over a period of years or
decades (Gergel et al.,2017)

A common example of time series mapping in cartography is the visualization

of changes in land use or land cover over time using satellite imagery and
other sources of geospatial data. Time series mapping allows for the
detection of trends and patterns in land use change, which can inform policy
and management decisions related to environmental conservation, urban
planning, and other fields.

One example of time series mapping in cartography is the Land Use Land
Cover Change detection, which uses satellite imagery to track changes in
land cover of any region over different time period. This helps in production of
maps and reports that provide insights into the drivers of land use change
and their impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity.

 Spatial statistics: Spatial statistics involves using statistical methods to

analyze spatial data. This can include analyzing patterns of disease,
identifying areas at risk from natural disasters, or mapping environmental
pollution. A common example of spatial statistics in cartography is the
analysis of spatial patterns in geospatial data, such as land use,
demographics, and environmental data. Spatial statistics enables the
identification of spatial patterns and relationships in geospatial data, which
can inform decision-making in a variety of fields.

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One common example is the analysis of environmental data to identify areas
of environmental risk or vulnerability, such as areas prone to flooding or
landslides. This type of analysis can help inform land use planning and
disaster management and providing insights into spatial patterns and
relationships in geospatial data that can be helpful in policy and decision-
making.

 Interactive mapping: Interactive mapping involves creating maps that allow

users to interact with and manipulate spatial data in real-time. This approach
can be used for a wide range of applications, from tourism and education to
urban planning and environmental management.

One example of interactive mapping in cartography is the use of Google

Maps, which allows users to search for locations, get directions, and explore
points of interest. Users can also add custom layers to the map, such as real-
time traffic or weather data, to enhance their understanding of the area.
Another example is the use of ArcGIS Online, which is an interactive web
mapping platform that allows users to create and share maps, perform spatial
analysis, and collaborate with others in real-time. Users can add and
manipulate data layers, perform geoprocessing tasks, and create custom
visualizations to better understand spatial patterns and relationships.

Overall, the analytical aspects of cartography are constantly evolving and

expanding, as new technologies and approaches emerge that enable more
sophisticated and effective ways of analyzing and interpreting spatial data.

SAQ 1
a) What refers to the descriptive aspect of Cartography?
b) What refers to the analytical aspect of Cartography?

4.2.3 Perspective Aspects

After learning about the recent developments in cartography under descriptive
aspects and analytical aspects, now we will study and learn that how recent
developments in cartography are also changing its perspective views.
Perspective aspects in cartography refer to the ways in which cartography has
evolved to reflect changes in societal perspectives and priorities over time. This
includes the evolution of mapping techniques, map design, and the use of maps
for social and political purposes.

One of the earliest perspective development trends in cartography was the use of
maps for exploration and conquest, as European explorers used maps to
navigate and claim territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia (Edney, 1999).
Over time, however, maps began to be used for a wider range of purposes,
including the visualization of scientific data, the planning of urban spaces, and
the representation of social and political issues.

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In the 20th century, there was a move towards a more critical and reflexive
approach to cartography, as scholars began to question the power dynamics
implicit in map-making and the ways in which maps could be used to support or
challenge dominant social and political structures. This led to the development of
critical cartography, which emphasizes the role of maps as social and political
constructions rather than objective representations of reality (Crampton and
Krygier, 2006).

More recently, there has been a move towards the use of maps for activism and
social justice, as individuals and organizations use maps to highlight issues such
as environmental degradation, social inequality, and human rights abuses (Kwan,
2016). This has led to the development of participatory mapping, which involves
the active involvement of communities in the creation and use of maps to
represent their own perspectives and experiences (Haklay et al., 2014).

 The perspective aspects of cartography refer to the way in which a map

presents and frames spatial information to convey a particular message or
viewpoint. We can Symbolic representation: Maps can use symbols to
represent features in a way that conveys a particular message or viewpoint.
For example, a map of a city may use different symbols to represent areas
that are considered desirable or undesirable.

 Generalization: Maps often generalize features to emphasize certain aspects

and de-emphasize others. For example, a map of a forest may show only the
major roads and trails, rather than all of the individual trees.

 Visual hierarchy: Maps use visual hierarchy to convey the relative importance
of different features. This can include the use of larger symbols or bolder
colors to emphasize important features.

Perspective: Maps can use different perspectives to convey a particular message

or viewpoint. For example, a map of a city may use a bird's-eye view to show the
layout of the streets and buildings, while a map of a hiking trail may use a
ground-level view to show the understand the perspective view with some
examples which are mentioned below:

 terrain

It is important to know that with the advancement in the cartographic techniques

in the forms of Remote Sensing and Geographic Informatic Science, the recent
developments in cartography have also included new perspectives on mapping
that have expanded the ways in which spatial information is presented. We will
be understanding with some examples mentioned below:

 Participatory mapping: Participatory mapping involves working with

communities to create maps that reflect their knowledge and experiences of a
particular area. This approach prioritizes local knowledge and can help to
identify areas of concern or opportunities for improvement. It is a form of
community-based research that empowers local people to document and
represent their own knowledge and experiences of the places they inhabit.
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Participatory mapping can take many forms, from simple paper-based exercises
to more complex digital platforms. It can involve the use of mapping software,
GPS-enabled devices, and other forms of technology to collect and analyze
spatial data. The process typically involves a series of workshops or meetings
where community members learn how to use the mapping tools and are guided
through the process of creating a map that reflects their knowledge and
experience of the local area.

Participatory mapping has been used in a variety of contexts, including

environmental management, community development, and disaster risk
reduction. It has been shown to be an effective tool for promoting community
empowerment, fostering social cohesion, and generating new insights into local
issues and challenges.

For example, a participatory mapping project conducted in rural India showed

how local communities were able to use maps to document the availability of
water resources in their region, and to identify areas where water scarcity was a
significant issue (Bhagat et al., 2018). The resulting map was used to inform
policy makers and to advocate for improved water management practices.

Participatory mapping can also help to foster a more equitable and inclusive
approach to decision-making, by providing a platform for marginalized groups to
have their voices heard. By engaging local people in the mapping process,
participatory mapping can help to ensure that the knowledge and perspectives of
those most affected by local issues are reflected in the resulting maps.

 Critical cartography: Critical cartography is a theoretical approach to mapping

that seeks to reveal the underlying social, political, and cultural assumptions
that shape how maps are created and used. It emerged as a response to
traditional cartography, which has often been viewed as a neutral and
objective representation of reality. Critical cartography challenges this notion
by recognizing that maps are prepared by people with some particular
perspectives, values, and interests, and that they can be used to legitimize
certain forms of knowledge while marginalizing others.

One of the key features of critical cartography is its emphasis on the social
construction of space. This means that maps are not simply a reflection of
physical reality, but are also shaped by social processes and relations. Critical
cartographers seek to expose how maps can be used to reinforce or challenge
dominant narratives about space and place, and to create alternative
representations that reflect marginalized perspectives.

An example of critical cartography is the Counter-Cartographies Collective, which

is a group of scholars and activists who use mapping as a tool for political
activism and social justice. Their projects include mapping the gentrification of
urban neighborhoods, the impact of oil drilling on indigenous lands, and the
spatial dimensions of racial inequality. By creating maps that challenge dominant
power structures and amplify the voices of marginalized communities, the
collective aims to use cartography as a means of promoting social change.
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 Geo-visualization: Geo-visualization is the use of interactive visual tools to

explore and analyze geographic data. It combines the principles of
cartography, human-computer interaction, and visual analytics to enable
users to visualize complex spatial data in a way that is both informative and
easy to understand. Geo-visualization techniques can be used in a wide
range of fields, including urban planning, environmental management, and
public health (Kraak, M. J., & Ormeling, F, 2010).

One example of Geo-visualization is the use of web-based mapping tools to

display real-time data on natural disasters. For instance, during the 2017
Hurricane season, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
created an interactive web-based tool called "HurrTrak" that allowed users to
track and visualize the path of hurricanes in real-time. This tool utilized geo-
visualization techniques to display information such as storm tracks, wind speed,
and rainfall data in a user-friendly and intuitive way.

Another example of geo-visualization is the use of 3D modeling tools to visualize

urban environments. This approach can be used to create detailed models of
cityscapes that allow urban planners and architects to explore different scenarios
and design options. One example of this is the City Form Lab at MIT, which uses
geo-visualization techniques to analyze and visualize urban morphology and its
impact on pedestrian movement, energy consumption, and other factors.

Overall, the perspective aspects of cartography are constantly evolving and

expanding, as new technologies and approaches emerge that enable more
creative and effective ways of presenting and understanding spatial information.

SAQ 2
a) What refers to the perspective aspect of Cartography?
b) What is critical cartography?

4.3 SUMMARY
In recent years, there have been significant developments in the field of
cartography. These trends can be described, analyzed, and understood from
different perspectives.

Descriptively, one of the most notable trends is the increasing availability of new
data sources, such as remote sensing and social media, which has led to the
development of new mapping techniques and tools. This has resulted in the
growth of dynamic, interactive maps that allow users to explore and analyze
spatial data in real-time. Additionally, there has been a shift towards creating
maps that are accessible and inclusive to a wider audience, with a focus on user-
centered design and accessibility.

Analytically, the trend towards big data and data-driven decision making has
impacted the field of cartography. The ability to process and analyze vast
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amounts of data has led to the development of new mapping techniques that can
identify patterns, trends, and anomalies. This has enabled cartographers to
create maps that provide valuable insights into complex social, economic, and
environmental issues.

From a perspective aspect, these trends have significant implications for the
future of cartography. The increasing availability of data and the development of
new mapping techniques are likely to lead to a greater emphasis on spatial
analysis and data visualization. This, in turn, may lead to the creation of maps
that are more dynamic, interactive, and customized to the needs of individual
users. Additionally, there will be a continued focus on creating maps that are
accessible and inclusive to a wider audience, with a greater emphasis on user-
centered design and the use of emerging technologies to improve accessibility.

Overall, recent developments in cartography have led to the creation of more

dynamic, interactive, and data-driven maps that provide valuable insights into
complex spatial issues. These trends are likely to continue and will have
significant implications for the future of cartography as a field.

4.5 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. (i) The descriptive aspects of cartography refer to the elements of a map that
are used to describe and represent spatial information like scale, projection,
symbols and colors, labels and annotations, legend, orientation, grids, and
coordinates.
(ii) Analytical aspects in cartography refer to the ways in which maps have
been used for analysis and decision-making purposes. One of cartography's
earliest analytical development trends was the use of thematic maps, which
depicted spatial patterns of data related to a particular theme or topic.
2. (i) Perspective aspects in cartography refer to the ways in which cartography
has evolved to reflect changes in societal perspectives and priorities over
time. This includes the evolution of mapping techniques, map design, and the
use of maps for social and political purposes.
(ii) Critical cartography is a theoretical approach to mapping that seeks to
reveal the underlying social, political, and cultural assumptions that shape
how maps are created and used. It emerged as a response to traditional
cartography, often viewed as a neutral and objective representation of reality.

2.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING

1. Dent, B. D. (1999). Cartography: Thematic Map Design. McGraw-Hill.
2. Dodge, M., Kitchin, R., Perkins, C., and Whatmore, S. (2015). Atlas of
Cyberspace. Routledge.

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3. Peterson, M. P. (2018). Cartography in the Age of Digital Reproduction. In

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. Oxford University Press.
4. Kraak, M. J., & Ormeling, F. (2010). Cartography: Visualization of Spatial
Data. Pearson Education.
5. Crampton, J. W. (2009). Mapping: A Critical Introduction to Cartography
and GIS. John Wiley & Sons.
6. Krygier, J., and Wood, D. (2011). Making Maps: A Visual Guide to Map
Design for GIS. Guilford Press.
7. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication. Oxford University Press.
8. Robinson, A. H. (1952). The Look of Maps: An Examination of Cartographic
Design. University of Wisconsin Press.
9. Robinson, A. H., Morrison, J. L., and Muehrcke, P. C. (1995). Elements of
Cartography. John Wiley & Sons.
10. Slocum, T. A., et al. (2009). Thematic Cartography and Geovisualization:
Pearson New International Edition. Pearson Education Limited.
11. Slocum, T. A., McMaster, R. B., Kessler, F. C., and Howard, H. H. (2009).
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Block 1 Fundamentals of Cartography
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GLOSSARY
Analytical : Analytical aspects in cartography refer to the ways in which
Aspects maps have been used for analysis and decision-making
purposes. For example, a thematic map, which depicts spatial
patterns of data related to a particular theme or topic.
Azimuthal : The projection which show directions or bearing correctly are
Projection called azimuthal projections.
Cartography : Cartography is both art as well as science of map making.
Cartography is a discipline dealing with the conception,
production, dissemination and study of maps.
Conical : To derive a projection on a cone, we will have to wrap a cone
Projection around a globe. If we place a light in the centre of the globe, it
will cast shadow of a geographic network as the inner surface
of the cone. The shadow is drawn and the cone is cut open
and laid flat to get conical projections.
Cylindrical : This can be derived through the use of a cylindrical
Projection developable surface. When the globe is covered by a cylinder
made of paper touching the equator and the parallels and
meridians are projected on it.
Descriptive : Descriptive aspects of cartography refer to the elements of a
Aspects map that are used to describe and represent spatial
information like scale, projection, symbols and colors, labels
and annotations, legend, orientation, grids and coordinates.
Developable : A developable surface is one which can be flattened and
Surface which can receive lines projected or drawn directly from an
assumed globe. The developable projections are classified as
cylindrical, conical and zenithal.
Equidistant : Equidistant means that one point is equal to all other points,
Projection or that a few points are equal to others. The distances
between specific locations are well preserved, which is an
important feature of equidistant projections.
Geo- : Geo-visualization is the use of interactive visual tools to
visualization explore and analyze geographic data. It combines the
principles of cartography, human-computer interaction, and
visual analytics to enable users to visualize complex spatial
data in a way that is both informative and easy to understand.
Gnomonic : Type of Zenithal projection, when the light is at the centre of
the globe.
Homolographic : It is also known as Equal area or Equivalent projection
Projection because areas are kept correct.
Hypsometric : These show relief and terrain in detail. Topographical map is
Maps an example.
Interactive : It involves creating maps that allow users to interact with and
Mapping manipulate spatial data in real-time. Example of interactive

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mapping in cartography is the use of Google Maps, which
allows users to search for locations, get directions, and
explore points of interest.
Large Scale : It represents a large amount of details with greater accuracy.
Map Examples are cadastral maps and topographical maps.
Machine : Machine learning involves using algorithms to automatically
Learning analyze large amounts of spatial data. Example of machine
learning in cartography is the use of support vector machines
for land use classification.
Map Projection : The transformation of Earth’s three-dimensional surface to
two-dimentional plane on a map using mathematical formulae
is called a map projection. This transformation process is
involved in preserving the area, shape, direction and distance
of a specific area.
Map : It is an essential tool in geography. It portrays the features of
the part or whole of the Earth. These features include the
natural and cultural phenomena.
Non- : These are drawn without the help of the shadows from an
perspective illuminated globe. Their construction depends upon
Projections mathematical principles.
Orthographic : Type of Zenithal projection, when the light is at infinity so that
the rays of the light are parallel.
Orthomorphic : An orthomorphic projection is also known as a conformal
Projection projection. In the construction of this projection true shapes
are preserved.
Perspective : These are derived by the image of the network of parallels
Projections and meridians of a globe on any developable surface.
Planimetric Map : It shows other details and limit the portrayal of relief. Most of
thematic maps represent the cultural feature so the landscape
falls in this category.
Small Scale : It depicts large areas on a restricted space so that only
Map important features are shown. Examples are wall maps and
atlas maps.
Stereographic : Type of Zenithal projection, when the light is placed at the
periphery of the globe at a point diametrically opposite to the
point at which the plane surface touches the globe.
Thematic Map : It is characterized by dealing with one theme or objective.
Examples are geomorphology, landuse, crops, waterbodies,
etc.
Web Mapping : Web mapping involves creating interactive maps that can be
accessed online.
Zenithal : When a plane paper is put on the globe touching it on one
Projection point and the graticule is projected on it, we get polar Zenithal
projection.

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