MGG - 003

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences
INDIA

BLOCK

3
MACRO REGIONS

UNIT 8
MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 1

UNIT 9
MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 2

UNIT 10
MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 3

GLOSSARY
MGG- 003
REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF REGIONS AND REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

Unit 1 Understanding Regions
Unit 2 Basis of Regionalization
Unit 3 Personality of India 1
Unit 4 Personality of India 2

BLOCK 2 SCHEMES OF REGIONALIZATION

Unit 5 Changing Dimensions of India’s Regional Structure
Unit 6 Review of Major Schemes 1
Unit 7 Review of Major Schemes 2

BLOCK 3 MACRO REGIONS

Unit 8 Macro Regions of India 1
Unit 9 Macro Regions of India 2
Unit 10 Macro Regions of India 3

BLOCK 4 SELECT MESO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 11 Meso Regions 1
Unit 12 Meso Regions 2
Unit 13 Meso Regions 3

BLOCK 5 SELECT MICRO REGIONS OF INDIA

Unit 14 Mirco Regions 1
Unit 15 Mirco Regions 2
Unit 16 Mirco Regions 3
BLOCK 3: MACRO REGIONS
Macro regions are known as regions of immense size. They often tend to be spread across
the boundaries of more than one or two states on the basis of homogenous criteria like
language, religion and other socio-cultural traits. Their study provides a regional
geographer with in-depth understanding of both physical and cultural setting which in turn
helps to delineate the regions on the basis of various parameters. They also help in
unleashing the problems and prospects to deal with both set of resources as well as
constraints alike.

In third Block, we will introduce macro regions of India. This Block will include the study of
macro regions of India 1, 2 and 3 as dealt-in an elaborative manner in three units.

Unit 8: Eighth Unit is devoted to the study of macro regions of India 1. This Unit introduces
the Himalaya and its associated mountain ranges. It will highlight the historical background,
physical and cultural setting, regions along with problems and prospects.

Unit 9: Ninth Unit is devoted to the study of macro regions of India 2. This Unit introduces
the Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra plains. It will highlight the historical background, physical
and cultural setting, regions along with problems and prospects.

Unit 10: Tenth Unit is devoted to the study of macro regions of India 3. This Unit introduces
the Peninisular India and Islands. It will highlight the historical background, physical and
cultural setting, regions along with problems and prospects. .

We hope that after studying Block 3, you will be able to comprehend the few select macro
regions of India in intriguing manner.

Our best wishes are always with you in this endeavour.

 UNIT 8

MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 1

Structure
8.1 Introduction Population
Expected Learning Outcomes Settlement
8.2 Historical Background Economy
8.3 The Physical Setting Transport and Communication
Geology 8.5 The Regions
Physiography/Relief 8.6 Problems and Prospects
Drainage and Water Resources 8.7 Summary
Climate 8.8 Terminal Questions
Vegetation 8.9 Answers
Soils 8.10 References and Further
Physical Resource Base Reading
8.4 The Cultural Setting

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In three Units of Block 2, you have studied and learned about the schemes of
regionalization. In Block 3, you will study macro-regions of India. This Unit 9 is
devoted to the study of Himalayas and its associated mountain ranges. The
word Himalayas is derived from Sanskrit words Hima, “snow,” and ‘alaya’,
“abode”. This loftiest mountain system of the world forms northern limits of
India. It forms a great arc of about 1,550 miles (2,500 kilometres) long,
stretching from the peak of Nanga Parbat at an altitude of 26,660 feet in the
Pakistani-occupied portion of Kashmir region to Namcha Barwa peak in Tibet
Autonomous Region of China. Geographically, the mountains fall across
India, southern Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. Overall width of the mountain
system varies between 200 and 400 kilometres.

Within India, the Himalayas are divided into three longitudinal belts, called the
Outer, Lesser, and Greater Himalayas. Most of the mountain ranges in the
west lie in Afghanistan and Pakistan while the central and eastern parts of it
lie within India. Towards north of the Himalayas are Plateau of Tibet and
various Trans-Himalayan ranges, only a small part of which, in Ladakh Union
Territory and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and a few other small stretches are
within India.
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Section 8.2 describes the historical background of the Himalayas and its
associated mountain ranges. Sections 8.3 to 8.6 are devoted to the study of
Physical Settings, Cultural Settings, Regions, Problems and Prospects etc.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 To understand the overall characteristics of the Himalayas and its
associated mountain ranges;
 To understand the nature of the physical setting of the Himalayas and its
associated mountain ranges;
 To understand the nature of the socio-cultural setting of the Himalayas
and its associated mountain ranges; and
 To comprehend the political, economic, and environmental characteristics
of the Himalayas and its associated mountain ranges.

8.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Himalayan Mountains form one of the most important regions of India. Its
geography, geological settings, historical evolution, political boundaries,
population base, resources, and economy can be a separate entity in
understanding it as a macro-region of India. It has a rich diversity of flora and
fauna and forms the base and life support system for a large part of the
country in terms of forest and water resources, mineral resources, and
resources of various other kinds. Hence, this unit deals with Himalayan region
as a macro-region and tries to understand its diversified characteristics
ranging from physiographic settings, economic and cultural settings,
population and settlements, and problems and prospects associated with it.

8.3 THE PHYSICAL SETTING

In terms of physical setting, Himalayas can be sub-divided into three major
divisions and their geographical attributes can be understood in the following
divisions:

A) The Himalayan Ranges

B) The Trans Himalayas
C) The Eastern Himalayas

A) The Himalayan Ranges

Himalayas are not a single chain of mountains but a series of ranges that run
parallel or are converging ranges. These ranges are separated by deep
valleys. The most outstanding valleys in Himalayas are the Vale of Kashmir,
Kangra and Kullu Valleys in Himachal Pradesh, Dun Valley, the Bhagirathi
Valley (near Gangotri), and Mandakini Valley (near Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand
and Kathmandu valley in Nepal. In Eastern section, Himalayas rise abruptly
from the plains of Bengal and attain great elevation within a short distance
from the foot of the mountains. For instance, peaks of Kanchenjunga and
Everest are only a few kilometres from the plains and are visible from the
plains. While the Western Himalayas rise gradually from the plains through a
series of conspicuous mountain ranges. Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in
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India, Nepal, and Bhutan while the northern slopes are partly situated in Tibet.
Its Western extremity lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia. The
succession of three zones can be seen in the Himalayan ranges:

i) Outer Himalayas or Shiwalik Range,

ii) Middle or the Lesser Himalayas,
iii) Great Himalaya

i) Outer Himalayas (the Shiwalik Range)

Southernmost of the three mountain belts is Outer Himalayas, also called
Siwalik or Shiwalik range. Width of Shiwaliks varies from 50 kilometres in the
western and central parts to less than 15 kilometres in eastern part. Height of
peaks of the Siwalik range varies between 600 to 1500 metres. Shiwaliks are
of great thickness of Mio-Pleistocene sands, gravels, and conglomerates
which have been brought by the rivers flowing from higher ranges of
Himalayas. Shiwaliks are known by different names in different areas. They
are called Jammu Hills in Jammu, Miri, and Abor, etc. The Dhang range,
Dundwa range (Uttarakhand), and the Churia Ghat Hills of Nepal also form
part of Shiwalik range.

As Shiwalik Hills were formed after the formation of Himalayas, these

obstructed courses of the rivers flowing from higher reaches of Himalayas and
formed temporary lakes. Debris brought by those rivers was deposited in
these lakes. After the rivers had cut their course through Shiwalik Range, the
lakes got drained away leaving behind plains known as ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in
the west and ‘duars’ in the east.

There are several opinions regarding the origin of Shiwalik. Following are the
major concept concerning the formation of Shiwalik Hills:

a) Formation of Shiwalik by Natural Levees: According to this concept after

the formation of Greater and Lesser Himalayas, the Tethys Sea was
reduced to a narrow channel which was also named ‘Shiwalik River’ by
G.E. Pilgrim and, ‘Indobrahama River’ by E.H. Pascoe (1919). This river
deposited a huge quantity of debris along the banks in the form of Natural
Levees. The compression of these levees during Pliocene period due to
earth's movement gave rise to the Shiwalik folds. However, there are
criticisms concerning this concept as the force of compression cannot
produce an altitude ranging between 1200–1800 metres.
b) Coalescence of Alluvial Fans of Himalayan Rivers: This theory
emphasizes the formation of Shiwalik due to deposition of sediments
brought down by Himalayan rivers which were deposited in large quantities
in the form of alluvial fans. Several alluvial fans later joined and formed
larger fans which were subjected to earth movement in the Pliocene period
and it was compressed to Shiwalik ranges.
c) Shiwalik Formation by Lake Siltation: According to this theory after
formation of Himalayas, the Tethys Sea was broken into several smaller
lakes of varying sizes and shapes. Debris brought down by Himalayan
rivers were deposited in these lakes. Sudden geological movements in
Pliocene uplifted these lakes and folds were formed resulting in the
formation of Shiwalik ranges.

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d) Plate Tectonics resulting in Shiwalik formation: As per this concept, the
Shiwalik formation had its origin in the subduction of Indian plate over the
Asian plate. The stress generated resulted in the formation of foredeep like
the Ganga plain. Its alluviation and folding resulted in the formation of
Shiwalik hills.

ii) Middle or Lesser Himalayas

In between Shiwaliks in South and Great Himalayas in the North lies the
Middle or the Lesser Himalayas rising to heights ranging from 3,500 metres to
4,500 metres above mean sea level. Its average width varies between 60 to
80 kilometres. Many peaks in the middle Himalayas are more than 5050
metres above mean sea level (MSL) and remain snow-covered throughout
the year. Important ranges in middle Himalayas include Pir Panjal,
Dhauladhar, Mussoorie range, Nag Tiba, and Mahabharat Lekh. Pir Panjal
range in Jammu and Kashmir is the longest and most important of all ranges
that extends for 300-400 kilometres and is separated from Great Himalayan
range by valley of Kashmir. There are numerous passes in Middle Himalayas.
Best-known passes of Pir Panjal range are Pir Panjal Pass (3480 metres), the
Bidil (4270 metres), Golabghar Pass (3812 metres), Banihal Pass (2835
metres) and Rohtang Pass (3978 metres).

On the whole, middle Himalayas are less hostile and are more suitable for
human inhabitation. Majority of the hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie,
Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are located in Middle
Himalayas.

iii) Great Himalayas

Further north of Middle Himalayas lies the Great, or Higher Himalayas, also
known as Himadri in Ancient times. Average elevation is 6100 metres above
mean sea level in this range. Great Himalayas is composed of ancient
crystalline rocks (granite and gneisses) and old marine sedimentary
formations. This is the loftiest and most continuous mountain range. This
mountain range has most of tallest peaks in the world, which remain
perpetually covered under snow cover. There are several peaks above 8000
metres in altitude in this range. Some of the highest peaks in the world found
in Great Himalayan range include Mt. Everest (8850 metres), Kanchenjunga
(8550 metres), Nanda Devi (7817 metres), Kamet (7755 metres) and Trisul
(7120 metres), etc. Many of the world's highest peaks are shared by India and
Nepal, which are mostly covered with glaciers, thus, forming source of many
perennial mountain rivers. These rivers often serve as a lifeline for the
inhabitants of downstream usually located in the plain regions, especially in
case of agricultural activities.

This range is so formidable that it cannot be easily crossed as most often the
passes remain snowbound a large part of the year. Burzil Pass, Zoji la pass in
Jammu and Kashmir, Bara Lacha Pass and Shipkila Pass in Himachal
Pradesh, Thaga La Pass, Niti Pass and Lipu Lekh in Uttarakhand and Nathu
La and Jelep La in Sikkim are important mountain passes of the Great
Himalayan range.

B) The Trans Himalayas

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The ranges to the North of Great Himalayan range are called the trans-
Himalayas. This part of Himalayas is also called Tibetan Himalayas as most
of it lies in Tibet. Zanskar, Ladakh and Karakoram are main ranges of Trans
Himalayan zone. Trans Himalayan area found in India is mostly limited to
Ladakh and Spiti regions. It stretches for a distance of about 1000 kilometres
in the east-west direction and its average elevation is 3000 metres above
mean sea level.

Northernmost range of Trans-Himalaya in India is Karakoram range also

known as Krishnagiri Range. It forms India’s frontier with Afghanistan and
China and acts as a watershed between India and Turkistan. It extends
eastward from Pamir knot for about 800 kilometres. Average width of this
range is about 120-140 kilometres. Some of the peaks are more than 8000
metres above mean sea level. K2 (8611 metres) is the second-highest peak
in the world. The other peaks located in its neighbourhood and rising more
than 8000 metres above sea level are Gasherbhum I or Hidden Peak (8068
metres), Broad Peak (8047 metres), and Gasherbhum II (8035 metres).
Ladakh plateau lies to the south of Karakoram range. With an average
elevation of over five thousand metres above mean sea level, it is the highest
plateau in India. It has been dissected into several plains and mountains, the
most outstanding among these being Soda plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang,
Depsang Plains, and Chang Chenmo.

C) Eastern Hills or Purvanchal

Himalayas take a southward turn after crossing Dihang Gorge and forms a
series of low hills running in the shape of Crescent with its convex side
pointing towards west. These hills are collectively called Purvanchal, as these
form eastern margin of India. These form India’s boundary with Myanmar from
Arunachal Pradesh in the North and Mizoram in the South.

In the north of Patkai Bum, these forms international boundary between

Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar. These are made up of strong sandstone
and rises to elevation varying between 2000 to 3000 metres. After running for
a certain distance, these merge with Naga Hills. Patkai Hills and Naga Hills
form watershed between India and Myanmar. South of Naga Hills are Manipur
hills which are generally below 2500 metres in elevation and form boundary
between Manipur and Myanmar. South of Manipur hills are Mizo Hills
previously known as Lusai Hills having elevation of about 1500 metres.
Highest point is the Blue Mountains (2157 metres) in the south. General
elevation of Eastern hills decreases as one moves from North to South.

Regional Division of Himalayas

Himalayas have been divided into several units based on their structural and
regional characteristics. Sir Sydney Burrad (Tiwari RC, 2012, p. 60) divided it
into four transverse regions viz., the Punjab Himalayas, the Kumaon
Himalayas, the Nepal Himalayas, and the Assam Himalayas. The Punjab
Himalaya is now known as Himachal Himalaya. Similarly, the Assam
Himalaya is known as Arunachal Himalaya.

S.P. Chatterjee has divided the Himalayan region into three mesographic
regions. These are Western Himalayas (Kashmir, Punjab, and Kumaon),

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Central Himalayas (mostly Nepal Himalayas), and Eastern Himalayas
(beyond Nepal till Arunachal Pradesh).

Similarly, R.L. Singh (1971) has made a three-fold sub-division of the

Himalayas as under:

i) Western Himalaya (Kashmir Himalaya and Himachal Himalaya)

ii) Central Himalaya (UP Himalaya and Nepal Himalaya)
iii) Eastern Himalaya (Darjeeling-Bhutan-Assam Himalaya and Purvanchal)

The entire length of the Himalayas can be understood into the following four
Divisions based on the river valleys:

i) The Punjab Himalayas

The total stretch of about 560 kilometres long of Himalayas between Indus
and Satluj rivers is known as Punjab Himalayas. A large portion of this sector
lies in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, which is also referred to
as Kashmir and Himachal Himalayas. Many mountain ranges fall in this
category including Karakoram, Ladakh, Zanskar, Pir Panjal, and Dhauladhar.

ii) The Kumaon Himalayas

Between Satluj and Kali rivers is Kumaon Himalaya, which extends for about
320 kilometres. General elevation of Kumaon Himalayas is greater than that
of Punjab Himalayas. Major Mountain peaks including Nanda Devi, Kamet,
Trisul, Badrinath, Kedarnath, and Gangotri fall in this unit.

iii) The Nepal Himalayas

This section of Himalayas extends between river Kali and Teesta for a
distance of about 800 kilometres. Most of it lies in Nepal due to which it
derives its name as Nepal Himalayas. This is the tallest section of Himalayas.
Major mountain ranges like Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Lhotse I, Makalu,
Annapurna, and Dhaula Giri lie in this region of the Himalayas.

iv) The Assam Himalayas

Himalayan ranges from rivers Teesta to Brahmaputra that covers a total
length of about 750 kilometres are known as Assam Himalayas. Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh come under Assam Himalayas. Southern slopes are
steep while the northern slopes are gentler in this region.

Assam Himalaya and Punjab Himalaya are old terms. Contemporary terms for
these sections are Arunachal Himalaya, and Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Himalaya; it is because Arunachal was part of the undivided Assam.
Similarly, Himachal was part of the undivided Punjab, before the formation of
full State in 1971.

8.3.1 Geology
In order to understand Geology, one must first understand geological history
of earth’s crust and major events that had occurred in the past. Around 65
million years ago, powerful global plate-tectonic forces moved Earth’s crust to
form the band of Eurasian Mountain ranges—including the Himalayas—that
stretch from Alps to the mountains of Southeast Asia.

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During Jurassic Period (about 201 to 145 million years ago), a deep crustal
down warp—the Tethys Sea—bordered entire southern fringe of Eurasia,
then excluding Arabian Peninsula and Indian sub-continent.

About 180 million years ago, the old supercontinent of Gondwana began to
split apart. The Indian-Australian plate gradually confined the Tethys trench
due to compression between itself and Eurasian Plate. As the Tethys trench
narrowed, increasing compressive forces bent layers of sediments beneath it
and developed faults in its marine sediments. Masses of granites and basalts
intruded from the depth of the mantle into that weakened sedimentary crust.

Between about 40 and 50 million years ago, Indian sub-continent finally

collided with Eurasian plate. The plate containing India got subducted
beneath the Tethys.

During next 30 million years, shallow parts of the Tethys Sea gradually
drained as its sea bottom was pushed up by the plunging Indian-Australian
plate; that action formed plateau of Tibet. As heavy rain fell on steepening
southern slopes, the major southern rivers eroded northward toward the
headwaters with increasing force along old transverse faults and captured the
streams flowing onto the plateau, thus laying the foundation of the drainage
patterns for large portion of Asia.

To the south, the northern reaches of Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal were
rapidly filled with debris carried down by the antecedent Indus, Ganges
(Ganga), and Brahmaputra rivers. The extensive erosion and deposition
continue even now as these rivers carry immense quantities of loose and
unconsolidated material every day.

Finally, some 20 million years ago, during early Miocene Epoch, tempo of the
crunching union between the two plates increased sharply, and Himalayan
Mountain building began rapidly. As Indian sub-continental plate continued to
plunge beneath the former the Tethys trench, topmost layers of old
Gondwana metamorphic rocks peeled back over themselves for a long
horizontal distance to the south, forming nappes. A wave after wave of
nappes thrusted southward over Indian landmass for as far as about 100
kilometres. Each new nappe consisted of Gondwana rocks older than the last.
In time those nappes became folded, contracting the former trench by some
800 kilometres. Along with it, down-cutting rivers matched the rate of uplift,
carrying vast amounts of eroded material from rising Himalayas to plains
where it was dumped by Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.

Weight of those sediments created depressions, which in turn could hold

more sediments. In some places, alluvium beneath Indo-Gangetic Plains goes
up to 7,000 metres in depth.

After formation of Great Himalayas, it became climatic barrier thereby

obstructing rain-bearing winds to cross across. Rivers of large volume and
size are formed by melting glaciers. Simultaneously, great transverse rivers
breached Himalayas and continued their downcutting in pace with the
upliftment.

Formations of Siwalik Series were overthrust and folded, and in between the
Lesser Himalayas downward to shape the midlands.
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8.3.2 Physiography/Relief
Important characteristic features of Himalayas are their great height, steep-
sided peaks, valleys and alpine glaciers of large size. There are deep gorges
cut by fast-flowing rivers. Himalayas also have complex geologic structure
and series of elevation belts (or zones) that display different ecological
association with flora, fauna and climate.

Himalayas appear as a gigantic crescent with the main axis rising above snow
line. Large snowfields and alpine glaciers in turn constitute sources of most of
Himalayan rivers. Greater part of Himalayas, however, lies below snow line.
Mountain-building process that created the range is still active. As the
bedrock gets lifted, considerable stream erosion and gigantic landslides
occur.

In a nutshell, Himalayan ranges can be grouped into four longitudinal

mountain belts of varying widths, each having distinct physiographic features
and geologic history. From south to north, they can be divided as Outer or
Sub-Himalayas (also called the Siwalik range); Lesser or Lower Himalayas;
Great Himalaya range (Great Himalayas); and Trans-Himalayas. Farther
north lies Tibet proper. From west to east, Himalayas are divided broadly into
three mountainous regions: western, central, and eastern.

8.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Himalayas are source of many perennial rivers which drains into Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea. There are large number of perennial rivers that have
their source in snowfields and glaciers in Himalayas, of which more than 70
percent of India's territory drains into Bay of Bengal via the Ganges-
Brahmaputra river system and several large and small peninsular rivers while
majority of India's Peninsular States do not have share of Himalayan rivers as
most Himalayan rivers flow in northern plains. Areas draining into Arabian
sea, accounting for about 20 percent of the total lie within Indus drainage
basin situated in the north-western India.

Three major river systems namely Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra comprise
the Himalayan river systems in India. Some of the rivers of this system
existed before Himalayan ranges got uplifted. Very deep gorges of Indus,
Satluj, Alaknanda, Gandak, Kosi and Brahmaputra rivers indicate their being
antecedent rivers. It means that these rivers existed when Himalayas were
rising. Himalayas are the source of many perennial rivers which drain into Bay
of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Most of these rivers have their origin in
snowfields and glaciers in Himalayas. More than 70 percent of India's territory
drains into Bay of Bengal through Ganges-Brahmaputra river system and
several large and small peninsular rivers. Most India's Peninsular States do
not have share of Himalayan rivers as Himalayan rivers are majority
concentrated in northern plains. Significant part of area draining into Arabian
Sea, accounting for about 20 percent of the total, lie in Indus drainage basin
found in north-western India. Himalayan Drainage can be studied under the
following categories:

a) Indus River System

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Indus river rises near Lake Mansarovar from glaciers of Kailash Range
in Western Tibet at an elevation of about 5182 metres. It flows for a
distance of about 257 kilometres in Northwest direction in trans-
Himalaya region. It then enters India at an elevation of 4206 metres
and continues to flow in same northwest direction between Ladakh
range and Zanskar range. It is joined by Zanskar and Hanle rivers in
its course. Shyok, Gilgit, Dras, Shiger, and Hunza are other important
tributaries of Indus which join it in higher areas. After flowing for 480
kilometres, it takes a southerly turn and reaches Attock. It is then
joined by Kabul River system. About 800 kilometres before reaching
the sea, it receives water from Panchnad (tributaries of five rivers) -
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Satluj. Indus River from its source of
origin to the mouth is about 2880 kilometres long of which 709
kilometres of it is in India.

b) Ganga River System

Ganga river system comprises of river Ganga and its tributaries.

Ganga river system covers a very large area in India. Ganga Basin in
India accounts for 8,61,044 square kilometres which is about 26.3
percent of the total geographical area of the country. Ganga basin is
spread over the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, West Bengal,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Union Territory of Delhi. It originates
as Bhagirathi from Gangotri Glacier in Uttar Kashi district of
Uttarakhand at an elevation of about 7010 metres. It is joined by river
Alaknanda at Devprayag. However, Alaknanda itself is joined by
several rivers before reaching Devprayag. Rivers like Pindar,
Mandakini, Dhauliganga, and Bishenganga rivers add a substantial
volume of water into Alaknanda. Combined water of Alaknanda and
Bhagirathi flows in the name of Ganga below Devprayag. It then
reaches Haridwar after travelling 280 kilometres from its source. It
flows in south and southeast direction from here for a distance of
about 770 kilometres to reach Allahabad. Here it is joined by river
Yamuna which is its main tributary. It flows another 300 kilometres
eastward to reach Bihar plains. Near Rajmahal Hills it ceases to be
known as Ganga. It bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal
and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh. After flowing 220 kilometres down
in Bangladesh, Brahmaputra river joins it at Goalundo and after
meeting Maghna 100 kilometres downstream, Ganga enters Bay of
Bengal. Before entering Bay of Bengal, Ganga along with
Brahmaputra form the world's largest Delta i.e. Ganga-Brahamputra
Delta. Large number of Himalayan rivers join river Ganga in its entire
journey. Yamuna, Chambal, Son, Damodar, Ramganga, Ghagra, Kali,
Gandak, Burhi Gandak, Kosi and their tributaries contribute to Ganga
River System.

c) Brahmaputra River System

Brahmaputra rises from Chemayungdung glacier in Kailash range of

Trans-Himalayan region at an elevation of about 5150 metres. Its
source is 150 kilometres away from the source of Indus River and just

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35 kilometres away from the source of Satluj River. However,
Brahmaputra flows in eastward direction while Indus and Satluj have
westward flow. With total length of 3969 kilometres, Brahmaputra is
among of the longest rivers of the world. It passes through Tibet
(China), India and Bangladesh. It is known as River Tsangpo in Tibet.
It flows for a distance of about 1800 kilometres in Southern Tibet. It is
joined by several tributaries in Tibet. Raga Tsangpo river joins
Tsangpo in North. The river Ngangchu flows through Gyantse region
in the South and joins the main river Zhikatse. Towards the end of its
journey in Tibet, it turns Northeast and North direction and then
traverses in a succession of rapids between the mountains of Gyala
and Namcha Barwa. It further turns to South and southwest and cuts
through eastern Himalayas making Dihang Gorge in mountains near
Sadiya in Assam. Here it first flows as Siong river and later as Dihang
river. From Sadiya, it flows as Brahmaputra in Assam Valley for a
distance of about 720 kilometres. Several tributaries merge with
Brahmaputra in Assam valley. Subansiri, Kameng, Belsiri, Dhansiri,
Nyera Ama, Manas, Mora Manas, Champaman, Gangadhar, Raidak,
Dharla and Tista join Brahamaputra as its tributaries. River Tista was
initially tributary of Ganga, however after the flood of 1787, it got
diverted towards Brahmaputra. Brahamputra forms many islands in
Assam, of which Majuli is most renowned. Brahmaputra floods Assam
every year during monsoon season. Flowing around Garo Hills,
Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. It flows as Jamuna and
joins Ganga. United rivers of Ganga and Jamuna flow further as
Padma river.

(Source: Adapted from Physical Map of India, Survey of India, SOI (2019), Second
Edition)

The river systems can also be studied as follows:

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Drainage into Bay of Bengal
Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, together with their tributaries, drain about
one-third area of India. Ganges (Ganga) considered sacred by the country’s
Hindu population is about 2,510 kilometres long.

It has numerous headstreams that are fed by runoff and meltwater from
Himalayan glaciers. Main headwater stream, Bhagirathi River, originates from
Gangotri Glacier.

Ganges has long course before it finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The river
passes through several States and many religious places like Haridwar,
Rishikesh and Prayagraj etc. and is joined by several tributaries before
reaching the sea.

Major tributaries from west to east are Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi, all of
these emerge from Himalayas and join Ganges from the north, while Yamuna
and Son are two important tributaries joining from the south. Yamuna also has
Himalayan source (Yamunotri glacier) and flows roughly parallel to Ganges
throughout its course and is joined by several tributaries including Chambal,
Betwa and Ken which originate in India’s peninsula. Of the northern tributaries
of Ganges, Kosi is India’s most-destructive river (referred to as the “Sorrow of
Bihar”). Because of its large catchment in Himalayas of Nepal and its gentle
gradient once it reaches the plain, Kosi is unable to retain large volume of
water, so it frequently causes floods and changes its course.

Seasonal flow of Ganges and other rivers fed by meltwaters from Himalayas
vary considerably but less than those of exclusively rain-fed peninsular rivers.
That consistency of flow enhances their suitability for irrigation and for
navigation where diversion of water for irrigation is not much.

Although, total length of Brahmaputra river is around 3,969 kilometres,

exceeding that of Ganges. However, only 725 kilometres of its course lies
within India. Brahmaputra, like Indus river, has its origin in trans-Himalayan
zone southeast of Mansarovar (Mapam) lake in Tibet Autonomous Region of
China. The river runs east across Tibet for more than half of its total length
before cutting through Himalayas and entering India at northern border of
Arunachal Pradesh state. It then flows south and west through the state of
Assam and goes south into Bangladesh, where it forms vast Ganges-
Brahmaputra delta. Narrow Brahmaputra basin in Assam is prone to flooding
because of its large catchment areas, parts of which receives very heavy
precipitation.

Drainage into Arabian Sea

Northwestern part of India has Indus drainage basin. Indus basin, India
shares with China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Indus river and its longest
tributary Sutlej rise in trans-Himalayan area of Tibet.

Indus river initially flows towards northwest between towering Ladakh and
Zanskar mountain ranges in the Union Territory of Ladakh before entering
Pakistan-occupied portion of Kashmir. It then flows generally southwest
through Pakistan, until it reaches Arabian Sea. Sutlej river also flows
southwest from its source and takes turn towards south to enter India from the

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border of Himachal Pradesh state. From there, it travels west into the Indian
state of Punjab and eventually enters Pakistan, where it joins Indus.

Between Indus and Sutlej lie several other tributaries. Jhelum river is
northernmost of these rivers. It flows out of Pir Panjal Range into Vale of
Kashmir and thence via Baramula Gorge goes to Pakistan. Three other rivers
namely Chenab, Ravi, and Beas originate from Himalayas within the state of
Himachal Pradesh. Chenab travels across Jammu and Kashmir before
flowing into Pakistan; Ravi forms a part of southern boundary between
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and thereafter a short stretch of
India-Pakistan border before entering Pakistan; and Beas flows entirely within
India, joining Sutlej in the Indian state of Punjab. The area through which the
five Indus tributaries flow has traditionally been called Punjab (also known as
the land of five rivers) of which only its eastern part is in India. These rivers
have immensely helped to boost Punjab’s agriculture through canal irrigation.

SAQ 1
a) Explain three major divisions of the Himalayas.
b) Write a note on the major river system that drains into the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal.

8.3.4 Climate
Climate especially temperature of Himalayan mountain region is greatly
affected by its altitude. With increasing altitude temperature tends to decline.
Amount of rainfall decreases from east to west from more than 200
centimetres in the east to around 150 centimetres in the centre and 125
centimetres in the west. Besides this, the western part of the Himalayan
region receives winter rainfall due to western disturbances. Average annual
rainfall on southern slopes varies from 150-160 centimetres at Shimla,
Himachal Pradesh and Mussoorie in Uttarakhand. Similarly, area around
Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills, and Eastern Himalayas receives average annual
precipitation exceeding 250 centimetres. Local relief and location affect
climatic variations in different parts of Himalayas. Eastern Himalayas which
are situated at lower altitude than western Himalayas are relatively warmer.
Average minimum temperature for May in Darjeeling lying at an elevation of
1950 metres is about 11 Degree Celsius. Whereas in the same month, at an
elevation of above 6000 metres, temperature drops to -22 Degree Celsius
around Mount Everest peak.

Himalayas play significant role in affecting large system of air and water
circulation, thereby, influencing overall climatic conditions in Indian sub-
continent. Its location is in the extreme North and by its majestic height,
Himalayan ranges obstruct passage of cold continental air blowing from north
into India during winter season. It also obstructs south-west monsoon (rain-
bearing) winds in summer to cross across it, thereby, resulting in precipitation
on northern plains of India.

8.3.5 Vegetation

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Vegetation in Himalayas can be generally divided into several elevation

zones. Mixed evergreen-deciduous forests dominate foothill areas up to
height of 1,500 metres. Above it lies sub-tropical pine forests followed by
Himalayan moist-temperate forest of oak, fir, deodar, and spruce. Highest
tree zone, consisting of alpine shrubs, is found up to an elevation of about
4,500 metres. Rhododendrons are very common at an altitude of about 3,700
metres, well known for their medicinal properties. Occasional junipers and
alpine meadows are also common at same altitude. However, there are no
clear-cut vegetation zones.

Hence, Himalayan vegetation can be broadly classified into four major types-
tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, and Alpine. Each vegetation type has its
unique climatic characteristics. Tropical evergreen is confined in foothills of
Eastern and Central Himalayas. With decreasing precipitation and increasing
elevation in the west, rainforest gives way to tropical deciduous forest where
valuable timber like sal tree is more dominant. Further west, steppe
vegetation and sub-tropical semi-desert type vegetation occur successively.
The alpine zone begins above tree line between the elevations of 3200-3600
metres and extends up to 4500 metres. Mosses and lichens grow in shaded
areas at low levels in the alpine zone. Flowering plants are also found in
alpine zone.

Himalayan vegetation can be broadly classified into four types as tropical,

subtropical, temperate, and alpine. Each of these types is found in a zone
determined mainly by elevation and precipitation. Local differences in relief
and climate, as well as exposure to sunlight and wind, cause considerable
variation in the species present within each zone. Tropical evergreen
rainforest is confined to humid foothills of eastern and central Himalayas.
Evergreen dipterocarpaceae groups of timber- and resin-producing trees are
common; their different species grow on different soils and on hill slopes of
varying steepness. Ceylon ironwood (Mesua ferrea) is found on porous soils
at elevations between 600 and 2,400 feet (180 and 720 metres); bamboos
grow on steep slopes; oaks (genus Quercus) and Indian horse chestnuts
(Aesculus indica) grow on the lithosol (shallow soils consisting of imperfectly
weathered rock fragments), covering sandstones from Arunachal Pradesh
westward to central Nepal at elevations from 3,600 to 5,700 feet (1,100 to
1,700 metres). Alder trees (genus Alnus) are found along water courses on
steeper slopes. At higher elevations, those species give way to mountain
forests in which the typical evergreen is Himalayan screw pine (Pandanus
furcatus). Besides those trees, some 4,000 species of flowering plants, of
which 20 are palms, are estimated to occur in eastern Himalayas.

With decreasing precipitation and increasing elevation westward, the

rainforest give way to tropical deciduous forest, where valuable timber tree
Sal (Shorea robusta) is dominant species. Wet Sal forest thrive on high
plateau at elevations of about 3,000 feet (900 metres), while dry Sal forest
prevail higher up, at 4,500 feet (1,400 metres). Further west, steppe forest
(i.e., expanse of grassland dotted with trees), steppe, subtropical thorn
steppe, and subtropical semidesert vegetation occur successively. Temperate
mixed forests extend from about 4,500 feet to roughly 11,000 feet (1,400 to
3,400 metres) and contain conifers and broad-leaved temperate trees.
Evergreen forest of oak and conifers have their westernmost outpost on hills
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above Murree, northwest of Rawalpindi, in Pakistan; those forests are typical
of Lesser Himalayas, being conspicuous on outer slopes of Pir Panjal, in
Jammu and Kashmir union territory. Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) is dominant
species at elevations from 2,700 to 5,400 feet (800 to 1,600 metres). In the
inner valleys that species may occur even up to 6,300 feet (1,900 metres).
Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara), a highly valued endemic species, grows
mainly in the western part of the range. Stands of that species occur between
6,300 and 9,000 feet (1,900 and 2,700 metres) and tend to grow at still higher
elevations in the upper valleys of Sutlej and Ganges rivers. Of the other
conifers, blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) and morinda spruce (Picea smithiana)
appear between about 7,300 and 10,000 feet (2,200 and 3,000 metres).

The alpine zone begins above tree line, between elevations of 10,500 and
11,700 feet (3,200 and 3,600 metres), and extends up to about 13,700 feet
(4,200 metres) in western Himalayas and 14,600 feet (4,500 metres) in
eastern Himalayas. In that zone, all wet and moist alpine vegetation can be
found. Juniper (genus Juniperus) is widespread, especially on sunny sites,
steep and rocky slopes and drier areas. Rhododendron occurs everywhere
but is more abundant in wetter parts of eastern Himalayas, where it grows in
all sizes from trees to low shrubs. Mosses and lichens grow in shaded areas
at lower levels in the alpine zone where humidity is high. Flowering plants are
found at higher elevations.

The vegetation in the Himalayas can be understood from its altitudinal

distribution as shown below:

5000
Meters above Mean Sea Level

4000

3000

2000

(Source: adapted from https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate/how-altitude-will-decide-

himalayan-communities-survival)

8.3.6 Soils
India has a wide variety of soils owing to its large geographic area and
different episodes of crustal changes in geological periods. Soil formation and
types were affected by different natural and environmental processes. Type of
soil is determined by numerous factors including climate, relief, elevation, and
drainage, as well as by underlying rock material. Soil can broadly be divided
into two groups: In-situ (found at their places of origin) soils and Ex-situ
(transported) soils. Among in-situ soils are red-to-yellow and black soils
(regur). Ex-situ soil gets transported from its place of formation. Different
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agents and erosion followed by transportation contributes to the formation of

Mountain soil. It also gets affected by accumulation of organic matter derived
from vegetation. Mountain soil is generally shallow in depth and immature.
This type of soil is rich in humus but has poor lime, potash, and phosphorus
content. It is usually sandy and has gravel. It is mainly found in Himalayan
areas of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Depending on the climate,
mountain soil can be divided into two broad groups: (1) Loamy Podzols, and
(2) High Altitude Soils. Mid-altitudinal zone in Himalayas has Podzols. This soil
is acidic with low humus and is found in Assam, Darjeeling, Kashmir,
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Maize, barley, wheat, and temperate
fruits are grown in this soil in Himalayan region. Deposition makes it Ex-Situ
mostly. Alluvial soil is third most common type.

Most important characteristic of Himalayan soil is its massive water-holding

capacity which ensures a consistent supply of water for the growth of
vegetation throughout the year. Presence of proteobacteria in high-altitude
soil of Himalayas releases traces of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur into soil
which are consumed by plants and gets converted into organic form that
supports different varieties of crops.

8.3.7 Physical Resource Base

India has a wide variety of soils owing to its large geographic area and
different episodes of crustal changes in geological periods. Soil formation and
types were affected by different natural and environmental processes. Type of
soil is determined by numerous factors including climate, relief, elevation, and
drainage, as well as by underlying rock material. Soil can broadly be divided
into two groups: In-situ (found at their places of origin) soils and Ex-situ
(transported) soils. Among in-situ soils are red-to-yellow and black soils
(regur). Ex-situ soil gets transported from its place of formation. Different
agents and erosion followed by transportation contributes to the formation of
Mountain soil. It also gets affected by accumulation of organic matter derived
from vegetation. Mountain soil is generally shallow in depth and immature.
This type of soil is rich in humus but has poor lime, potash, and phosphorus
content. It is usually sandy and has gravel. It is mainly found in Himalayan
areas of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Depending on the climate,
mountain soil can be divided into two broad groups: (1) Loamy Podzols, and
(2) High Altitude Soils. Mid-altitudinal zone in Himalayas has Podzols. This soil
is acidic with low humus and is found in Assam, Darjeeling, Kashmir,
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Maize, barley, wheat, and temperate
fruits are grown in this soil in Himalayan region. Deposition makes it Ex-Situ
mostly. Alluvial soil is third most common type.

Most important characteristic of Himalayan soil is its massive water-holding

capacity which ensures a consistent supply of water for the growth of
vegetation throughout the year. Presence of proteobacteria in high-altitude
soil of Himalayas releases traces of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur into soil
which are consumed by plants and gets converted into organic form that
supports different varieties of crops.

SAQ 2

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a) Himalayan mountains have a large potential for physical resources base.
Explain.

8.4 THE CULTURAL SETTING

Himalayas are spread across five countries-India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and
Pakistan.Four noticeably different cultural groups exist in the Himalayas-
Buddhists,Hindus, Islam followers and Animistic groups.

Hindus practice their religion and pray to their specific deities. They
personified the Himalayas as Himavath, father of goddess Parvati. Himalayas
are also considered and known to be the father of the river Ganges. Lord
Shiva is also believed to live on Mountain Kailash, considered a sacred peak
by Hindus. There are several temples and pilgrimage placesinthe Himalayan
mountain ranges in India. Hindus offer prayers and visit pilgrimage places
located in different Himalayan States. Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim, Himachal
Pradesh, and Assam have the majority of Hindu Population. Muslim
populations are, however, sparsely distributed mostly confined in Jammu and
Kashmir, Assam, Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills.

Buddhists also attach great importance to the mountains of the Himalayas.

Some worship mountains as their life-giver, preserver, and protector.Within
Buddhism, there is a hierarchical order, with highly esteemed "lamas"
occupying the positions of greatest influence. Gompas found in higher places
of the Himalayas, especially in trans-Himalayan areas are sacred monasteries
of Buddhists. People in these areas are followers of Buddhism. Himalayan
mountains are also home toTibetans, who mostly follow Buddhism as their
religion. Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Ladakh, Spiti, Sikkim, Darjeeling, and
Arunachal Pradesh have a considerable Buddhist population.

8.4.1 Population
India is a diverse multi-ethnic country and is home to thousands of small
ethnic and tribal groups. Process of migration and inter-marriages within and
among different ethnic groups has led to complexities of different forms. Great
urban culture of the Indus civilization, a society of Indus river valley that is
thought to have been Dravidian-speaking, thrived from roughly 2500 to 1700
BCE. Aryan civilization - dominated by peoples with linguistic affinities to
peoples in Iran and Europe - came to occupy north-westward and then north-
central India over the period from roughly 2000 to 1500 BCE and
subsequently, spread south-westward and eastward at the expense of other
indigenous groups.

Despite the emergence of caste restrictions, that process of inter-marriage

between groups continued despite considerable opposition from people
whose own distinctive cultures had also evolved in early historical times.
Among the documented invasions that added significantly to the Indian ethnic
mix are those of Persians, Scythians, Arabs, Mongols, Turks and Afghans.
Last and politically most successful of great invasions mainly from Europe
vastly altered Indian culture but had relatively little impact on India’s ethnic
composition.

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Broadly speaking, people of north-central and north-western India tend to

have ethnic affinities with European and Indo-European people from southern
Europe, the Caucasus region, and Southwest and Central Asia. In north-
eastern India, West Bengal (to a lesser degree), the higher reaches of
western Himalayan region and Ladakh, much of population closely resembles
people to the north and east - notably Tibetans and Burmese.

Population of Himalayas has grown by 250 percent, from 19.9 million to 52.8
million in the last fifty years (1961-2011). If the population keeps growing at
the same rate (3.3 percent annually) as during the last fifty years (1961-2011),
the number of people will exceed 260 million in 2061. Without a doubt this
would be a great problem. Fortunately, recent decades has shown growth
rate to be slowing down. For example, average annual growth rate of
population in Nepal was 2.25 percent between 1999-2001 which came down
to 1.35 percent between 2001-2011. Nevertheless, population of Himalayas
landscape increased by more than 32 million people in the last 50 years.

Table given below shows overall demographic profile of Himalayas.

(Source: Michael Apollo (2017) The Population of Himalayan regions by the numbers: Past,
present and future)

Of the four principal language families in Indian subcontinent—Indo-

European, Tibeto-Burman, Austroasiatic and Dravidian—the first two are well
represented in Himalayas. People speaking languages from both families
mixed in varying proportions in different areas since ancient times. Their
distribution is the result of long history of penetration by Central Asian and
Iranian groups from the west, Indian people from the south and east Asian
peoples from the east and north. The penetration in lower Himalayas was
instrumental to migrations into and through river-plain passageways of South
Asia.

Generally speaking, the Great Himalayas and the trans-Himalayas are

inhabited by Tibetans speaking people which belongs to Tibeto-Burman
languages while lower Himalayas are home of Indo-European language
speakers. Among the latter are Kashmiri people of the Vale of Kashmir and
Gaddis and Gujars who live in Lesser Himalayas. Traditionally, Gaddis are hill
people; they possess large flocks of sheep and goats and go down from their
snowy abode in higher Himalayas lower areas in winter, returning again to
higher pastures in June. Gujars are traditionally migrating pastoral people

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who live off their herds of sheep, goats and cattle for which they use pastures
at various elevations.

Changpas, Ladakhi, Balti and Dard people live to the north of Great Himalaya
Range in Kashmir Himalayas. Dards speak Indo-European language, while
the others are Tibeto-Burman speakers. Changpas traditionally lead nomadic
pastoral life in upper Indus basin. Ladakhi have settled on terraces and
alluvial fans that flank Indus and its tributaries in Trans-Himalayan Ladakh
region. Baltis have spread farther down the Indus valley of trans-Himalayan
region and follow Islam.

Other Indo-European speakers are Kanets in Himachal Pradesh and people

of Uttarakhand. Most people in districts of Kinnaur and Lahaul-Spiti of
Himachal Pradesh speak Tibeto-Burman languages.

Indo-European languages constitute majority of the population, although large

groups of Tibeto-Burman speakers are found throughout the country. They
include Newar, Tamang, Gurung, Magar, Sherpa and some other people
related to the Bhutia, and the Kirat.

Sikkim region now a state of India and the kingdom of Bhutan have been
safety valves for the absorption of the excess population of eastern Nepal for
some 200 years. More Sherpa now live in Darjeeling area than in Mount
Everest homeland. At present, Paharis constitute majority who come from
Nepal in both Sikkim and Bhutan. Thus, people of Sikkim belong to three
distinct ethnic groups—the Lepcha, the Bhutia, and the Pahari. Generally
speaking, Nepalese and Lepcha live in western Bhutan and Bhutia of Tibetan
origin in eastern Bhutan.

Arunachal Pradesh is the homeland of several tribal groups—Abor or Adi,

Aka, Apa Tani, Dafla, Khampti, Khowa, Mishmi, Momba, Miri and Singpho.
Linguistically, they speak Tibeto-Burman. Each group has its homeland in a
distinct river valley, and all traditionally have been practicing shifting
cultivation which means that they shift to different tract of land after cultivating
land for a few years. So that the original land is left fallow for many years so
that it regains its fertility.

8.4.2 Settlements
Only tiny fraction of India's surface area is uninhabited. More than half of it is
cultivated, with little left fallow in any given year. Some of the area has been
classified as forest. Roughly one-fifth of total is used for grazing, gathering
firewood and other forest products and for commercial forestry. It is used for
shifting cultivation (often in defiance of the law) and hunting in tribal areas.
Land too dry for growing crops and without irrigation is largely used for
grazing. Higher elevations of Himalayas have only places with substantial
continuous areas not in use by humans.

Many urban settlements in Himalayan region had their origin in colonial era.
Some places were developed as resort towns in Himalayas which later got
agglomerated into new towns. There are many regional variants from simple
pattern of agglomerated-villages.

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Many settlements are on hillocks or mounds and their size is generally small.
Nucleated settlements may be observed in hilly and undulating tracts of
Himachal Pradesh, Kandi lands of Jammu and Kashmir, and Lesser
Himalayas and Shiwaliks in Uttarakhand.

SAQ 3
Write a note on the cultural setting of people across the Himalayan region.

8.4.3 Economy
Economic conditions in Himalayas partly depend on limited resources
available in different parts of this vast region of varied ecological zones.
Principal activity is animal husbandry, but forestry, trade, and tourism are also
important. Himalayas abound in economic resources. Those include pockets
of rich arable land, extensive grasslands and forest, workable mineral
deposits, easy-to-harness waterpower, and great natural beauty. Most
productive arable land in western Himalayas is in Vale of Kashmir, Kangra
valley, Sutlej river basin, and on terraces flanking Ganges and Yamuna rivers
in Uttarakhand. These areas produce rice, corn (maize), wheat and millets. In
central Himalayas in Nepal, two-third of arable land is in foothills and in
adjacent plains. This land is used for rice production. The area also produces
corn, wheat and potatoes.

Most of fruit orchards of Himalayas lie in Vale of Kashmir and the Kullu valley
of Himachal Pradesh. Fruits such as apples, peaches, pears, and cherries -
for which there is a great demand in cities of India, are grown extensively.
Walnut and almond are grown on hills surrounding Vale of Kashmir. Bhutan
also has fruit orchards and exports oranges to India.

Tea is grown in plantations mainly on hills and foothill plains in Darjeeling

district and other foot hill areas of eastern Himalayas. Plantations also
produce limited amount of tea in Kangra Valley of Himachal Pradesh.
Plantations of spice mainly of cardamom are found in Sikkim, Bhutan and
Darjeeling Hills. Medicinal herbs are grown on plantations in some areas of
Uttarakhand.

Transhumance (the seasonal migration of livestock) is widely practiced in

Himalayan pastures. Sheep, goats, and yaks are raised on available rough
grazing lands. They graze on pastures at higher elevations during summer
but migrate to lower mountain valleys in winter.

Himalayas are rich in minerals although exploitation is restricted to more

accessible areas. Kashmir region has some concentration of minerals.
Sapphires are found in Zanskar range, and alluvial gold is recovered in
nearby bed of Indus River. Ladakh possesses borax and sulphur deposits.
Coal seams are found in Jammu Hills. Bauxite also occurs in Kashmir. Nepal,
Bhutan, and Sikkim have extensive deposits of coal, mica, gypsum and
graphite and ores of iron, copper and lead.

Himalayan rivers have tremendous potential for hydroelectric generation. That

potential was first harnessed intensively by India beginning in 1950s. A giant
multipurpose project is located at Bhakra-Nangal on Sutlej river in Outer
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Himalayas; its reservoir was completed in 1963 and has storage capacity of
some 348 billion cubic feet (10 billion cubic metres) of water and total installed
generating capacity of 1,050 megawatts. Other Himalayan rivers—including
Kosi, Gandak (Narayani) and Jaldhaka—are harnessed by India, which also
supply electric power to Nepal and Bhutan. Subsequent major projects in
India included Nathpa Jhakri dam on Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh and just
downstream from that site, Rampur station, which became operational in
2014. Beside these, several dams have been constructed over River Teesta
in different stages in Sikkim Himalaya. Nepal has also constructed
hydropower projects in Himalayas, as has China, which completed the
Zangmu station on Yarlung Zangbo (Brahmaputra) River in Tibet in 2015.

Tourism has become an increasingly important source of income and

employment in parts of Himalayas, especially Nepal. In addition to sightseers,
there has been a dramatic rise in the number of foreign trekkers in lower
mountains, as well as among mountaineers desirous of climbing Mount
Everest and other notable higher mountain peaks. This has resulted in
increased traffic and tourists’ heavy consumption of the region’s limited
resources.

8.4.4 Transport and Communication

Since long, trails and footpaths were the only means of communication in the
Himalayas. However, those continue to be important, especially in more
remote locations.Road transport now has made the Himalayas accessible
from both north and south directions. In Nepal, an east-west highway
stretches through Tarai lowlands, connecting roads that penetrate many of
the country's mountain valleys. The capital, Kathmandu, is connected to
Pokhara by a low Himalayan highway and another highway through Kodari
Pass gives Nepal access to Tibet.

A highway running from Kathmandu through Hetauda and Birganj to Birauni

connects Nepal to Bihar state and the rest of India. To the northwest of
Pakistan, the Karakoram Highway links that country with China. Hindustan-
Tibet road, which passes through Himachal Pradesh, has been considerably
improved; that 300-mile (480 kilometres) highway runs through Shimla, once
the summer capital of India, and crosses the Indo-Tibet border near Shipkila
Pass.

From Manali in Kullu Valley, a highway now crosses not only the Great
Himalayas but also the Zanskar range and reaches Leh in the upper Indus
Valley. Leh is also connected to India via Srinagar in Vale of Kashmir; the
road from Srinagar to Leh passes over Zoji la pass. Leh-Nubra road passes
through, 3559 metres high Khardung-la Pass - the high pass on the historic
caravan trail to Central Asia from India. Many other new roads have been built
since the 1950s.

The only direct approach to the Vale of Kashmir from the Indian state of
Punjab is by highway from Jammu to Srinagar.It starts from Jammu the
summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir Union Territory and passes through
Udhampur, Banihal, Patni Top etc. It crosses the Pir Panjal range through a
tunnel located at Banihal. The old road from Rawalpindi, Pakistan, to

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Srinagar, lost its importance with the closing of the road at the Line of Control
(LOC) between the sectors of Kashmir administered by India and Pakistan.

Only two main railroads, both of narrow gauge, penetrate the Lesser
Himalayas from the plains of India: one in the western Himalayas, between
Kalka and Shimla and the other in the eastern Himalayas, between Siliguri
and Darjeeling. Another narrow-gauge line in Nepal runs for some 30 miles
from Raxaul in Bihar state, India, to Amlekhganj in Nepal. Two other short
railroads run to the Outer Himalayas - one, the railroad of Kullu Valley, from
Pathankot to Joginder nagar and the other from Haridwar to Dehra Dun.

There are two major airstrips in the Himalayas, one at Kathmandu and the
other at Srinagar; the airport at Kathmandu is served by international as well
as regional flights. Besides those, there are also an increasing number of
airstrips of local importance in India and other countries in the Himalayas that
normally can accommodate small aircraft. Some of these airports are Bhuntar
near Kullu, Shimla, Dehradun, Jammu Dharmshala etc. Improvements in both
air and ground transportation have facilitated the growth of tourism in the
Himalayas prominently inthe last few decadesand have added problems of
social, cultural and environmental nature, thus, creating risk to fragile
ecosystems.

SAQ 4
a) Describe the economy of the Himalayan region.
b) Efficient transport and communication form the backbone of the economy.
Taking transport and communication into account, explain their
significance in the Himalayan region.

8.5 THE REGIONS

From west to East, the Himalayas have been divided into six regions viz.,
Kashmir Himalayas, Himachal Himalayas, Kumaun Himalayas, Central and
Sikkim Himalayas, Arunachal Himalayas, and Purvanchal Himalayas.

Kashmir Himalayas

Westernmost of the Himalayan mountain range is Kashmir Himalaya. It has

the largest number of Glaciers in India. Ladakh region of Kashmir Himalayas
is India’s Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve. Kashmir Himalayas has Karewa
deposits in Kashmir valley which are made up of silt, clay and sand. These
deposits are very important for the agriculture and horticulture sector in
Kashmir Valley. Karewas are known for saffron cultivation and have orchards
of fruits and nuts such as apples, peaches, almonds, and walnutsof high
quality.Major physical characteristics of the Kashmir Himalayas are glaciers,
snow-covered peaks, deep valleys, and highmountain passes. Pir-Panjal,
Banihal, Zoji-La, Saser-La, Chang-La, Jara-La, etc. are the major mountain
passes in these ranges.

Himachal Himalaya is spread in Himachal Pradesh. Rohtang, Bara-Lacha,

and Shipki-La are important mountain passes here. Valleys of Kullu, Kangra,

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Manali, Lahaul and Spiti known for orchards and tourist spots are all parts of
Himachal Himalaya.

Kumaun Himalaya is located between the Sutlej and Kali rivers. It is home
tosome of India’s highest peaks i.e., Nanda Devi.Other peaks located in
Kumaun Himalaya are Kamet, Trishul, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Dunagiri,
Gangotri, etc. Gangotri and Pindar are important glaciers of the Kumaun
Himalaya.

Central and Sikkim Himalaya is located beyond Kali river upto Teesta river.
A large part of the Central Himalayas is located in Nepal. Central Himalayas
are home to the highest peaks of the Himalayas such as Everest,
Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri and Annapurna. It is characterized by very
few passes. Two mountain passes namely Nathu La and Jelep-La are most
important, as these connect India's Sikkim region with Tibet's autonomous
region of China.

Arunachal Himalayas and Purvanchal Hills: Eastern Himalayas occupy

Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan. Important hills in this region are Aka Hills,
Daphla Hills, Miri Hills, Mishmi Hills and Namcha Barwa and Dihang Pass of
Arunachal Pradesh which is also its parts.Passing from Arunachal Pradesh,
there is an eastward extension of the Himalayas in the northeastern region of
India. This is known as Purvanchal Hills. Purvanchal Hills comprises
PatkaiHills, Manipur Hills, Bairal range, Mizo Hills and Naga Hills. It is a
densely forested area, mainly composed of sandstones.

SAQ 5
Explain the west to East division of the Himalayas along with major sub-
divisions.

8.6 PROBLMES AND PROSPECTS

Himalayas' prospects can be well understood from the fact that it is a
biodiversity hotspot for several plant and animal species. It is endowed with
immense natural resources, which form the base of livelihood for its people.
Swift-flowing rivers from melting glaciers form an energy base for generating
hydroelectric power in different parts of the region which is one of the most
important resources. Besides this, the presence of different mineral
resources, plant and animal species and scenic resources for tourism benefits
the region.Its cultural heritage helps promote ecotourism in the region and
can also be considered a boon for the economy.

However, the urge for greater prosperity and infrastructural development that
has taken place in the fragile mountain ranges has proved to be a great
disadvantage. Development-induced destruction like deforestation, mining
and blasting of mountains and construction of power generation dams of large
capacityis proving to be a serious threat to its environment.The changing
climate in the Himalayan mountains has started showing its destructive nature
in the form of GLOF (Glacial Lake Outburst Floods) recently seen in a few
mountainous states of India, variability in weather phenomena and various

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other environmental hazards. Poor lithology and geological characteristics of

young fold Himalayan mountains have been some of the greatest
disadvantages over the years.

SAQ 6
Explain the problems and prospects of the Himalayan region as a whole.

8.7 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 One of the chief macro-regions of India i.e., the Himalayas and its
associated mountain ranges.
 Himalayan mountain is a separate unit of the macro-region, which also
supports the other regions.
 It has diversified characteristics and geographical characteristics.
 The physical setting, cultural settings, and regions of the Himalayas and its
associated mountain ranges.
 Associated problems and prospects of the Himalayas and its associated
mountain ranges.

8.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on the Himalayas and their physiographic divisions.
2. Explain the distribution of soil and vegetation types in India.
3. Write a note on water resources in India keeping in mind the role of the
Himalayan drainage system.
4. The Himalayan ecosystem has been well endowed with natural resources.
Explain the problems and prospects associated with the resources
available in the Himalayan region.
5. Write a note on the mountain economy citing examples from the
Himalayas.

8.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) The Himalayas can be subdivided into three major divisions and their
geographical attributes can be understood in the following divisions:
i) Himalayan Ranges, ii) Trans Himalayas, and iii) Eastern Himalayas.
Each of these divisions can further be subdivided. Refer to Section 8.3.
b) The Himalayas are the sources of many Perennial rivers which drain
into the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. There are a large number of
perennial rivers that have their source in the snowfields and glaciers in the

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Himalayas, of which more than 70 percent of India's territory drains into the
Bay of Bengal via the Ganges-Brahmaputra river system.
2. Himalaya is endowed with rich physical resources. The presence of flora
and fauna of different varieties makes it a unique place for different
species to thrive. The suitability of climate and availability of rainfall along
with the varying degree of temperature based on altitudinal changes
makes it a habitat suitable for living for a variety of plants and animal
species.
3. The Himalayas are spread across five countries -India, Nepal, Bhutan,
China, and Pakistan. Four noticeably different cultural groups exist in the
Himalayas namely Buddhists, Hindus, Islam followers, and Animistic
groups.
4. a) Economic conditions in the Himalayas partly depend on the limited
resources available in different parts of that vast region of varied ecological
zones. The principal activity is animal husbandry, but forestry, trade, and
tourism are also important.
b) Trails and footpaths long were the only means of communication in the
Himalayas. Although, those continue to be important, especially in the
more remote locations, road transport now has made the Himalayas
accessible from both north and south directions.
5. From west to East, the Himalayas have been divided into six regions viz.,
Kashmir Himalayas, Himachal Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, Central
and Sikkim Himalayas, Arunachal Himalayas, and Purvanchal Himalayas.
6. The Himalayas' prospects can be well understood from the fact that it is a
biodiversity hotspot for several plant and animal species. It is endowed
with immense natural resources, which form the base of livelihood for the
people in the region.

Terminal Questions
1. In your answer, describe the Himalayas and their physiographic
divisions.Refer to sub-Sections 8.3.1 and 8.3.2. Refer to Section 8.5 to
support your answer.
2. While answering this question, include an explanationofthe distribution of
soil and vegetation types in India.Refer to Section 8.3.5
3. Describe the water resources in India keeping in mind the role Himalayan
drainage system in your answer.Refer to sub-Section 8.3.3.
4. The Himalayan ecosystem has been well endowed with natural resources.
In your answer, explain the problems and prospects associated with the
resources available in the Himalayan region. Refer to Section 8.6.
5. To answer this question, describe the key features of the mountain
economy citing suitable examples from the Himalayas. Refer to sub-
Section 8.4.3.

8.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Tiwari R.C. (2007).Geography of India. Prayag Pustak Bhawan,
Allahabad.
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2. Khullar D.R. (2005).Geography of India. Kalyani Publication, New Delhi.

3. Johnson B.L.C., ed. (2001).Geographical Dictionary of India. Vision
Books, New Delhi.
4. Singh R.L. (1971).India: A Regional Geography, National Geographical
Society of India.
5. Tirtha, R.(2002).Geography of India, Rawat Publishers, Jaipur, and New
Delhi.
6. Singh, J. (2003).India: A Comprehensive and Systematic Geography,
Gyanodaya Prakashan, Gorakhpur.
7. Pathak, C.R. (2003).Spatial Structure and Processes of Development in
India. Regional Science Association, Kolkata.
8. Sharma T.C. (2013).Economic Geography of India. Rawat Publication,
Jaipur.
9. Bhende, A. and Kanitkar T. (2000).Principles of Population Studies.
Himalayan Publishing House.
10. Burrad, S.G and Hayden, H.H (2013). A Sketch of the Geography and
Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet. Isha Books, Delhi.

29
 UNIT 9

MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 2

Structure
9.1 Introduction Population
Expected Learning Outcomes Settlement
9.2 Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra Economy
Plains: Historical Transport and Communication
Background 9.5 Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra
9.3 Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra Plains: The Regions
Plains: The Physical Setting 9.6 Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra
Geology Plains: Problems and
Physiography/Relief Prospects
Drainage and Water Resources 9.7 Summary
Climate 9.8 Terminal Questions
Vegetation 9.9 Answers
Soils 9.10 References and Further
Physical Resource Base Readings
9.4 Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra
Plains: The Cultural Setting

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains as
macro-regions of India. You will be able to know about the historical
background, physical setting, and cultural setting of this macro-region. The
unit will also discuss different sub-regions within the region and investigate its
problems and prospects.

Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains have geographical importance as they

are important macro-regions in the northern part of the country, which is
drained by three great river systems: Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. This is
the Great Plains region of India, densely populated and intensely cultivated. It
is divided into three regions: 1. Indus Plains 2. Ganga plains, and 3.
Brahmaputra plains. The gradational activities of rivers like the Indus, Ganga,
and Brahmaputra and their tributaries have contributed to their formation and
origin. Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains are the largest alluvial tracts of
the world, forming the world’s largest delta, Sundarbans. The northern
boundary is well-marked by Shiwalik Hills. The southern boundary is wavy and
irregular along the northern edge of Peninsular India, with the western border

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marked by the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the eastern side, the plains
are bordered by Purvanchal hills. The Great Plains cover an area of 700,000
square kilometres.

The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra Plain is an expansive and rich

geographical area that has substantially impacted the history, culture, and
economy of the Indian subcontinent. This vast expanse of territory is located
south of the Shivalik Hills and is defined by the Himalayan Front Fault (HFF). It
acts as a transitional region between the Himalayas in the north and
Peninsular India in the south. The region includes the Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra Plain, which is acknowledged as the most extensive alluvial tract
globally. The mean sea level in the Northern Plains of India is around 200
metres, suggesting a mostly flat terrain that is very suitable for agriculture and
has a high population density.

Fig. 9.1: Location map of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this Unit, you should be able to:
● understand the historical background of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra
plains;
● describe the physical and cultural setting of the Indo-Ganga and
Brahmaputra plains as a Macro-region;
● demarcation of sub-regions, and;
● analyse problems of this macro-region and find out how to solve those
problems.

9.2 INDO-GANGA AND BRAHMAPUTRA

PLAINS: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains possess a profound and intricate
historical heritage that extends over several millennia, serving as a crucial
catalyst in the development of South Asian civilization. These plains have
served as the origin of ancient civilizations, the site of conflicts between
empires, and the location where religions and cultural movements were born.
Provided is a concise summary of the historical context of this area:

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Ancient Civilizations and Empires

 The Indus Valley Civilization, which existed from around 2600 BCE to
1900 BCE, first established urban communities mainly in the western area
of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. However, its impact spread over the whole
region. This civilization established the fundamental basis for later
civilizations and communities in South Asia.

 Vedic Period: The Vedic literature, created between 1500 BCE and 500
BCE, is said to have originated on the Indo-Gangetic plains. The writings
embody the early Indo-Aryan civilization that exerted dominance over the
area, imposing social hierarchies and religious customs that have
undergone gradual changes over the years.

 Maurya and Gupta Empires: The Maurya Empire (approximately 322 BCE
to 185 BCE) and the Gupta Empire (roughly 320 CE to 550 CE) thrived on
these plains, which are regarded as the core regions of both empires.
These periods are widely recognized as golden eras in Indian history,
characterized by remarkable progress in the fields of arts, science, and
government.

Medieval Period

 Islamic Sultanates and the Mughal Empire: From the 12th century
onwards, a succession of Islamic empires and sultanates emerged in the
area, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Mughal Empire (1526–
1857). The Mughals were famous for their significant contributions to
architecture, culture, and the arts, as shown by iconic structures like the Taj
Mahal.

Colonial Era

 British Raj: During the Colonial Era, the British Raj focused on the Indo-
Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains as crucial areas for agricultural
productivity and commercial activities in India. The British implemented
railroads, telegraph lines, and a centralized government, greatly influencing
the social, economic, and political structure of the province.

Post Independence

 Partition and Independence: Following India's independence, the partition

of the country in 1947 resulted in notable population shifts across the Indo-
Gangetic plains, namely in Punjab and Bengal, which were split between
India and Pakistan. During the years after independence, there have been
endeavours to tackle issues like as the increase in population, urbanization,
and the need for environmental sustainability, all while using the agricultural
and economic capabilities of the area.

Modern Developments

 Economic and Social Progress: Over the last several decades, the Indo-
Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains have seen significant economic
expansion, urbanization, and enhancements in infrastructure. Nevertheless,

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the area also has obstacles with environmental stewardship, preservation
of resources, and fairness in society.

 After India gained independence in 1947, the Brahmaputra plains became

part of the Indian state of Assam. The region has witnessed various socio-
political movements, including demands for autonomy and identity by
different ethnic groups. The history of the Brahmaputra plains is a complex
and dynamic narrative shaped by the interactions of various cultures,
civilizations, and natural forces over centuries.

The historical context of the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains

underscores the region's importance as a hub of political influence, cultural
advancement, and economic productivity. The history of this place exemplifies
the capacity of its inhabitants to bounce back from challenges and adjust to
new circumstances. It also highlights their significant contributions to the
overall fabric of South Asian history.

9.3 INDO-GANGA AND BRAHMAPUTRA

PLAINS: PHYSICAL BACKGROUND
9.3.1 Geology
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains include expansive alluvial terrains,
characterized by lush soils and substantial agricultural output. These
formations were created over millions of years by the process of
sedimentation, which resulted from rivers coming from the Himalayas and
Peninsular plateau. The creation began with the tectonic convergence of the
Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, resulting in the elevation of the Himalayas
and the Tibetan Plateau. The newly formed Himalayas and the northern half of
the Peninsular Plateau experienced significant erosion, resulting in large
quantities of sediment deposition. These sediments were then transported by
rivers such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus, and their tributaries. The
alluvial deposits, composed of silt, sand, and clay, are the most recent on the
top and get more older and denser as they go deeper. The region's abundant
and productive soils, underground water sources, active river systems, and
geological movements contribute to its diversified and prosperous nature. The
seismic activity in the area is further influenced by its proximity to the
tectonically active Himalayan zone.

The region is characterized by distinct regional geomorphic features, including

river alluvium descending from Shivalik, folded Shivalik ranges, and the
Peninsular Plateau. The region is a water-flowing zone of rivers like the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra, which form depositional landforms around the
plain. The evolution of Brahmaputra plains began in the Quaternary period
and continues to evolve due to relief in the foreland depression between the
Himalayas and the Shillong Plateau. The Brahmaputra valley is in perpetual
flux due to erosional and depositional works of rivers, channel migration, and
disastrous earthquakes, making it extremely unstable. The region's geological
structure is new and evolving over time.

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Fig. 9.2: Geological map of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains.

9.3.2 Physiography/Relief
The physiography and terrain of the Indo- Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains, a
vast expanse of fertile land, exhibit many distinctive characteristics:

Flatness and Fertility: The Great North Indian Plain is primarily characterized
by its flat topography, with a gentle incline from the west to the east. The
flatness of this area is a consequence of the massive accumulation of alluvial
sediment over thousands of years by the several rivers that traverse the plain,
such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra, together with their countless
smaller streams. The soil in this region is very rich owing to the deposition of
alluvium by various river systems. As a result, it supports the highest
population density in India, thanks to its high agricultural output.

The plain is conventionally partitioned into three segments:

The Punjab Plains: It is primarily shaped by the five rivers of Punjab (Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej), which are renowned for their fertile alluvial
soil, which is highly suitable for agricultural activities, notably the growth of
wheat and rice.

The Ganga Plains: It spans many states from Uttar Pradesh to West Bengal,
are located in the central region of the North Indian Plain. This region has a
diverse landscape, with riverine islands, winding rivers, and oxbow lakes. The
plains in this area are distinguished by the presence of doabs, which are rich
tracts of land located between two converging rivers.

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Fig. 9.3: Physiography of Indo-Ganga Plains

The Brahmaputra Plains: The Brahmaputra Plains, located in the eastern

region, is characterized by a complex network of interwoven river systems and
extensive sediment accumulation. The region is susceptible to yearly floods
that, whilst inflicting harm, also enrich the soil with new alluvium, thereby
preserving its fertility. The Brahmaputra plains, a part of the Indo-Gangetic
alluvium, are an easterly extension of the Himalayas. They have been formed
through sedimentation in the longitudinal valley between the Himalayas,
Patkai-Barail highlands, and the Shillong plateau. The upper part of the plains
extends from northeast to southwest, while the lower part goes east-west. The
plain is broadest in the upper part, about 90 kilometers, and narrowest in the
middle, where the Karbi Plateau projects northward to the bank of
Brahmaputra at Burapahar. The plain slopes down towards the south-west in
the higher section and west in the middle and lower portions, with an average
gradient of 13 centimetres per kilometre. This gentle gradient is one of the
primary reasons for frequent floods in the plains. Although Brahmaputra plain
is by and large flat, it has some physiographic variations. Brahmaputra valley
can be divided into four notable physiographic units:
i) The northern foothills
ii) The north and south bank plains
iii) The floodplain and charlands, and
iv) The southern foothills

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Unit - 9 Macro Regions of India 2
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Fig. 9.4: Physiography of Brahmaputra Plains.

(Source: Geography of Assam, 2001)

Geomorphological Features: The region's topography is distinguished by

several geomorphological characteristics, including levees, floodplains,
terraces, and river cliffs. The long-term interplay between rivers and the terrain
has resulted in a diverse array of geomorphological formations, each of which
has specific consequences for how the land might be used.

Fluvial Processes and Landforms: The region experiences significant fluvial

activities that result in the creation of many landforms, including deltas found
at the river mouths. One notable example is the Sundarbans Delta, which is
produced by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. Meanders and point bars are
often seen along the courses of these rivers.

Relief and Elevation: Although the plain is mostly flat, it exhibits subtle
undulations and height fluctuations. The elevation is greatest in the western
part, where it intersects with the Pakistan border, and gradually declines
towards the east and south, where it blends with the delta area. The elevation
in the top portions of the plain varies between about 200 and 300 metres
above sea level, while in the lowest parts it is less than 200 metres.

Soil and Sedimentation: The region's soil composition is intricate, consisting

of sandy loam near the rivers and clayey soils in the more distant locations.
The dynamic floodplains are regularly refilled with new alluvium, maintaining
excellent soil fertility.

9.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

There are three major river systems in the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra
plains with numerous tributaries. These are the Indus, Ganga, and
Brahmaputra river systems, which comprise the drainage and water resources
of the region. All these rivers emerge from the Himalayas.

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Indus River System

a) Indus River: Indus is India's westernmost river of the Great Northern

plains. It has a length of 2880 kilometres, of which 709 kilometres lie in India.
The main tributaries of the river Indus are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and
Satluj. All these rivers are tributaries or sub-tributaries of the Indus, which
finally fall into the Arabian Sea. The Indus river originates from the Bokhar
Chu glacier, which is situated near Mt. Kailash. The river in the plain area
forms one of the most fertile plains, which have supported the oldest
civilization of the Indian sub-continent.
b) Jhelum River: Jhelum river rises from a spring at Verinag in the south-
eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It joins the Chenab River at Trimmu. Its
gradient is gentle in Kashmir valley and is the most important river of Kashmir,
supporting lives there.
c) Chenab River: Chenab river is formed by uniting Chandra and Bhaga. It
flows across Pir-Panjal and the Great Himalayas. It makes a hairpin bend near
Kishtwar and flows across the Pir-Panjal range at Raisi to enter Pakistan.
There are some important hydel projects on the river, such as the Baglihar
Hydroelectric project, Salal and Dulhasti projects, etc.
d) Ravi River flows for about 725 kilometres and drains 5957 square
kilometres area in India. Ravi rises near Bara Bhangal in Kangra district. It
drains the western slope of Pir-Panjal and the northern slope of the
Dhauladhar ranges.
e) Beas River: Beas has its source at Beas Kund near the southern face of
Rohtang Pass in Kullu, where it runs for a few kilometers and then cuts
through Dhauladhar Range. It flows through the towns of Manali and Kullu.
f) Satluj River: Satluj river rises from Rakas Lake, which is situated at about
4600 metres near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet (China). This is an antecedent
river, called Langechen Khambab in Tibet. It enters through Shipki La pass in
India. Bhakra Dam is constructed on this river. In India, its course is 1050
kilometres, draining an area of about 28,090 square kilometres.

Ganga River System

a) Ganga River: Ganga is India's most important and sacred river. Ganga
originates as Bhagirathi from Gaumukh in Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand
at an elevation of about 7010 metres. Alaknanda river joins Bhagirathi river at
Devprayag forming Ganga. The main tributaries of the Ganga river are
Yamuna, Chambal, Gandak, Kosi, and Son.
b) Yamuna River: It is Ganga's longest and westernmost tributary. Its source
lies in Yamunotri Glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch. Downwards,
it is joined by the Tons river behind the Mussoorie range.
c) Chambal River: Chambal river rises near Mhow Cantt, situated southwest
of Indore in the Malwa Plateau, from the Vindhyan range and flows towards
the north in a gorge up to Kota in Rajasthan state. This river is a tributary of
the Yamuna river. Chambal river is known for its extensive ravines carved all
along lower Chambal Valley.

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d) Gandak River: Draining central parts of Nepal, the Gandak river rises in
the Himalayas between Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, and Mt. Everest in Tibet. It
enters the great plains of India in the Champaran district of Bihar.
e) Kosi River: Kosi is also an antecedent river known as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar.’
After piercing the Greater Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Sun-Kosi from
the west and Tamur-Kosi from the east. The river is notorious for its floods.
f) Son River: This is a large south-bank tributary of the Ganga river. It
originates from the Amarkantak Plateau, not far from the source of Narmada. It
leaves the plateau, making a series of waterfalls, and meets Kaimur Range,
which turns its course towards the northeast, where it follows a strike valley.

The Brahmaputra River, also known as Tsangpo in Tibet, originates from

glaciers east of Mansarovar Lake and pierces the Greater Himalayas near
Namcha Barwa. It is known as Brahmaputra in India and has several
tributaries, including Subansiri, Manas, Tista, Dihang, and Lohit. The valley is
a fertile area with 32 significant north and south bank tributaries that drain the
entire span of the valley. Some tributaries are snow-fed, while the majority rely
on monsoons for volume. These tributaries, characterized by their geo-
hydrological characteristics, play a crucial role in the valley's wetland ecology.
The Brahmaputra river drains the valley from Sadiya to Dhubri over a distance
of around 640 kilometres. Its network of tributaries feeds water and material
into the valley's floodplain. Important north bank tributaries include Subansiri,
Jia Bharali, Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya, Manas, and Champamati, while
primary south bank tributaries include Buhri Dihing, Disang, Dikhow, Dhansiri,
Kopili, and Krishnai.

Fig. 9.5: Drainage and Water Resources of Brahmaputra Plains.

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SAQ 1
a) Write a brief note on the physiography of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra
plains.
b) Briefly discuss the rivers of the Indus system draining this region.
c) Briefly discuss the rivers of the Ganga system draining this region.

9.3.4 Climate
The Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra Plain, is a huge area characterized by
diverse climatic conditions that are shaped by its extensive terrain. This region
extends from the outskirts of the Thar Desert in the west to the rich
Brahmaputra Valley in the east, including the productive Gangetic plains. The
climate in this region exhibits a range of conditions, ranging from semi-arid in
the western areas to humid subtropical in the eastern areas.

Three types of climatic conditions prevail in this region: i) sub-humid, ii) semi-
arid, and iii) humid. Extreme hot and cold conditions are the basic
characteristics as temperature in the region ranges between 20°C and 40°C.
Months of May and June experience hot and dry winds, locally called loo,
followed by dust winds and occasional showers. Rainfall is mainly received in
July, August, and September. However, western depressions/ disturbances
also bring a few centimetres of rainfall during winter months in parts of the
Indo-Ganga plain. This winter rainfall is quite useful for Rabi Crop.

According to R.L. Singh’s (1971) climatic divisions, the region has been
divided into five sub-divisions from west to east namely i) arid; ii) semi-arid,
sub-tropical; iii) sub-humid continental climate; iv) sub-humid transitional; and
v) humid-northeast.

Fig. 9.6: Climatic Divisions of Indo-Ganga Plains.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography, Reprint 2010)
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Clear seasonal patterns characterize these variations.

Temperature

Throughout the plains, temperatures vary considerably with the changing

seasons. The summers are often sweltering, with temperatures frequently
surpassing 40°C in the western regions and ranging from 25°C to 35°C in the
eastern Brahmaputra Valley. During winters, there is a shift in weather
patterns, with chilly to cold conditions being dominant. In the northwest,
temperatures may drop as low as 2°C, while in the northeast, they tend to be
rather moderate, ranging from 10°C to 20°C.

Precipitation

The predominant source of rainfall in the whole area occurs during the
monsoon season, namely from July to September, as a result of the southwest
monsoon winds. Nevertheless, the quantity of precipitation exhibits significant
disparities, ranging from under 500 millimetres in the western regions next to
the Thar Desert to above 2,500 millimetres in the Brahmaputra Valley. The
western Gangetic plains have a modest amount of rainfall, which progressively
intensifies as one travels towards the east, culminating in the Brahmaputra
Plain, which is renowned as one of the most precipitation-rich regions in the
nation.

Humidity

The humidity levels also differ, with lower levels in the western regions and
notably greater levels in the eastern Brahmaputra Plain. The elevated humidity
levels in the Brahmaputra Valley, particularly during the monsoon season, are
a significant factor in the region's abundant vegetation and varied ecosystems.

Climatic Divisions

Geographical regions characterized by distinct climate patterns:

The Upper Gangetic Plains exhibit semi-arid to sub-humid climates

characterized by scorching summers and freezing winters. The region
predominantly receives rainfall during the monsoon season.

The Middle Gangetic Plains exhibit higher levels of humidity and receive
bigger amounts of rainfall, which in turn facilitate the development of densely
populated urban areas and very fruitful agricultural plains.

The Lower Gangetic Plains have a humid subtropical climate characterized

by high humidity and substantial rainfall, resulting in hot summers and
moderate winters.

The Thar Desert Fringe is characterized by dry to semi-arid environments,

with little rainfall and significant temperature fluctuations.

The Brahmaputra Plain is renowned for its temperate climate, abundant

monsoonal precipitation, and elevated humidity, fostering diverse flora and
fauna and vibrant greenery.

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The region's diversified climate enables the existence of a vast range of plant
and animal species, various agricultural practices, and human communities.
The Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains have traditionally served as the
agricultural epicentres of India due to their fertile soil and favourable
temperatures. Nevertheless, the area also has obstacles such as inundation,
particularly in the Brahmaputra Valley, and insufficiency of water in the
western regions, which adversely affect both sustenance and farming.

9.3.5 Vegetation
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains in northern and eastern India
include various plant types, influenced by the region's unique temperature, soil
composition, and water resources. The plains in question are very rich and
heavily inhabited areas of India, characterized by a combination of forest,
grassland, and cultivated crops. Below is a comprehensive summary of the
many plant kinds present in these plains:

Tropical deciduous forests: Tropical deciduous woods are the dominating

vegetation in places with comparatively higher precipitation, particularly in the
eastern regions of the Gangetic plains and across the Brahmaputra lowlands.
The distinguishing feature of these woods is the diverse array of trees that
undergo leaf shedding in order to preserve water during the dry season. The
primary species are Sal (Shorea robusta), Teak (Tectona grandis), as well as
other kinds of Acacia and Bamboo. The woodlands possess a high level of
biodiversity, providing habitat for many animal and avian species.

Grasslands: The floodplains next to the rivers, particularly in the Brahmaputra

valley, sustain luxuriant grasslands that serve as vital habitats for diverse
animals, including the single-horned rhinoceros, elephants, and several kinds
of deer. These grasslands also function as crucial pastures for domesticated
cattle and are essential for the sustenance of several populations.

Riparian Vegetation: Vegetation is found along a river's banks or other water

bodies. Riparian vegetation, including of thick bushes, trees, and aquatic
plants, flourishes along the banks of the rivers that intersect the plains. This
plant type is crucial for the stabilization of riverbanks, the mitigation of erosion,
and the provision of habitat for a multitude of aquatic and avian species.

Agricultural Crops: The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains are India's

agricultural heartlands due to their excellent soils and abundant water
availability. The area is renowned for its abundant rice, wheat, sugarcane,
pulses, and oilseeds production. Rice is primarily cultivated in the more humid
eastern regions, such as the Brahmaputra valley, whilst wheat is more
prevalent in the arid western areas of the Gangetic plains. The agricultural
sector in the area plays a crucial role in supporting a substantial proportion of
India's population, providing both livelihood opportunities and ensuring food
security.

Mangroves: Mangroves are present in the delta areas, particularly in the

Sundarbans located at the estuaries of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
The tidal ecosystems include salt-tolerant flora and fauna, including the
Bengal tiger. Mangroves are essential for safeguarding the shoreline from
erosion and severe weather phenomena.
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The flora of the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains is of utmost

significance in shaping the region's ecological balance, economic activities,
and cultural practices. The area maintains a diverse range of plant and animal
species, offers crucial functions to the environment, and ensures the
continued success of farming activities. Nevertheless, these plant types are
confronted with dangers arising from deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and
the consequences of climate change. Consequently, it is imperative to
undertake conservation and sustainable management measures to protect
and preserve these crucial natural resources.

Fig. 9.7: Natural Vegetation of Indo-Ganga Plains.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography, Reprint 2010)

SAQ 2
a) Write a brief note on the climate of the Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra
plains.
b) Briefly discuss the vegetation found in the Indo-Ganga and Brahamputra
plains region.

9.3.6 Soils
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains are distinguished by their
abundant and fertile soils, which serve as the basis for the agricultural
production that distinguishes this extensive area. These plains, which extend
across many Indian states, are endowed with diverse soil types, each
conducive to distinct cropping patterns and flora kinds. Below is a summary of
the soil attributes observed across these plains:

Alluvial soils: Alluvial soil is the prevailing soil type in both the Indo-Gangetic
and Brahmaputra plains. These soils are exceptionally productive and

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excellent for a wide variety of crops since they are formed from the sediments
carried by rivers originating from the Himalayas and the Peninsular Plateau.
Alluvial soils are often characterized by their lightweight and porous nature,
which enables them to effectively store rainwater. The soils exhibit a range of
textures, from sandy loam to clay loam, which contributes to their excellent
agricultural productivity. The alluvial deposits undergo yearly renewal via the
recurring floods, which restore the nutritional content, thereby minimizing the
need for intensive fertilizer.

Fig. 9.8: Soils of Indo-Ganga plains.

Features of Alluvial Soils

 High fertility: These soils are abundant in potash, phosphoric acid, and
lime, making them very suitable for growing crops, including rice, wheat,
and sugarcane, as well as numerous pulses and vegetables.
 Alluvial soils have substantial variability in texture, ranging from coarse
sand in the higher regions next to the riverbanks to fine silts in the lower
floodplains.
 Young Soil: Alluvial soils are geologically recent and exhibit an indistinct
soil profile as a result of the ongoing accumulation of silt by river currents.

Distribution of Soil

Khadar and Bhangar are two major classifications of alluvial soils, which are
formed by the deposition of sediment carried by rivers.

 Khadar refers to the younger alluvium, while Bhangar refers to the older
alluvium. Khadar soils are mostly located in the lower regions of floodplains
and undergo annual replenishment, resulting in higher fertility.
 Bhangar soils, in contrast, are located at higher elevations and are more
ancient, characterized by a greater abundance of kankar nodules (calcium-
rich concretions), resulting in somewhat lower fertility compared to Khadar
soils. The alluvial soils found in the delta areas of the Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers, known as deltaic alluvium, are mostly clayey and are
renowned for their exceptional fertility, particularly for growing rice.

Challenges and Management

Although these soils are very fertile, they encounter difficulties such as
erosion, particularly in regions susceptible to severe floods, and nutrient
depletion caused by intensive farming practices. Implementing sustainable soil
management techniques such as crop rotation, the use of green manure, and
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minimizing tillage is crucial for preserving the vitality and productivity of these
soils. The soil of the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains is vital for the
region's agricultural economy and provides the means of subsistence for
millions of people. Effective administration and preservation of these soil
resources are essential for guaranteeing food security and ecological
sustainability in the area.

Fig. 9.9: Soils Types of Brahmaputra Plains.

(Source: Geography of Assam, 2001)

SAQ 3
Briefly write about the soils of the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains.

9.3.7 Physical Resource Base

The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains provide a substantial portion of
India's physical resource foundation, with a diversified range of natural
resources such as rich soils, ample water supply, varied flora, and a good
temperature. These resources are essential for the region's economy since
they provide vital support for agriculture, forestry, and human settlements.
Below is a summary of the physical resources found in these plains:

Fertile Soils
The plains exhibit alluvial soils, renowned for their exceptional fertility on a
global scale. The soils in this area are very conducive to intensive agriculture
and may sustain a diverse range of crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane,
and legumes.

Abundant Water Resources

The area is intersected by many significant rivers, such as the Ganges and
Brahmaputra, and their various tributaries. These rivers serve the dual
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purpose of supplying water for irrigation and enriching the soil's fertility with
nutrient-laden sediment via yearly floods. The presence of groundwater, while
it varies in terms of both quantity and quality across the area, is an essential
resource for both agricultural and home purposes.

Diverse Vegetation

The vegetation in the region varies, with tropical deciduous woods found in the
eastern areas and grasslands and shrublands present in the floodplains. The
presence of a wide range of plant species sustains a diverse array of animal
life, making the plains a place characterized by significant biodiversity.

The woods, especially those in the Brahmaputra valley, provide valuable

sources of lumber, medicinal plants, and other non-timber forest products that
significantly contribute to the sustenance of local inhabitants.

Climate

The climate of the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains ranges from semi-
arid in the western regions to humid subtropical in the eastern regions. The
diverse climate in this region facilitates distinct agricultural practices, with rice
farming being more suitable in the eastern areas and wheat and other rabi
crops being favoured in the western areas. The region's agricultural cycles
and water supply are strongly impacted by seasonal fluctuations, such as the
monsoon.

Mineral Resources

The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, while not as abundant in natural

resources as other regions of India, do include reserves of valuable minerals
such as limestone, gypsum, and sand. These minerals play a crucial role in
the building and industrial sectors.

Human Resources

The area has a high population density, which means a large work force is
available to support both the agricultural economy and metropolitan centres.
Human resources in the area also enhance its abundant cultural and historical
history, serving as a foundation for tourism and other endeavours.

Challenges

Although the area has enormous physical resources, it encounters obstacles

such as inundation, soil degradation, depletion of forests, and contamination
of water supplies. These problems need the use of sustainable management
strategies to guarantee the long-term sustainability of the region's natural
resource foundation. The physical resources of the Indo-Gangetic and
Brahmaputra plains play a crucial role in ensuring India's food security,
promoting economic growth, and maintaining ecological sustainability. Efficient
administration and preservation of these resources are essential to sustain the
people of the area and alleviate the consequences of climate change and
environmental deterioration.

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SAQ 4
On the given map show the following
minerals – Mica, Copper, Limestone
and Bauxite?

9.4 INDO-GANGA PLAIN: THE CULTURAL

SETTING
9.4.1 Population
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains are highly inhabited areas,
accommodating a substantial proportion of India's population. Human history
must have started in these lush highlands long before Aryan civilization spread
eastward along the Brahmaputra river (Choudhury, 2004). People of varied
socio-economic backgrounds have inhabited this region. The existing
population pressure and persistently heterogeneous composition of people in
terms of ethnicity, religion, language, and castes profoundly affect the valley’s
agricultural ecosystem.

The Indo-Gangetic Plains, extending from Punjab in the west to West Bengal
in the east, covers a vast area in northern India. This region includes many
states, such as Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The
aggregate population of these states exceeds several hundred million. Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, two of India's most populous states, together provide a
substantial share of this figure. Uttar Pradesh alone has a population above
200 million, while Bihar has over 100 million.

The Brahmaputra Plains are mostly situated in the state of Assam and
portions of Arunachal Pradesh in northeastern India. These plains also sustain
a dense population, albeit not as high as the Indo-Gangetic lowlands. Assam
is the predominant state in this area, with a population above 30 million.

The population density in these plains is one of the greatest in the world,
mostly due to the good soil and ample water supplies that support agriculture,
which is the mainstay of the region's economy. The high population density
offers several prospects as well as difficulties. On one side, it offers an
extensive pool of workers and a substantial market for products and services.
However, it presents considerable obstacles in terms of achieving sustainable
growth, effectively managing resources, and adequately providing services
and infrastructure to fulfill the population's demands.

The urban areas in these plains, including Delhi, Kolkata, Lucknow, and
Patna, are some of India's most densely populated cities. Each of these cities
plays a considerable role in shaping the demographic characteristics of the
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region. These urban centres allure individuals from rural regions due to the
prospects of education, jobs, and healthcare, hence augmenting the area's
population density.

9.4.2 Settlements
The settlement patterns in the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains exhibit a
wide range of diversity due to the region's diversified terrain, cultural history,
economic progress, and agricultural methods. The settlement patterns in these
plains vary from highly populated metropolitan centres to extensive rural
settlements and are shaped by variables such as the presence of water, soil
quality, transportation infrastructure, and historical and political events. Below
is a summary of the establishment and diverse patterns of settlements in the
area:

Types of Settlement Patterns

 Linear Settlements: Linear communities in the Indo-Gangetic and

Brahmaputra plains are often seen along the riverbanks and roadways,
aligning themselves with the natural and man-made characteristics of these
areas. These are common in locations where agriculture relies significantly
on river water and in areas with well-established road and rail networks that
support commerce and communication.

 Clustered or Nucleated Settlements: This pattern is widespread in

regions characterized by fertile terrain, where inhabitants congregate
around water supplies, marketplaces, temples, or other focal locations of
social and economic significance. Clustered communities are prevalent in
flat areas, especially in agricultural regions where towns are organized
around a central square, marketplace, or significant farmland.

 Dispersed Settlements: Dispersed settlements are often located in regions

with infertile soil or in steep terrains that are next to flat plains. These towns
are characterized by scattered dwellings that are spread out across a wide
expanse. This pattern is infrequent in the more fecund portions of the plains
but may be seen on the outskirts and in locations where contemporary
agricultural methods have not yet completely permeated.

 Grid Pattern Settlements: Grid pattern settlements are a common feature

of planned urban and rural areas. They are often seen in colonial cities and
towns located in flat regions, where streets are arranged in a grid-like
manner. This design enables the effective use of land and is often linked to
regions that have undergone methodical urban planning.

Urban settlements

 The area includes many of India's most prominent and historically important
cities, including Delhi, Kolkata, Lucknow, and Patna. These cities serve as
centres for administrative, economic, and cultural activity, showcasing a
combination of ancient traditions and contemporary progress. Urban
settlements on the plains have undergone gradual changes over many
centuries, resulting in the coexistence of old towns such as Varanasi, which

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showcase many layers of historical settlements with contemporary urban

expansion.

Rural settlements

 A significant proportion of the populace inhabiting the Indo-Gangetic and

Brahmaputra plains mostly lives in rural regions, where their settlements are
intricately linked to the agricultural timetable and the monsoon pattern. Rural
villages often include of farmsteads surrounded by cultivated land, whereby
village existence is firmly grounded in agricultural activities, indigenous
celebrations, and communal bonds.

The settlement patterns seen in the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains

provide as evidence of the region's rich cultural legacy, economic dynamism,
and flexibility to adjust to changing environmental and socio-economic
circumstances. Gaining comprehension of these patterns offers a valuable
understanding of the historical evolution, present difficulties, and forthcoming
possibilities of one of the most vibrant places in India.

This region has a huge rural population due to agriculture being the main
livelihood activity. Three states of Ganga plains, namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
and West Bengal, have the highest proportion of rural population in India.
Though rural population dominated, this region also has some million-plus
cities and urban agglomeration, which are main centres of industrial activity
and have high population density.

S. No. Million Plus Cities/Urban Agglomeration, 2011

1 Ludhiana (Municipal Corporation, MC)
2 Amritsar (Urban Agglomeration, UA)
3 Chandigarh (UA)
4 Faridabad (MC)
5 Delhi (UA)
6 Jaipur (MC)
7 Jodhpur (UA)
8 Kota (MC)
9 Kanpur (UA)
10 Lucknow (UA)
11 Ghaziabad (UA)
12 Agra (UA)
13 Varanasi (UA)
14 Meerut (UA)
15 Allahabad (UA)
16 Patna (UA)
17 Kolkata (UA)
18 Asansol (UA)
(Source: Census of India, 2011, Provisional)

Brahmaputra plains are a vast and fertile region in north-eastern India,

particularly in Assam. Villages, towns, and cities characterize settlements in
the Brahmaputra plains. Some notable settlements in Brahmaputra valley
include:

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1) Guwahati: The largest city in Assam, Guwahati, is a major urban centre in
the Brahmaputra plains. It is the northeastern region's gateway and an
important cultural and economic hub.

2) Dibrugarh: Located in the eastern part of Assam, Dibrugarh is known for

its tea gardens and is an important centre for trade and commerce.

3) Jorhat: Another city in Assam, Jorhat is an important cultural and

educational centre in the Brahmaputra Valley.

4) Tezpur: Situated on the northern bank of the Brahmaputra river, it is known

for its historical significance and scenic beauty.

5) Silchar: In the southern part of Assam, Silchar is an important town and a

centre for trade and commerce.

6) Sibsagar (Sivasagar): This town has historical significance and was the
capital of Ahom Kingdom. It features ancient monuments and structures.

7) Dhubri: Located in the western part of Assam, Dhubri is an important town

with historical and cultural significance.

The region is also known for its diverse ethnic communities, each contributing
to the cultural tapestry of the area in its unique manners altogether.

SAQ 5
Briefly discuss the types of settlement found in the Indo-Ganga and
Brahmaputra plains.

9.4.3 Economy
The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains play a vital role in India's
economy, making substantial contributions via activities such as agriculture,
dairy farming, irrigation, power production, industries, and industrial growth.
The rich soil, ample water supplies, and pleasant climate of these plains have
influenced a varied and fruitful economic environment.

1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the fundamental basis of the region's economy, benefiting from

the rich alluvial soil and abundant water resources that enable intensive
cropping. The area is often known as the "breadbasket of India," since it
produces a substantial amount of the country's food grains.

Major Crops: The primary agricultural commodities are rice, wheat,

sugarcane, legumes, and oilseeds. Rice is mostly cultivated in the
Brahmaputra plains and the eastern portion of the Gangetic plains, whilst
wheat flourishes in the western Gangetic plains.

The use of Green Revolution technology throughout the mid-20th century

resulted in substantial productivity growth, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and
Western Uttar Pradesh.

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2. Dairy

 Key Livelihood Source: Dairy farming plays a crucial role in the rural
economy, since both the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains support a
significant number of cattle and buffaloes. The area is a significant milk
producer in India, making substantial contributions to both local
consumption and national markets.

 Cooperative Movements: The success of cooperative movements, such

as the Amul model in Gujarat (although not limited to this area), has
motivated the implementation of similar efforts in some regions of the
region. These initiatives have resulted in increased productivity and
profitability for small-scale farmers.

3. Irrigation

 Extensive Networks: The area has established a comprehensive system

of canals, wells, and tube wells to facilitate agricultural. Significant irrigation
endeavours, such as the Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab and the Tehri Dam
in Uttarakhand (located on the outskirts of the Gangetic plains), have a
crucial function in guaranteeing the accessibility of water.

 Obstacles and Resolutions: Although there is a large amount of water

available, problems such as waterlogging, salinity, and inefficient water use
continue to exist. As a result, there is a growing focus on adopting
sustainable irrigation methods, such as drip and sprinkler systems.

4. Power

 Diverse Sources: The area has the advantages of a variety of power

sources, such as thermal, hydroelectric, and progressively renewable
energy sources like solar and wind. Major thermal power plants are
strategically situated in regions that are conveniently close to coal reserves,
while rivers are used to create hydroelectric electricity.

 Growing Renewable Sector: The renewable sector is seeing substantial

growth since there is a strong emphasis on sustainable energy sources to
fulfill the increasing need for electricity. This is seen via the development of
solar parks and wind farms.

5. Industries

Despite their vast agricultural, mineral, forest, and cattle resources, this region
is experiencing slow industrial growth. The valley has various industries,
including agro-based, mineral, forest, chemical, textile, and building material
industries. Tea is a prominent sector, along with small and medium-sized
factories of cotton and synthetic yarn, jute mills, sugar mills, paper mills,
vegetable processing mills, food processing, and fruit canning factories.
Cottage industries such as handloom, sericulture, cane products, carpentry,
brass and metal crafts are also significant. The Brahmaputra plains also have
a strong tradition of producing Eri, Muga, and Tassar silk. Upper Brahmaputra
plains have tea, oil, natural gas, mineral, and forest-based businesses, while
Lower Brahmaputra plains are industrially backward due to geographical
isolation, poor transport and communication facilities, insufficient local

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markets, shortage of electricity, capital, skilled labour, entrepreneurship, and
lack of land.

6. Industrial Development

The region is home to a diverse range of industries, including large-scale

industries like cotton textile, woollen textile, jute, sugar, fertilizers, bicycles,
light engineering goods, locomotives, and paper, as well as small-scale
industries like sports goods, handloom, hosiery, glasses, and locks. The
region is also home to several famous manufacturers of scientific apparatus,
machine tools, textiles, food processing industries, and sports goods. The
hosiery industry is centered in Ludhiana, the chief centre of woollen hosiery
goods in India. The region is also home to various cultural and economic
sectors, such as chikankari embroidery, brass work, leather works, Madhubani
painting, and petroleum products. The agricultural sector, which employed 69
percent of total workers in 2021-22, is characterized by small-scale peasant
farming and commercial tea plantations. Rice is the region's staple food, with
three types of rice grown based on the growing and harvesting season. Other
important crops include maize, wheat, legumes, oilseeds, and potato.

9.4.4 Transport and Communication

A broad and diverse transportation network serves the Indo-Gangetic and
Brahmaputra plains, playing a vital role in the economic growth and integration
of the area. This network encompasses various transportation infrastructures
such as highways, trains, airplanes, and canals, effectively enabling people
and commodities to be transported across the extensive and heavily
populated area. Below is a summary of the transportation infrastructure in the
plains:

Roadways

Roads play an important role in intra-state and inter-regional travel, with

national highways, state highways, and district roads connecting the plains.
However, the development of roads in the plains is far from satisfactory, and
many settlements still need to be connected with metalled roads. Extension of
road transport infrastructure to interior settlements is particularly vital for
agricultural development. A web of national highways, state highways,
expressways, and other roads covers the region. Important national highways
are NH 34 from Rishikesh to Haridwar, NH 334A from Haridwar to Laksar, and
Purkazi town in Muzaffarnagar district on the Uttarakhand-U.P. border. Grand
Trunk route through Delhi-Karnal and Ambala-Ludhiana-Amritsar is extended
from the National Road 10 Rohtak, Hisar, Fazilka to the Pakistan border.

 Extensive Road Network: The area has a vast network of national

highways, state highways, and country roads, linking significant urban
centres, towns, and villages. The construction of expressways and
contemporary roads, such as the Golden Quadrilateral and the North-South
and East-West Corridors, has greatly enhanced connectivity and decreased
trip durations.

 Challenges and Developments: In spite of the vast road network, issues

like as traffic congestion, road maintenance, and safety concerns persist.

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The ongoing projects have the objective of enhancing and enlarging the
road infrastructure, which include building new expressways and
implementing intelligent traffic management systems.

Railways

 The region has high railway density as it is easier to construct railway

tracks in plains, and the area has high population density. This region has
many railway zonal headquarters, namely, Northern Railways-Delhi, North
Central Railway-Prayagraj, North Eastern Railway-Gorakhpur, North
Western Railway-Jaipur, and East Central Railway-Hajipur. This region has
a broad-gauge railway line with passenger, express, superfast, and freight
trains. The recent development in the railways is the addition of Vande
Bharat Express and the future scheme of bullet train projects.

 The Brahmaputra plain is home to several railway services, including the

Brahmaputra Mail, which runs from Kamakhya in Assam to Old Delhi,
covering 2028 kilometres. The Barak–Brahmaputra Express, a weekly
service between Silchar and New Tinsukia stations in Assam, passes
through key junctions and is named after the Indian rivers Brahmaputra and
Barak. These services are crucial for the socio-economic development of
the region, providing essential connectivity for passengers and freight.

 Critical for Mass Transport: The extensive network of the Indian Railways
serves as a crucial lifeline for the area, enabling the efficient transportation
of both people and freight across significant distances. The plains have
highly concentrated railway networks, facilitating the connection between
prominent metropolitan hubs and rural regions.

 Modernization Efforts: Ongoing endeavours are being made to update

the railway infrastructure, including the implementation of high-speed trains,
electrification of railway lines, and enhancements in service quality and
efficiency.

Waterways

The Brahmaputra plains in India are home to numerous rivers, including the
Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. These rivers play a crucial role in transport
and communication facilities, which are essential for the movement of people,
services, agricultural trade, and linkages between production and consumption
areas. However, the transport and communication systems in the
Brahmaputra plains are not well developed. The Brahmaputra river and its
numerous tributaries provide the potential for the development of water
transport. The river is No.2 National Waterways with a large number of river
ports like Guwahati, Goalpara, Dhubri, Nimati, Biswanath, Silghat Dibrugarh,
and Dishangmukh. The Directorate of Inland Water Transport (TWT) and
Central Inland Water Transport Corporation (CIWTC) operate water transport
services between Guwahati and Kolkata exclusively for the movement of
goods. Ferry services available at different ferry ghats of Brahmaputra also
perform water transport for goods and passengers. Many Brahmaputra
tributaries are also navigable by country boats. However, regularity and
upgradation of the water transport system are still quite poor.

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Airways

Air transport is provided by Indian Airlines and other private commercial

airlines, but air transport is too costly to influence the peasant agricultural
population of the state directly. Chartered monoplanes and helicopters are
occasionally used to spray pesticides during severe and widespread crop
diseases. Being a densely populated region the recent development in airway
services with increasing purchasing power has helped air travel to penetrate
middle-class houses.

 Growing Air Connectivity: The area is facilitated by several international

and local airports, including prominent centres like as Indira Gandhi
International Airport in Delhi and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International
Airport in Kolkata. The proliferation of air services and the establishment of
new airports have enhanced the accessibility of air travel to the local people
in the area.

 Importance in Remote Communities: In places such as the northeastern

states, where the topography presents difficulties for road and rail
transportation, air travel plays a crucial role in linking isolated communities
with the rest of the nation.

 Underutilised Potential: The prominent rivers in the plains, such as the

Ganges and Brahmaputra, have traditionally served as means of
transportation. Nevertheless, the capacity for using inland water transport
has not been fully exploited.

 Development Initiatives: The government has implemented programs to

enhance the development of domestic waterways, with the goal of offering
a cost-efficient and eco-friendly alternative to transportation by road and
rail. Projects include the creation of terminals, enhancement of navigability,
and incorporation with other forms of transportation.

The region has many international airports, with foreigners visiting the heritage
offered by this macro-region.

International Airports
Airport Name State/UT
Gaya International Airport Bihar
Jay Prakash Narayan Airport Bihar
Chandigarh International Airport Chandigarh
Indira Gandhi International Airport Delhi
Jaipur International Airport Rajasthan
Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport Uttar Pradesh
Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport Uttar Pradesh

Transportation Integration

 Multimodal Connectivity: Initiatives are underway to amalgamate various

transportation modes in order to guarantee smooth and uninterrupted
mobility of products and people. This includes the establishment of
multimodal logistics parks and transport hubs that integrate road, rail, and
air transportation infrastructure.
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 Digital Innovations: The use of digital technologies, such as online

booking and tracking systems, has enhanced the effectiveness and
customer satisfaction of transportation services.

The transportation infrastructure in the Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains

plays a crucial role in the region's economic prosperity, facilitating agricultural
activities, industrial operations, and commercial transactions. Continual
investments and enhancements in transportation play a crucial role in
improving connectivity, fostering regional growth, and tackling the issues of
urbanization and environmental sustainability.

SAQ 6
Briefly discuss the various modes of transport and communication of Indo-
Ganga and Brahmaputra plains.

9.5 INDO-GANGA AND BRAHMAPUTRA

PLAINS: THE REGIONS
The Indo-Ganga plain region has been divided into many micro-regions. The
regions propounded by R.L. Singh have been discussed below.

a) Rajasthan Plains: The Rajasthan plain (24°30’N-30°12’N and 69°15’E-

76°45’E) includes the Marusthali and adjoining Bagar to the west of
Aravallis extending over western districts of Rajasthan namely, Jaisalmer,
Barmer, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jalore, Nagaur, Ganganagar and Churu along
with the western portions of Pali, Sikar and Jhunjhunu districts. It covers an
area of 1, 96,747 square kilometres of Rajasthan. It receives less than 50
centimetres of annual rainfall, with the high temperature reaching above
50°C during the day in summer. There is less economic activity in this area
and the settlements are rural.
b) Punjab Plains: Punjab Plain is situated in the north-west at 27°39’N-
32°30’N and 73°51’E-77°36’E and constitutes a significant part of the Great
Plains of India. The region has an area of 95,714 square kilometres and
comprises the reconstituted States of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. The
Punjab plain region is physically a distinct unit made up largely of extensive
alluvial deposits, culturally a varied region where varied cultures have
mingled and transformed after being laid in strata by wave after wave of
neo-cultures, primarily emerging from the vast ocean of political and
cultural upheavals.
c) Upper Ganga Plain: Upper Ganga Plain is a part of the Great Plain, lying
approximately between Yamuna in the west and 100 metre contour in the
east. This plain lies between 73°3’E-82°21’E and 25°15’N-30°17’N and
covers an area of about 149029 square kilometres. This plain is close to
the national capital and has enjoyed greater stability. This part is more
developed than the middle Ganga plain as it has been in importance since
the Mughal time to British India.
d) Middle Ganga Plain: Middle Ganga Plain is a large physical area lying
between 24°30’N-27°50’N and 81°47’E-87°50’N. It has an immense

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human, cultural, and economic significance, making it India's heart region.
It covers the area of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The geographic
location of the plain where easterlies and westerlies combine makes it rich
in cultural and economic patterns. The maximum length from east to west is
about 600 kilometres, while its width from north to south is approximately
330 kilometres.
e) Lower Ganga Plain: This plain includes the Kishanganj tehsil of the
Purnea district of Bihar and the whole of West Bengal state (excluding the
Purulia district and mountainous parts of the Darjeeling district). This plain
is mainly comprised of delta. The plain lies between 21°25’N-26°50’N and
86°30’E-89°58’E. This plain pre-historically has been the zone of tribal
chieftains and has lately been Aryanized. The plain has a hot and humid
climate, with rice and fish being the main food. It is also a culturally rich
region and has important place in modern history.

Fig. 9.10: Regions of Indo-Ganga Plains.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography, Reprint 2010)

Geographical regions of Brahmaputra plain include two divisions as below:

Upper Brahmaputra Plains: It includes districts of Lakhimpur and Sibsagar

and significant parts of Tezpur tahsil of Darrang district. In the first place, it is
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seen that the significant tea growing area of the plains is confined to this
eastern part. This is also an important area for mineral oil and commercially
exploitable forest resources and has the potential for industrial growth. It is
further sub-divided into Upper Brahmaputra plains north and Upper
Brahmaputra plains south.

Lower Brahmaputra Plains: It comprises Goalpara, Kamrup, Nowgong

districts and Mangadoi tehsil and the western fringe of Tezpur tehsil of
Darrang district. The region is basically dominated by an agricultural economy
with a diversified cropping pattern comprising pulses, oil seeds, sugarcane,
potatoes, tobacco, and jute, along with a major crop of rice. Recently, wheat
has been introduced in the relatively drier eastern part of the region. It is
further sub-divided into Lower Brahmaputra plains north and Lower
Brahmaputra plains south.

Fig. 9.11: Regions of Brahmaputra Plains.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography, Reprint 2010)

9.6 INDO-GANGA AND BRAHAMPUTRA

PLAINS: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
The Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra region is mostly rural, with the bulk of its
inhabitants involved in agricultural activities, as well as other primary sectors
like as poultry farming, fisheries, and dairy production. This area, distinguished
by its dense population, particularly in regions along the Ganga, has
substantial developmental obstacles. Delhi, a Union Territory (UT) located in
this vast area, has the greatest population density of 11,320 individuals per
square kilometres. On the other hand, Haryana has the lowest sex ratio. The
socio-economic challenges encountered by the people are exacerbated by
factors such as low literacy rates in the Ganga plains and high levels of
poverty. Notwithstanding these obstacles, several areas in the region, such as
the Punjab Plain, exhibit indications of affluence as a result of vibrant
commercial endeavours. The following summarizes the issues and future
potential of this area as follows:

Problems

(a) Water Resource Management and Flooding: The development of water

resources in Indo-Nepal focuses on the fertile plains of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh, which have the potential for high agricultural productivity.
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However, these areas face challenges in managing water resources,
particularly in dealing with the risk of floods caused by the major rivers that
originate in Nepal. Similarly, the plains in northern Bihar are exposed to
risks such as the fast sideways movement of rivers, frequent floods, and
severe erosion of riverbanks. These hazards have a substantial impact on
the lives and property of the people living in the area.
(b) Soil Erosion and Sedimentation: The Garra river basin has significant
soil erosion and sedimentation, particularly in the higher mountainous
area. This poses difficulties for soil conservation and water management in
the region.
(c) Groundwater Depletion: The excessive use of groundwater for
agricultural irrigation has resulted in significant depletion of groundwater
levels, which poses a serious risk to food security and the sustainability of
rural lifestyles. This is due to the unsustainable use of groundwater
resources.

Prospects

(a) Hydro-Power Potential: The North-Eastern area of India, including

sections of the Great Plains, is recognized as a significant hydro-power
zone in the nation. Exploiting this potential has the capacity to make a
substantial contribution to India's energy requirements and economic
progress.
(b) Agricultural Productivity: The Indo-Gangetic and Brahmaputra Plains
are renowned for their rich soil and exceptional agricultural productivity. By
implementing effective water management and adopting sustainable
practices, this area can substantially contribute to addressing the issues of
poverty and food insecurity in India.
(c) Flood Plain and Wetland Management: Efficient flood plains and
wetlands management using a watershed strategy may improve
agricultural productivity and mitigate flood risks. Additionally, this strategy
has the capacity to equalize the allocation of water across places that have
excess and those that have insufficient water resources.

Land degradation is caused by flooding, erosion, deforestation, urbanization,

and detrimental farming methods. This poses a danger to biodiversity and
worsens socio-economic difficulties. Conflicts around water supplies and
geopolitical pressures further complicate the issue. To effectively tackle the
many challenges in the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain, it is necessary to
adopt a comprehensive strategy that includes sustainable land and water
management, active participation of the local population, and regional
collaboration. This approach will strengthen the region's ability to withstand
and recover from adversities and guarantee the well-being of this crucial area.

The Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra Plains encounter notable obstacles,

particularly in the domains of water management, soil conservation, and
sustainable agriculture. However, there are substantial opportunities to utilize
its natural resources for hydro-power, enhance agricultural productivity, and
implement integrated water and floodplain management strategies to ensure
enduring development. These combined endeavors may effectively tackle the

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environmental and socioeconomic obstacles, therefore bolstering the region's

role in India's food security and economic development.

A lush plain that extends throughout the northern half of the Indian
subcontinent, encompassing a significant portion of the northern and eastern
regions of India, is referred to as the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains, which
is also widely referred to as the North Indian River Plain. The huge stretch of
land that is located in northern India is known as the Great Plains of North
India. It is feasible to engage in intensive farming since the soils are rich in
alluvial material, the terrain is flat, the perennial rivers move slowly, and the
atmosphere is pleasant.

SAQ 7
Briefly discuss the major problems and prospects of Indo-Ganga and
Brahamputra plains?

9.7 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:

 The Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains are the largest plains of the world
formed by the three mighty rivers rising from the Himalayas.

 The plains are the most fertile alluvial belt in the country and around the
world. The region is formed by the collision of two plates namely Indian and
Asian.

 It supports the highest population of the country and offers a diverse

cultural set-up of the country. The region has importance for Hindus,
Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Muslims.

 The region has some famous hydel power projects like Bhakra Nangal,
Beas project, Rihand and Dagmara. The region is famous for its floods and
also lies in seismic zone.

 The region has sandy to alluvial soils with vegetation from thorny to
deciduous to evergreen. The region has all kinds of economic activities and
provides cheap labour all around the country. It has a diverse history and
the civilization is as old as Indus Valley civilization.

 The region has proper transport network with international connectivity

also. The plenty of groundwater and good rainfall supports the agriculture
of the region but in recent times the Punjab plains is facing the problem of
salinity in the soil, water logging.

 This plain supports the highest population pressure all around the world
because of its alluvial base and high fertility, along with plenty of water.

 Large-scale industries such as cotton textile, woollen textile, sugar, and

small-scale industries like sports goods, handloom, hosiery, glassware, jute
etc, are present in this region.

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 This region is divided into micro levels such as the Rajasthan Plains,
Punjab Plain, Upper Ganga Plain, Middle Ganga Plain, Lower Ganga plain,
and Assam Valley.

 This plain region is well connected with roadways, railways and air
networks.

 This region has a high cultural base and is famous for cultural and historical
tourism.

 The region faces the problems of population pressure, low literacy,

pollution, hunger, malnutrition etc.

9.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain how the soil of the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains affects the
cultural setting of the region.

2. Write a short note on:

a) Agriculture of Brahmaputra plains
b) Industries of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains.

3. Explain the geographical regions of Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains.

4. What are the problems and prospects of the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra
plains as a macro region?

9.9 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Refer to sub-Section 9.3.2.
b) Refer to sub-Section 9.3.3.
c) Refer to sub-Section 9.3.3.

2. a) Refer to sub-Section 9.3.4.

b) Refer to sub-Section 9.3.5.

3. Refer to sub-Section 9.3.6.

4. Refer to sub-Section 9.3.7.

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5. Refer to sub-Section 9.4.2.

6. Refer to sub-Section 9.4.4.
7. Refer to Section 9.6.

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to sub-Sections 9.3.6 and 9.4.
2. a) Refer to sub-Section 9.4.3.
b) Refer to sub-Section 9.4.3.
3. Refer to Section 9.5.
4. Refer to Section 9.6.

9.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. Nag, P., & Sengupta, S. (1992). Geography of India. Concept Publishing
Company
2. Mani, M. S. (1974). Biogeography of Indo Gangetic Plain, Ecology and
Biogeography in India, (ed.) Dr. W. Junk b.v., The Hague Publishers.
3. Spate, O.H.K. and Learmonth A.T.A. (1967). India and Pakistan. Taylor
and Francis.
4. Geddes, A. (1960). The alluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Its
mapping and geographical significance. Transactions and Papers
(Institute of British Geographers), (28), 253-276
5. Singh, R. L. (1971). India: A Regional Geography. NAGI.
6. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28347/7/07_chapter%20
1.pdf.
7. Khullar, D. R. (1999). India: A Comprehensive Geography. Kalyani
Publishers.
8. Sengupta, P. S. and Mitra K. (2011). Regional Geography of India, 2nd
Edition, Kalyani Publishers.
9. Tiwari, R. C. (2003). Geography of India. Prayag Pustak Bhawan.

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10. Hussain, M. (2015). Geography of India. McGraw Hill Education.

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 UNIT 10

MACRO REGIONS OF INDIA 3

Structure
10.1 Introduction 10.7 Islands: Historical
Expected Learning Outcomes Background
10.2 Indian Peninsula: Historical 10.8 Islands: The Physical Setting
Background Geology
10.3 Indian Peninsula: The Physiography/Relief
Physical Setting Drainage and Water Resources
Geology Climate
Physiography/Relief Vegetation
Drainage and Water Resources Soils
Climate Physical Resource Base
Vegetation 10.9 Islands: The Cultural Setting
Soils Population
Physical Resource Base Settlement
10.4 Indian Peninsula: The Economy
Cultural Setting Transport and Communication
Population 10.10 Islands: The Regions
Settlement 10.11 Islands: Problems and
Economy Prospects
Transport and Communication 10.12 Summary
10.5 Indian Peninsula: The 10.13 Terminal Questions
Regions 10.14 Answers
10.6 Indian Peninsula: Problems and 10.15 References and Further
Prospects Reading

10.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied about the intricacies of Himalaya and associated mountain
ranges, along with the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plains in Units 8 and 9 of
Block 3. In last Unit of Block 3, you will study about the Indian Peninsula and
Islands as meso-region. For better understanding, the unit will be studied in
two parts- one part will be discussing about peninsula while another one will
be based on Islands. Section 10.2 to 10.6 is dealing with the Indian Peninsula
while Section 10.7 to 10.11 is dealing with the islands. In Section 10.2, you will
study briefly about the historical background of Indian peninsula. Section 10.3
delves into geological and physical facets, exploring rock formations, relief
features, drainage patterns, water resources, climate, vegetation, soils, and
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the overall physical resource base of Indian peninsula. In Section 10.4, you
will explore the cultural setting, focusing on population dynamics, settlement
patterns, economic landscapes, and transportation networks. You will study
about the Peninsula as a region in Section 10.5, while Section 10.6 addresses
the associated problems and prospects.

Shifting attention to the Islands in Section 10.7, you will study about the
historical background of the islands. Section 10.8 will be dealing with the
Islands' structure, examining their geology, physiography, climate, and more.
Section 10.9 delves into the cultural setting, mirroring the exploration of the
Islands, and Section 10.10 discusses the Islands as a region, showcasing
their unique characteristics. In Section 10.11, you will study about the
problems and prospects faced by the Islands.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this Unit, you will be able to:
 define the physiographic divisions of Indian peninsula;
 discuss the physical settings of the Indian peninsula and islands of India;
 discuss the cultural settings of the Indian peninsula and islands of India;
and
 explain the problems and prospects of the Indian peninsula and islands of
India.

10.2 INDIAN PENINSULA: HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND
Historical background of Peninsular India presents a tale of ancient
civilizations, maritime trade, colonial encounters, and cultural diversity.
Peninsular India's history stretches back to antiquity, with indigenous cultures
like the Dravidian civilization leaving their mark on the region's identity.
Ancient dynasties such as Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas ruled
over different territories contributing to the vibrant cultural fabric of the
Peninsula. Maritime trade routes connected Peninsular India with Roman
Empire, Southeast Asia, and beyond, fostering cultural exchange and
economic growth.

Historical legacy of Peninsular India showcases the interplay of cultures,

trade, and colonialism. These regions have contributed to India's historical
narrative and continue to shape its cultural diversity, environmental richness,
and strategic significance. From the perspective of early civilizations of the
Peninsula, it renders depth and complexity to India's overall historical and
cultural heritage.

10.3 INDIAN PENINSULA: THE PHYSICAL

SETTINGS
10.3.1 Geology
Geology of Indian Peninsula is a testament to the region's complex and
diverse geological history. At its core lie ancient Archean cratons, some of the
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oldest rocks on Earth, forming stable interior of the Indian Plate. Western
Ghats and Eastern Ghats, prominent hill ranges in Peninsula, reveal a mix of
ancient Precambrian rocks including granite, gneiss, and schist, shaped by
millions of years of geological forces. The Deccan plateau, covering a vast
expanse, showcases extensive basaltic rock formations known as Deccan
Traps, which were created during a massive volcanic event. This geological
diversity has not only shaped the landscape but also yielded valuable mineral
resources and played a crucial role in the region's geological heritage. While
Peninsula is relatively less seismically active than some other parts of India,
its geology bears witness to the enduring forces that have shaped its surface
over billions of years.

10.3.2 Physiography/Relief
The physiography of Peninsular India reflects a diverse landscape shaped by
intricate geological processes over millions of years. The Deccan plateau,
characterized by plateaus, hills, and valleys, is flanked by the Western and
Eastern Ghats, contributing to unique topographical and ecological features.
As the largest physiographic division in India, covering around 1.6 million
square kilometres, the Peninsular upland exhibits high elevations ranging from
600 to over 1,000 metres, with Anamudi in Kerala being the highest peak. The
ancient rocks of Peninsular India, dating back approximately 3,600 million
years, form the Indian Shield, showcases evidence of past glacial activity and
a geological history shaped by vertical movements, in contrast to the
Himalayas' horizontal tectonic origins.

Prof. S. P. Chatterji, a renowned geographer, conducted a comprehensive

study in 1964, dividing Peninsular uplands into eight meso-physiographic
regions.

Table 10.1: Physiographic Regions of Indian Peninsula

S. No. Meso Regions
1. The North Central Highlands
2. The South Central Highlands
3. The Chotanagpur Plateau
4. The Meghalaya-Mikir Uplands
5. The North Deccan (Maharashtra Plateau)
6. The South Deccan
7. The Western Ghats or Sahayadri
8. The Eastern Ghats
(Source: S.P. Chatterji, 1964, National Atlas Organisation, Kolkata)

i. North Central Highlands

The North Central Highlands also recognized as the Central Indian plateau,
bear testament to their complex geological evolution, shaping a diverse
landscape over vast stretches of time. The Vindhyan range, spanning from
east to west, is characterized by rugged terrain and deep gorges, a result of
intricate tectonic activities and erosion dating back to the Precambrian era.

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In contrast, the Aravalli range, India's oldest fold mountain range extends
approximately 800 kilometres from southwest to northeast. Its distinct
topography, shaped by ancient tectonic movements, is further emphasized by
the presence of the Great Boundary Fault, which separates it from the
Vindhyan hills. The high elevation of the Aravalli range stands as a testament
to the vertical forces that have moulded this ancient fold mountain.

Moving westward, the Malwa plateau owes its formation to a combination of

sedimentation and tectonic activities. This plateau, with its relatively flat terrain
and fertile soil, reflects the geological processes that have unfolded over
millions of years. On the eastern front, the Bundelkhand Plateau features a
rocky terrain characterized by granite and gneiss outcrops, showcasing the
enduring impact of geological forces on this region of the North Central
Highlands.

The rivers weaving through this plateau, including the Yamuna, Chambal, and
Betwa, have played a pivotal role in shaping the landscape. The Chambal
River, with its erosional forces, has crafted the unique topography of the
Chambal Ravines, adding another layer to the geological narrative of this
region.

Fig. 10.1: Physiographic Division of India. Fig. 10.2: Physiographic Division of

Indian Peninsula.
(Source: Geography of India, Majid Hussian, 2013)

ii. South Central Highlands

The South-Central Highlands of peninsular India are distinguished by their
diverse topography. Two prominent subregions within this area are the
Bundelkhand (Vindhyachal Plateau) and Vindhya-Chambal-Baghelkhand
Plateau which are the results of tectonic activities, including folding and
faulting.

Bundelkhand, situated in the northern part of the South Central Highlands

(Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh), is known for its rugged and hilly
landscape, adorned with rocky outcrops and plateaus. The topography,

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influenced by the Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges, is marked by low hills,
plateaus, and valleys. Climatically, Bundelkhand experiences a semi-arid
climate with hot summers, erratic rainfall, and occasional droughts, posing
challenges to agriculture and water resources.

To the south lies the Vindhya-Chambal-Baghelkhand Plateau, characterized

by a relatively flat landscape with gently rolling hills, expansive plateaus, and
fertile plains. The Chambal River and its tributaries traverse this region,
contributing to its unique topography. The plateau experiences diverse climatic
conditions, ranging from semi-arid to tropical. It receives more consistent
monsoon rainfall compared to Bundelkhand, fostering agriculture as the
primary economic activity. The Chambal River and its tributaries facilitate
irrigation, supporting the cultivation of various crops such as wheat, rice,
soybeans, and pulses.

iii. Chotanagpur Plateau

The Chotanagpur Plateau, spanning eastern India, boasts an average
elevation of 600 to 700 meters above sea level, shaped by geological
processes like weathering and erosion. Notable smaller plateaus, including
Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Singhbhum, and Palamau, exhibit unique formations with
ancient rocks like gneiss, schist, and granite.

Renowned as the "Ruhr of India," this plateau is rich in mineral resources such
as coal, iron ore, mica, bauxite, limestone, and graphite, contributing
significantly to industrialization. Important rivers, notably the Damodar River,
intersect the plateau, with Damodar earning the nickname "Sorrow of Bengal"
due to historical floods.

iv. Meghalaya Mikir Uplands

The Meghalaya Mikir Uplands, also known as Meghalaya Plateau, is a
prominent physiographic region in northeastern India, primarily located within
the state of Meghalaya. It has an average elevation ranging from 1,000 to
1,500 metres above sea level. Topography of the plateau is marked by rolling
hills, deep valleys, and plateau-like tablelands. These landforms have been
shaped by erosion, tectonic activity, and the presence of limestone rocks. The
plateau is primarily composed of ancient sedimentary rocks, including
sandstone, shale, and limestone. It is particularly renowned for its extensive
limestone formations, which have given rise to impressive features such as
caves, sinkholes, and underground rivers. The region is home to some of the
longest caves in the world, including the Mawsmai Caves in Cherrapunji,
known for its stunning stalactites and stalagmites.

v. North Deccan (Maharashtra Plateau)

The North Deccan, also known as the Maharashtra Plateau, is a prominent
physiographic region in the Indian Peninsula, specifically in the state of
Maharashtra. It is a highland region with an average elevation ranging from
600 to 900 metres above sea level. It is situated in the northern part of the
Deccan Plateau. The topography of the plateau consists of gently rolling hills,
plateaus, and elevated tablelands. While it is not as rugged as some other
regions in India, it does feature numerous small valleys and low-lying areas.

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Geologically, the plateau is primarily composed of ancient basaltic rock
formations, which have resulted from volcanic activity in the distant past.
These basaltic formations are collectively known as the Deccan Traps. The
presence of these basaltic rock formations has influenced the region's soil
composition and has contributed to the fertility of the land. The volcanic rock is
known for its water retention properties, making it suitable for agriculture.

vi. South Deccan

With an average elevation ranging from 600 to 900 metres above sea level,
South Deccan comprises the Karnataka Plateau, Telangana Plateau, and
Tamil Nadu Uplands.

The Karnataka Plateau features gently rolling terrain supporting the cultivation
of millets, cotton, and oilseeds. Fertile soil and elevated tablelands contribute
to its fame for coffee and silk production. In contrast, the Telangana Plateau in
northern Deccan is characterized by a flat landscape, averaging 300 to 500
meters above sea level, intersected by river valleys crucial for agriculture.
Crops like rice, sorghum, and cotton thrive, aided by extensive reservoirs and
irrigation projects.

The Tamil Nadu Uplands, in the southernmost part of the Deccan Plateau,
showcase diverse topographical features, including rolling hills and steep
slopes, bordered by the Western Ghats. Agriculture in this region
encompasses the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, tea, and spices, with Nilgiri
Hills renowned for tea plantations.

Geologically, the South Deccan is known for diverse rock formations, including
basaltic rocks like the Deccan Traps, granite, gneiss, and schist. The Deccan
Traps, a result of ancient volcanic activity, cover a significant portion of the
region and contribute to the fertile soil of the plateau, playing a pivotal role in
regional agriculture and economies.

vii. Western Ghats

The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri, are a significant
physiographic region in western India, stretching over 1,600 kilometres parallel
to the western coast of the Indian Peninsula. Characterized by a unique
topography, rich biodiversity, and vital role in India's water resources, these
hills have an average elevation ranging from 900 to 1,600 metres above sea
level. It is also recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and it is spread
in several states, including Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu.

The topography of the Western Ghats comprises a complex network of peaks,

valleys, plateaus, and escarpments shaped by geological processes, erosion,
and river action. Geologically, they feature diverse rock formations, including
ancient Precambrian rocks, basaltic formations, and sedimentary layers. The
Deccan Traps, a massive volcanic feature, prominently contribute to the
geological diversity of this region, making the Western Ghats a natural
treasure trove fostering rich biodiversity and protecting vital watersheds.

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viii. Eastern Ghats
The Eastern Ghats, a prominent physiographic region in eastern India, exhibit
diverse rock formations, including ancient Precambrian rocks, granite, gneiss,
schist, and sedimentary layers. Unlike the volcanic history of the Western
Ghats, the Eastern Ghats have a more varied geological composition.

Forming an essential part of the Indian Peninsula's topography, the Eastern

Ghats stretch parallel to the Bay of Bengal, with an average elevation ranging
from 600 to 900 metres above sea level. The region's topography includes a
series of hills, plateaus, and valleys, characterized by a more subdued
landscape compared to the steep escarpments of the Western Ghats.

Stretching along India's eastern coast, the Eastern Ghats encompass various
noteworthy ghats and landscapes. Simlipal Hills in Odisha showcase rich
biodiversity within Simlipal National Park, while Araku Valley in Andhra
Pradesh offers stunning scenery and coffee plantations. Papi Hills, straddling
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, feature striking gorges and serene river
settings. Tamil Nadu's Shevaroy Hills provide an escape with orange groves
and trekking opportunities, and Javadi Hills offer picturesque landscapes and
bird-watching. Kondapalli Hills house a historic fort, and Sri Venkateswara
Wildlife Sanctuary near Tirupati is known for diverse wildlife. Lastly, Koraput
Valley in Odisha combines tribal culture with scenic beauty, contributing to the
region's ecological and cultural significance.

SAQ 1
What are the eight physiographic regions of Indian Peninsula according to
Prof. S. P. Chatterji?

10.3.3 Drainage and Water Resources

The drainage and water resources of the Indian Peninsula are intricately
linked to its diverse physiography, playing a pivotal role in shaping the region's
hydrological dynamics. The Western Ghats, running parallel to the western
coast, serve as a crucial water divide. Rivers originating in the Western Ghats,
such as the Tungabhadra, Krishna, and Godavari, flow westward towards the
Arabian Sea. The Eastern Ghats, on the other hand, contribute to the drainage
system of the Bay of Bengal, with rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, and
Krishna flowing eastward.

The Western Coastal Plains, situated between the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea, witness the westward flow of rivers. The Konkan region, for
instance, is marked by rivers like the Zuari and Mandovi, which eventually
discharge into the Arabian Sea. The Eastern Coastal Plains, located between
the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal, facilitate the eastward flow of rivers
like the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri into the Bay of Bengal. These plains
are crucial for agriculture, providing fertile land for cultivation.

The Deccan Plateau, with its elevated terrain, plays a significant role in the
drainage patterns of the Peninsula. The plateau is dissected by numerous

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rivers, creating a complex network that contributes to the overall drainage of
the region. The Narmada and Tapi rivers, flowing westward, drain into the
Arabian Sea, while the Penner and Palar rivers flow eastward into the Bay of
Bengal.

Like rivers, lakes, and reservoirs are also essential components of the water
resources in the Peninsula. The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam on the Krishna River,
the Mettur Dam on the Kaveri River, and the Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi
River are notable examples. These reservoirs serve multiple purposes,
including irrigation, drinking water supply, and hydroelectric power generation
in this region.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks of the following:
i. __________________ separates Aravallai range to Vindhyan Hills.
ii. Bundelkhand, situated in the _____________ part of the South Central
Highlands.
iii. Meghalaya-Mikir Uplands is renowned for its extensive
__________________, which have given rise to impressive features such
as caves, sinkholes, and underground rivers.
iv. South Deccan comprises of Karnataka Plateau, Telangana Plateau, and
___________.

10.3.4 Climate
Climate of peninsular India, which encompasses vast and diverse
geographical area, is marked by distinct seasonal pattern and varying weather
conditions. Majority of this area experiences tropical monsoon climate
characterized by two prominent seasons: the wet monsoon season and dry
season.

During southwest monsoon, which typically arrives in June and extends until
September, peninsular India witnesses a dramatic shift in weather. This
season is marked by arrival of moisture-laden winds from the southwest,
originating from the Arabian Sea. These winds bring copious amounts of
rainfall to the region, resulting in heavy, frequent downpours. Southwestern
coast, notably Kerala and parts of Karnataka, often receive some of the
highest annual rainfall totals in India during this period. Western Ghats play
crucial role in intercepting these moisture-laden winds, causing them to rise
and cool, which in turn leads to substantial rainfall on windward side (western
slopes) of the Ghats. Conversely, the northeast monsoon, which occurs from
October to December, primarily affects the southeastern coast of peninsular
India, including Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. During this season, winds
blow from the northeast. These winds bring a secondary rainy period to the
region, with its own distinct weather pattern. While the northeastern monsoon
is generally less intense compared to its southwestern counterpart, it is
essential for replenishing water resources in these coastal areas.

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Odisha, located on the eastern coast, experiences significant monsoon rainfall
from the Bay of Bengal branch. The Chotanagpur Plateau, spanning
Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal, also relies on the Bay of
Bengal monsoon for precipitation. Meghalaya in the northeast receives some
of the world's highest rainfall, primarily from the Bay of Bengal branch.

Summer season, extending from March to June, is characterized by sweltering

heat, particularly in the interior regions of Deccan Plateau. Maximum
temperatures can soar above 40°C, and this period experiences low humidity
levels. Coastal areas and Western Ghats, on the other hand, enjoy more
moderate climate during summer, with temperatures ranging from 25°C to
35°C. However, in winter, which lasts from November to February, offers
respite from scorching heat of summer. Maximum temperatures during this
season range from 20°C to 30°C, with cooler nights occasionally recording
temperature below 10°C in some interior areas. Winter months are generally
dry, marked by lower humidity and clear skies.

The climate in peninsular India is also influenced by cyclones, with coastal

regions along the Bay of Bengal, such as Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, being
particularly vulnerable. Cyclones during the northeast monsoon season can
bring heavy rainfall and strong winds, posing significant challenges for disaster
management and infrastructure resilience. Furthermore, peninsular India's
climate is not static; it is influenced by both natural phenomena and human-
induced factors. Climate variability, driven by events like El Niño and La Niña,
can disrupt monsoon patterns and lead to irregular weather conditions.
Additionally, climate change is contributing to increased variability, with more
intense rainfall and prolonged dry spells affecting the region's agriculture,
water resources, and overall socio-economic dynamics.

10.3.5 Vegetation
The peninsular part of India is a botanical wonderland, showcasing an
extensive array of vegetation shaped by diverse topography, climatic
variations, and ecological nuances. The Western Ghats, forming a natural
barrier along the western coast, emerge as a hotspot for biodiversity. The
evergreen and semi-evergreen forests on the windward side of these
mountains benefit from the heavy rainfall brought by the southwest monsoon.
Towering trees, including rosewood, teak, and ebony, create a lush canopy,
while the forest floor is adorned with a rich tapestry of ferns, orchids, and
mosses. In the higher elevations, the unique shola forests, interspersed with
grassy meadows, harbor endemic species like the Nilgiri tree fern, contributing
to the region's ecological distinctiveness.

Transitioning towards the interior, the Deccan Plateau offers a mosaic of

habitats. Dry deciduous forests dominate, showcasing species like teak, sal,
neem, and bamboo. These deciduous landscapes adapt to the seasonal
rhythm of the climate, shedding leaves during the dry season. As one moves
farther inland, the vegetation transforms to thorn scrub, where hardy flora such
as acacias and euphorbias thrive in arid conditions. The open grasslands, a
feature of the more rain-shadowed areas of the Deccan Plateau, add to the
overall biodiversity, providing habitat for various herbivores and avian species.

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The Eastern Ghats, though less prominent, contribute significantly to the
botanical diversity of the peninsular region. Mixed deciduous forests,
characterized by a blend of teak, bamboo, and Terminalia species, thrive in
these hills. Areas receiving higher rainfall are adorned with dry evergreen
forests, resembling their counterparts in the Western Ghats. The Eastern
Ghats, like the Western Ghats, contribute to the creation of a biodiversity
hotspot, housing several endemic plant species.

Peninsular coastal areas also exhibit a unique and diverse array of vegetation,
intricately adapted to the dynamic conditions of estuarine environments, sandy
shorelines, and saline substrates. Mangrove ecosystems, with species like
Rhizophora and Avicennia, thrive in the intertidal zones, forming dense forests
that play a pivotal role in shoreline stabilization and serve as essential
nurseries for marine life. Salt marshes, characterized by halophytic vegetation
such as Spartina alterniflora and Salicornia, contribute to sediment
stabilization and provide habitat for various coastal organisms. Coastal dunes,
anchored by plants like Casuarina equisetifolia and beach morning glory
(Ipomoea pes-caprae), are crucial in preventing erosion and fostering
biodiversity. Halophytic plants, including Suaeda and Aeluropus, thrive in
areas directly influenced by seawater, contributing to soil health and ecological
balance.

10.3.6 Soil
The peninsular part of India is characterized by a fascinating array of soils,
shaped by the complex interplay of geological processes, topography, and
climate. One of the prominent soil types in this region is the black soil, also
known as “regur”, which dominates the vast expanses of the Deccan Plateau.
Renowned for its black color, this soil is a result of weathering of basaltic
rocks. Rich in minerals like iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium, black
soil exhibits a unique ability to swell when wet and form deep cracks when dry,
making it ideal for cultivation during the monsoon season. Its exceptional
fertility, particularly in regions of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
Karnataka, has made it a crucial contributor to India's agricultural productivity,
particularly for cash crops like cotton.

Moving eastwards, the Deccan plateau transitions into the regions

characterized by red soil, spanning across the states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu. The reddish hue of this soil results from
the high iron oxide content. While red soil is generally well-drained, its fertility
is often compromised due to leaching of minerals. It is best suited for crops
like millets, pulses, and groundnuts. However, the vulnerability of red soil to
erosion requires careful soil conservation measures to sustain agricultural
productivity.

In the western coastal plains and the Western Ghats, laterite soils dominate
the landscape. These soils are formed through intense weathering in hot and
humid conditions, resulting in a characteristic red color. Rich in iron and
aluminum oxides, laterite soils often lack fertility and moisture-retaining
capacity. As a result, agricultural practices in these areas may necessitate
additional inputs and management strategies.

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In the western part of the peninsula covering western Rajasthan and parts of
Gujarat, the Arid and Desert Soils prevail, which are characterized by sandy
compositions and a scarcity of organic matter, rendering them inhospitable for
most crops. Agriculture in these challenging regions necessitates the
cultivation of drought-resistant crops such as millets, barley, and robust
vegetables, given the limited water resources and harsh climatic conditions.

Transitioning to higher elevations in the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats,

Mountain Soils pose unique challenges with their shallow, rocky, and acidic
nature. While less amenable to traditional farming, these soils find utility in
horticulture and the cultivation of lucrative cash crops like tea, coffee, and
various spices. The undulating topography of these regions introduces the
constant threat of soil erosion, requiring meticulous land management
practices.

In coastal areas, Saline and Alkaline Soils are prevalent, especially in regions
susceptible to seawater intrusion. Notable for their elevated salt content,
making them unsuitable for conventional crop cultivation, these soils demand
extensive reclamation efforts. Techniques such as leaching and the
incorporation of organic matter are crucial for making them cultivable. Coastal
agriculture here primarily centers around salt-tolerant crops and aquaculture,
emphasizing the importance of overcoming the persistent challenge of
seawater intrusion for sustainable land use and agricultural viability.

10.3.7 Physical Resource Base

The peninsular part of India boasts a diverse and resource-rich landscape,
characterized by a myriad of physical features that include minerals,
hydroelectric power potential, and unique flora and fauna. This region, shaped
by its distinct physiography, plays a crucial role in contributing to India's
natural wealth.

The distribution of minerals is closely linked to the geological processes that

have shaped the peninsular landscape over millions of years. The Deccan
Plateau, a prominent feature of the peninsular region, is rich in basaltic rocks
and hosts significant mineral deposits. Karnataka's Bellary-Hospet region,
situated on the Deccan Plateau, is a prime location for iron ore extraction due
to extensive hematite deposits. Similarly, the geological formations in Andhra
Pradesh favor the accumulation of limestone, contributing to the spatial
distribution of this mineral. The Western Ghats, an elevated mountain range
running parallel to the western coast, also influences the distribution of
minerals. Maharashtra's Nagpur-Bhandara region, located at the eastern edge
of the Western Ghats, contains valuable coal and manganese reserves.

The peninsular region is also endowed with a notable hydroelectric power

potential, particularly due to its unique topography, with the Western Ghats
being a primary contributor. States like Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu
have harnessed the power of cascading rivers for electricity generation. The
Sharavathi Hydroelectric Project in Karnataka and the Idukki Dam in Kerala
are prime examples of utilizing the region's geographical features for
sustainable energy production. The Western Ghats, with its extensive river

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systems, presents ample opportunities for the development of hydroelectric
projects, contributing significantly to regions' energy needs.

SAQ 3
Mark the statement as True or False.
i. During southwest monsoon, which typically arrives in June and extends
until September, peninsular India witnesses a dramatic shift in weather.
ii. The open grasslands are a feature of the more rain-shadowed areas of the
Deccan Plateau.
iii. In the western coastal plains and the Western Ghats, red soils dominate
the landscape.
iv. The Sharavathi Hydroelectric Project is situated in Karnataka while the
Idukki Dam situated in Tamil Nadu.
v. The Southeast monsoon, which occurs from October to December,
primarily affects the southeastern coast of peninsular India.

10.4 INDIAN PENINSULA: THE CULTURAL

SETTING
Cultural setting of Indian Peninsula and surrounding islands is a tapestry
woven with diverse traditions, languages, religions and lifestyles those have
evolved over millennia. This vast region, encompassing Peninsular India and
the scattered archipelagos, bears witness to the confluence of historical,
geographical, and socio-economic influences those have shaped the rich
mosaic of cultures found here. From ancient civilizations and indigenous
communities to modern urban centers and coastal villages, the cultural
landscape reflects complexity and vibrancy of people who call these lands
home.

10.4.1 Population
The Indian Peninsula exhibits a diverse demographic landscape characterized
by unique cultural, linguistic, and socio-economic attributes. Linguistically,
each state has its own official language, contributing to the rich tapestry of
Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Marathi, and Konkani spoken across the
region. Religious diversity is another key feature, with Hinduism being
predominant, complemented by significant Muslim and Christian populations
in states like Kerala, Goa, Telangana, and parts of Andhra Pradesh.

This region's rich cultural tapestry spans southern and southeastern states,
showcasing a mosaic of ethnic groups, languages, and traditions. Tamil Nadu
is renowned for classical arts, Dravidian architecture, and Bharatanatyam.
Karnataka stands out for Carnatic music and traditional crafts, while Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana boast vibrant Telugu culture and distinctive cuisines.
Kerala, known as "God's Own Country," offers unique cultural blends with boat
races, Kathakali dances, and globally popular cuisine. Parts of Goa and
Maharashtra reflect fusion with influences from Marathi, Konkani, and
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Portuguese heritage, showcasing picturesque beaches, vibrant nightlife, and
diverse festivals.

Table 10.2 shows that according to the 2011 Census data for major peninsula
states reveal significant demographic variations. Maharashtra leads with 112
million people (9.29 percent of the national share), with a density of 365
persons per sq km. Andhra Pradesh follows with 84 million residents (7.00
percent), boasting a density of 308 persons per square kilometres. Karnataka
has a population exceeding 61 million (5.05 percent), with a density of 319
persons per square kilometres.

Table 10.2: Population Density, Decadal Growth and National Share of

Major States of Peninsular India
State Total National Share Density Decadal Growth
Population (2001-11)
Maharashtra 112,372,972 9.29 365 15.99
Andhra 84,665,533 7.00 308 11.10
Pradesh
Karnataka 61,130,704 5.05 319 15.67
Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 5.96 555 15.60
Kerala 33,387,677 2.76 859 4.86
(Source: Census of India (2011))

Tamil Nadu contributes 5.96 percent nationally, with a population exceeding

72 million and a high density of 555 persons per sq km. Kerala, with 33 million
people (2.76 percent), stands out for its density of 859 persons per square
kilometres. These figures highlight the diverse demographic landscape of
South India.

10.4.2 Settlements
The Indian Peninsula exhibits diverse settlement patterns shaped by
geographical, historical, and cultural factors. Major urban centers like Mumbai,
Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, and Kochi thrive due to strategic
locations and advanced infrastructure. Coastal cities like Mumbai and Chennai
capitalize on proximity to the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, serving as
crucial ports. Hill settlements in the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats, like
Ooty and Munnar, feature terraced farming on steep slopes. Rural villages
reflect the agrarian nature, while coastal and fishing villages benefit from the
extensive coastline. Colonial settlements in cities like Chennai and Mumbai
boast planned layouts and historic architecture. Religious settlements, such as
pilgrimage towns in Madurai and Tirupati, contribute to the region's unique
cultural tapestry.

10.4.3 Economy
Economy of Indian Peninsula is diverse and dynamic, contributing significantly
to the country's overall economic growth. This region has a mix of agriculture,
industry, and services sectors.

Agriculture remains a cornerstone of the economy in Peninsular India. The

region's diverse climatic conditions and fertile soil make it conducive for a wide

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variety of crops. Key agricultural products include rice, wheat, sugarcane,
cotton, pulses, oilseeds, and spices. Coastal areas are known for cash crops
like coconut, cashew nuts, and spices. Adoption of modern agricultural
practices, irrigation systems, and crop diversification has led to increased
agricultural productivity and plays a significant role in sustaining livelihood of
millions of farmers in the region.

Indian Peninsula is home to several prominent industrial and manufacturing

hubs those significantly contribute to the country's industrial output. Tamil
Nadu, with its capital Chennai, is renowned for its automobile manufacturing
industry, hosting major companies like Hyundai, Ford and Renault-Nissan.
Bengaluru, Karnataka, stands out as the "Silicon Valley of India," a global IT
and technology hub with numerous software companies, startups, and
research institutions. Additionally, the region boasts well-established chemical
industry, textile industry, and manufacturing units of consumer goods.

Services sector in Indian Peninsula has experienced exceptional growth,

largely driven by information technology (IT) and software services industry.
Bengaluru and Hyderabad, two prominent cities in the region, serve as IT
hubs, contributing significantly to India's IT exports. These cities house a
multitude of IT companies, tech startups and research centers. Furthermore,
tourism and hospitality sector is vital in states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa
attracting tourists from across the world, bolstering both local economy and
employment opportunities.

With an extensive coastline along Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, maritime
trade and ports play pivotal role in India's economy. Major ports such as
Chennai, Mumbai, Kochi, and Visakhapatnam facilitate international trade,
handling substantial volumes of cargo for both exports and imports.
Establishment of special economic zones (SEZs) and dedicated industrial
corridors has further enhanced trade activities, contributing to the region's
economic growth.

10.4.4 Transport and Communication

The diverse physiography of peninsular India has significantly influenced the
evolution of its transport and communication networks. Ancient trade routes
crisscrossing the expansive Deccan Plateau laid the foundation for the
intricate road systems seen today, including historical routes like the Grand
Trunk Road and the contemporary Golden Quadrilateral (launched in 2001),
which spans 5,800 kilometres, connecting major cities such as Chennai,
Mumbai, Delhi, and Kolkata. The Peninsula's complex topography, including
hills, plateaus, and coastal regions, has shaped the development of highways
like NH-44, NH66, NH-48, NH-206, NH-544, and NH-65, facilitating trade and
travel across diverse landscapes.

Railways, introduced during the mid-19th Century colonial period, demonstrate

remarkable engineering adaptability to the region's challenging terrain. The
Konkan Railway, stretching 760 kilometres through the Western Ghats,
reflects the transformative impact of railways on connectivity and economic
growth. The Southern Railway Zone and Konkan Railway enhance
connectivity along the western coast, threading through hills and valleys.

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The Peninsula's air transport network is vital for overcoming geographical
barriers. It has strategically positioned airports to serve as gateways. Chennai
International Airport, with a history dating back to the pre-independence era,
stands as a primary international gateway for the southern Peninsula. Goa's
Dabolim Airport, positioned along the west coast, has played a pivotal role in
connecting the coastal state with the rest of the country and the world. The
geographical features, including the extensive coastline, have contributed to
the importance of coastal towns and cities like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kochi,
serving as vital ports and trading hubs.

The waterways, historically significant for trade, underwent modernization to

harness major rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery for inland
transport. The fertile deltas in coastal areas became natural corridors for
maritime trade, with ports like Chennai and Kochi underscoring the historical
importance of waterways in connecting the peninsular region.

10.5 INDIAN PENINSULA: THE REGIONS

Peninsular India, also commonly referred to as Deccan Plateau and coastal
plains, constitutes a vast complex landmass situated in southern part of Indian
subcontinent. The complexities of the landmass are so enormous that
geographers could not be able to decide to include/exclude coastal plains and
the deserts in the Deccan plateau or not. But however, we have a few
important geographers who have demarcated the Indian Peninsula which are
widely accepted. Dudley Stamp has categorized it into 10 sub-divisions:

i. Coastal Region around the Plateau Proper: Encompassing areas like

Kutch, Kathiawar, and Gujarat Coasts, it forms a transition zone between
the dry Indus Valley and the Thar Desert and the very humid West Coast.
ii. West Coast Region: This area lies between the crest of the Western
Ghats and the Arabian Sea, consisting of a narrow coastal plain and the
slopes of the Western Ghats.
iii. Karnatak or Tamil Region (East Coast South): Covering a broad
coastal plain and an inland hilly tract, this region is alternatively referred to
as the East Coast South.
iv. Northern Circars Region (East Coast North): Including Orissa, it lies
between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
v. Deccan Plateau (Strict Sense): Covering the high southern portion of the
plateau.
vi. Deccan Lava Region: Situated in the northwestern part of the plateau
and corresponding with the Black Cotton Area.
vii. North East Part of the Plateau: This complex region comprises five
further subdivisions, namely the Central Indian Highlands, Chotanagpur
Plateau, Eastern Ghats, Chhatisgarh Plain or Mahanadi Valley, and the
Godavari Valley.
viii. Central Indian Region: Positioned between the Ganges Plain and the
Narbada-Son trough.

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ix. Rajput Upland Region: A complex region of hills and plateaus situated
between the Vindhyas in the south and the Aravalli hills in the North-West.
x. Thar or the Great Indian Desert: Encompassing the arid expanse known
as the Thar Desert.

(Source: India: A Regional Geography by Singh, R. L. Reprint, 2010)

Similarly, R.L. Singh has also divided Peninsular Upland into twelve Meso-
level regions which are as follows:

Udaipur-Gwalior Region, Malwa Region, Bundelkhand Region, Vindhyanchal-

Baghelkhand Region, Chotanagpur Region, Meghalaya-Mikir Region,
Maharashtra Region, Chhattisgarh Region, Odisha Highland Region,
Dandakaranya, Karnataka Plateau, Andhra Plateau, Tamilnadu Uplands and
South Sahyadri.

10.6 INDIAN PENINSULA: PROBLEMS AND

PROSPECTS
The peninsula part of India, sandwiched between the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal, grapples with a dynamic geographical landscape that
intricately weaves challenges and opportunities. Characterized by climatic
variations influenced by the Western Ghats and the Deccan Plateau, the
region experiences diverse weather patterns, from arid conditions in certain
areas to tropical climates in others.
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A prominent challenge faced by the peninsula is the issue of water scarcity,
particularly evident in the Deccan Plateau. Erratic rainfall and inadequate
water resource management have led to water stress, affecting agricultural
resilience. Implementing sustainable water management practices and
watershed development initiatives is crucial to mitigate this challenge.

The peninsula is susceptible to the forces of nature, experiencing cyclones,

floods, and droughts. Coastal areas are vulnerable to cyclonic disturbances
from the Bay of Bengal, necessitating robust disaster preparedness. Inland
regions grapple with the consequences of erratic monsoons, emphasizing the
need for climate-resilient agricultural practices and infrastructure.

Despite these challenges, the peninsula holds immense prospects driven by

its unique geography. The Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage site
and biodiversity hotspot, presents opportunities for eco-tourism, biodiversity
research, and sustainable resource utilization. Conservation efforts in these
lush hills can unlock economic potential.

The strategic location of the peninsula, flanked by major water bodies, offers
opportunities for maritime trade and connectivity. Coastal states can harness
economic potential through their ports, facilitating trade routes and fostering
economic growth. The extensive coastline also presents untapped potential for
renewable energy, with wind and solar resources waiting to be harnessed for
sustainable power generation.

Agricultural potential remains a key prospect, notwithstanding water-related

challenges. Implementing sustainable farming practices, watershed
management, and irrigation projects can enhance agricultural productivity,
contributing to food security and rural development.

The peninsula's rich cultural heritage and historical landmarks provide a

unique opportunity for tourism. Proper preservation and promotion of these
assets can turn tourism into a significant economic driver. Historical cities like
Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad, emerging as hubs of economic growth
and innovation, underscore the prospects of urbanization. Improving
transportation infrastructure, such as road and rail networks, plays a pivotal
role in enhancing connectivity, promoting economic integration, and
overcoming geographical barriers. Efficient transportation fosters regional
development and social cohesion.

10.7 ISLANDS: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Historical background of islands of India surrounding the subcontinent is a tale
of ancient civilizations, maritime trade, colonial encounters and cultural
diversity. The islands of India, including Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep Islands, hold their own intriguing histories. Andaman and
Nicobar Islands witnessed colonial occupation and establishment of notorious
Cellular Jail during the British rule. These islands also bore witness to
challenges of Japanese occupation during World War II. Lakshadweep Islands
have a unique cultural heritage intertwined with their maritime environment.

Like Indian peninsula, islands of India also showcase interplay of cultures,

trade, and colonialism in tandem. Islands have contributed to India's historical
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narrative also helped to shape its socio-cultural diversity; rich biodiversity
coupled with strategic significance.

10.8 ISLANDS: THE PHYSICAL SETTINGS

10.8.1 Geology
Geology of the islands of India is diverse and influenced by unique geological
processes those have shaped these isolated land masses. Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, located in Bay of Bengal, have volcanic origin. These islands
are part of volcanic island arc system associated with the sub-duction of
Indian Plate beneath the Burma Plate. Presence of volcanic rocks, such as
basalt, and volcanic features like volcanic cones, highlight their volcanic
history. Many islands in Andaman and Nicobar archipelago are characterized
by extensive limestone formations. These limestone formations have been
shaped by geological processes like sedimentation, erosion, and tectonic
activity, resulting in unique landscapes such as limestone caves and karst
topography. The islands are renowned for their coral reefs, particularly in the
Lakshadweep Islands. Coral reefs are formed by accumulation and growth of
coral polyps over millions of years. These reefs support rich marine
biodiversity and are critical for ecological health of the surrounding seas. The
islands are situated in a seismically active region, and historical records show
instances of earthquakes. Tectonic processes those led to the formation of the
islands continue to influence geology and topography of the region.

10.8.2 Physiography/Relief
Islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, located in Bay of Bengal
and Arabian Sea, respectively, exhibit distinct physiographic features and
relief characteristics due to their unique geological origins and geographical
settings.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands are characterized by rugged and hilly terrain.
These boast some of highest peaks named Saddle Peak on North Andaman
in Bay of Bengal region, with height reaching over 2,400 metres above sea
level. These hill ranges have steep escarpments, deep valleys, and dense
forest, creating a visually stunning landscape.

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Fig. 10.3: Andaman and Nicobar. Fig.10.4: Lakshadweep.

(Source: Geography of India, Majid Hussian, 2013)

Lakshadweep Islands are coral atolls in origin. These are result of

accumulation and growth of coral reefs.

Unlike volcanic origins of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep

islands are in the form of atolls formed through deposition of coral skeletons
over time. Lakshadweep Islands are low-lying and consist of a group of 36
coral atolls and islets. These atolls are surrounded by fringing coral reefs and
have shallow lagoons in their interiors. The islands have a characteristic flat
and gently sloping topography.

10.8.3 Drainage and Water Resources

Islands of India, including Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep
Islands, Sriharikota Island, and Diu Island, each possess distinctive
characteristics in terms of their drainage patterns and water resources.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a picturesque archipelago in southeastern Bay

of Bengal, are relatively devoid of significant rivers. Instead, these are
embraced by saline water of Bay of Bengal. Freshwater on these islands
primarily depends on rainfall, collected through rainwater harvesting systems,
and stored in reservoirs and tanks. Groundwater, though available, requires
careful management to prevent saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers.
Sustainable water practices are essential for sustaining the islands'
ecosystems and meeting needs of local population.

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Similarly, Lakshadweep Islands, composed of atolls and coral reef in Arabian
Sea, lack significant river system. Their flat terrain accentuates their reliance
on rainwater harvesting. Rain is collected from rooftops and stored in
underground tanks, providing a critical source of drinking water. Due to limited
groundwater resources resulting from coral formation, effective freshwater
management and conservation are imperative to address the growing
demands of tourism and of islands’ residents.

Sriharikota Island, located in Bay of Bengal off the coast of Andhra Pradesh, is
primarily known as site of Satish Dhawan Space Centre. This island's small
size and absence of significant rivers result in reliance on desalination plants
and freshwater supply from mainland to meet its water requirements. Given its
vital role in India's space program, the island's infrastructure is designed to
cater to scientific and technical community residing there.

Diu Island, situated off the coast of Gujarat in Arabian Sea, similarly grapples
with limited freshwater resources. While it has access to some groundwater,
the island primarily relies on desalination plants, small dams, and reservoirs.
Due to its semi-arid climate, efficient water management and conservation
practices are necessary for sustainable provision of freshwater to its
inhabitants.

10.8.4 Climate
Islands of India, scattered across Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, boast
diverse and distinct climate, each shaped by their geographical location and
proximity to the sea.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, situated in Bay of Bengal, experience tropical

maritime climate. These islands enjoy warm temperatures throughout the
year, with maximum temperatures ranging from 24°C to 30°C. The islands
receive ample rainfall during southwest monsoon season from June to
September, and in northeast monsoon season from November to December.
Its annual average rainfall is up to 3,000 millimetres (118 inches). High
humidity levels are typical due to their proximity to sea, contributing to lush
greenery that characterizes the islands. These islands are also prone to
cyclones during monsoon seasons, which can bring heavy rain and strong
winds.

Lakshadweep Islands, located in Arabian Sea, share tropical maritime climate

similar to Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They enjoy warm and relatively
stable temperatures year-round, with maximum temperatures ranging from
31°C to 34°C. Rainfall is comparatively lower than Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, with southwest monsoon season (June to September) being wettest
period. Like their counterparts, high humidity levels are prevalent, influenced
by surrounding sea. Cyclones can affect the region during monsoon season,
leading to increased rainfall and rough seas.

Sriharikota Island, off the coast of Andhra Pradesh, experiences tropical wet
and dry climate influenced by its proximity to mainland. Summers on the island
are hot and humid, with maximum temperature often exceeding 35°C. Winters
are relatively cooler, with maximum temperatures of around 25°C to 30°C. The
island receives most of its rainfall during southwest monsoon season (June to
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September), with relatively drier season from October to December. It is also
susceptible to cyclones during monsoon season, adding to climate's variability
and challenges for local inhabitants.

Diu Island situated off the coast of Gujarat, experiences tropical wet and dry
climate with some subtropical characteristics. Summers on the island are hot,
with maximum temperatures reaching 35°C to 40°C (95°F to 104°F). Winters
are cooler, with maximum temperatures ranging from 20°C to 30°C (68°F to
86°F). Diu receives most of its rainfall during southwest monsoon season
(June to September), with relatively dry period from October to May. Moderate
to high humidity levels are common, impacting the island's overall climate. Diu
is also susceptible to cyclones during monsoon season, affecting the island's
weather patterns and precipitation.

10.8.5 Vegetation
The islands of India boast diverse and unique vegetation, each intricately
shaped by its geographical context. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
positioned in the Bay of Bengal, feature tropical rainforests with evergreen and
semi-evergreen trees, including teak and mahogany. Coastal mangrove
ecosystems, with species like Sundari trees, contribute to shoreline protection.
In the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea, extensive coconut groves
dominate the landscape, adapted to the coral atoll conditions. Sparse natural
vegetation, comprising hardy shrubs and grasses, prevails due to the
challenging environment. Sriharikota Island off the coast of Andhra Pradesh, a
pivotal space launch site, has undergone artificial landscaping. Conservation
efforts strive to minimize ecological disruptions resulting from space activities.
Diu Island, off Gujarat's coast, exhibits a vegetation profile tailored to its semi-
arid climate. Casuarina trees stabilize sand dunes along the coastline, while
hardy shrubs thrive in the arid interior. These distinct vegetation profiles
underscore the islands' efforts to balance ecological conservation with their
unique geographical characteristics.

10.8.6 Soil
The islands of India, specifically the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep, exhibit distinctive soil compositions influenced by their
geographical locations. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, tropical
conditions, characterized by high temperatures and substantial rainfall, foster
the development of red and laterite soils. Coastal areas feature alluvial soils,
shaped by the deposition of sediments from rivers and marine processes.
Unique to this region is Barren Island, where volcanic activities in the past
have contributed to the presence of volcanic soils.

Shifting focus to Lakshadweep, the soil composition is predominantly coral

sand, reflective of its coral atoll nature. The remnants of coral debris contribute
to the formation of sandy soils, underscoring the islands' unique geology. The
influence of marine deposits, coupled with the proximity to the surrounding
sea, results in the prevalence of alluvial soils. In certain low-lying areas, the
intrusion of saltwater gives rise to saline soils. This intricate interplay of
geological and environmental factors shapes the soil profiles of these islands,
influencing their ecosystems and agricultural practices.

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10.8.7 Physical Resource Base
Islands of India, encompassing the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep, exhibit a physical resource base intricately tied to their
geographical settings. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the geographical
richness is reflected in the presence of valuable mineral deposits, including
limestone and dolomite. The unique topography and climate of these islands
support lush forests, fostering diverse flora and fauna, some of which are
endemic to the region. The timber industry benefits from the abundance of
hardwood resources, further accentuating the islands' economic landscape.
Geographically, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands form an archipelago in the
southeastern Bay of Bengal, emphasizing their strategic location and resource
potential.

On the other hand, Lakshadweep, situated southwest of the Indian mainland,

boasts an extensive coral reef system, forming a vital ecological and economic
resource. The coral formations not only contribute to the marine biodiversity of
the region but also sustain a thriving fishing industry. The geographical
relevance of Lakshadweep's marine resources extends to its tourism potential,
with pristine beaches and rich marine life attracting visitors. The coral atoll
nature of Lakshadweep shapes its distinct geographical identity and
underscores the importance of its physical resources in supporting both the
environment and the local economy.

10.9 ISLANDS: THE CULTURAL SETTING

Cultural setting of Indian Peninsula and surrounding islands present a tapestry
woven with diverse traditions, languages, religions and lifestyle those have
evolved over millennia. This vast region, encompassing Peninsular India and
the scattered archipelagos, bears witness to the confluence of historical,
geographical, and socio-economic influences those have shaped the rich
mosaic of cultures found here. From ancient civilizations and indigenous
communities to modern urban centers and coastal villages, the cultural
landscape reflects complexity and vibrancy of people who call these lands
home.

10.9.1 Population
Population of the Islands of India has distinctive characteristics due to their
geographical isolation, unique cultural diversity, and environmental
challenges. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to several indigenous
communities, such as the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, and
Sentinelese. These communities have inhabited the islands for centuries,
practicing traditional ways of life and preserving their distinct language and
culture. Lakshadweep Islands have a predominantly Malayali Muslim
population, reflecting historical ties with the nearby Kerala state.

The islands have relatively modest population compared to vast expanse of

Indian mainland, primarily due to their limited land area and other
geographical limitations. To ensure sustainable coexistence of human
habitation and environmental preservation, the Indian government maintains a
vigilant watch over population growth on these islands.
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Table 10.3: Population Density, Decadal Growth and National Share of
Major Islands/UTs of Peninsular India
Islands/ UTs Total National Share Density Decadal Growth (in %)
Population (in %) (2001-11)
Andaman & 379,944 0.03 46 6.68
Nicobar
Lakshadweep 64,429 0.01 2,013 6.23
Daman & Diu 242,911 0.02 2,169 53.54
Dadra & Nagar 342,853 0.03 698 55.50
Haveli
(Source: Census of India (2011))

The table 10.3 presents population statistics for selected Islands/UTs in India.
In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the population is 379,944 (0.03 percent
national share), with a density of 46 people per square kilometres and a 6.68
percent decadal growth. Lakshadweep, with 64,429 residents (0.01 percent
national share), has a high density of 2,013 people per sq km and a 6.23
percent decadal growth. Daman and Diu, with 242,911 people, and Dadra &
Nagar Haveli, with 342,853 people, contribute 0.02 percent and 0.03 percent
to the national share, respectively. Daman & Diu has a density of 2,169 people
per square kilometres and a 53.54 percent decadal growth, while Dadra &
Nagar Haveli has a density of 698 people per square kilometres and a 55.50
percent decadal growth.

10.9.2 Settlements
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal feature diverse
settlement patterns. Indigenous tribes with millennia-long histories inhabit
isolated parts, preserving distinct cultures. Urbanization is prominent along the
coast, with Port Blair serving as the capital and major city, witnessing recent
development. The Cellular Jail in Port Blair reflects the islands' colonial penal
history. Post-independence, migration from mainland India has diversified
demographics, impacting urban areas. The unique lifestyle of indigenous
tribes and geographical isolation continue to influence settlement patterns.

In Lakshadweep, primary settlements are coastal and island communities

closely linked to the marine environment. Proximity to the sea is a defining
feature, with traditional construction techniques addressing coastal
challenges. Homes are designed to withstand saltwater, strong winds, and
occasional cyclones, reflecting the geographical context.

10.9.3 Economy
The islands of India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands,
exhibit a unique economic landscape influenced by their remote locations and
geographical features. Fishing, a primary economic activity, capitalizes on the
islands' proximity to the sea and rich marine biodiversity, particularly in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, known for tuna and prawn fishing. The tourism
sector leverages the natural beauty of the islands, including pristine beaches
and coral reefs, attracting visitors seeking underwater experiences.
Geographical constraints limit agriculture to coconut, betel nut, and small-
scale cultivation, emphasizing subsistence farming for food security.
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Additionally, government employment, particularly in defense due to strategic
importance, plays a pivotal role in the islands' economies, showcasing the
intersection of geography and economic activities.

10.9.4 Transport and Communication

The transport and communication infrastructure of the Indian islands,
comprising the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, is vital for
addressing the unique challenges posed by their remote locations.

Situated in the Bay of Bengal, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands rely on the
Veer Savarkar International Airport in Port Blair for air connectivity. A network
of seaports facilitates maritime transport. The islands' strategic location on
international maritime routes underscores the importance of robust transport
infrastructure, including defense-related connectivity. However, In the Arabian
Sea, Lakshadweep depends on boats and helicopters for transport due to its
smaller land area. The Agatti Airport connects the islands by air.
Geographically important along major maritime routes, efficient transport
infrastructure are vital for economic activities and tourism.

Indian government has implemented various initiatives to promote

communication connectivity and development in the islands. For example, the
Lakshadweep Optical Fiber Cable Connectivity (LOFCC) project aims to
enhance high-speed internet connectivity in Lakshadweep, further bridging the
digital divide and promoting economic development in the region.

10.10 ISLAND: THE REGIONS

Geographers like R.L.Singh argued that “Indian Coasts vary widely in terms of
structural and surface characteristics (Singh, 1980 p.8), therefore for proper
understanding Indian Coasts and Indian Islands need to be treated as
separate physiographic regions and not to be included in the peninsular part.

The islands of India, namely the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep Islands, represent distinct regions shaped by their profound
physical geography. The Andaman and Nicobar archipelago, situated in the
Bay of Bengal, reveals its volcanic origins attributed to the subduction of the
Indian Plate beneath the Burma Plate. This geological history manifests in the
prevalence of volcanic rocks such as basalt and geological features like
volcanic cones, showcasing a dynamic past. Additionally, extensive limestone
formations, shaped by sedimentation, erosion, and tectonic activity, contribute
to the creation of unique landscapes, including limestone caves and karst
topography. The islands are renowned for their coral reefs, formed over
millions of years through the accumulation and growth of coral polyps,
providing a testament to the intricate relationship between geological
processes and marine biodiversity. Positioned in a seismically active zone,
historical records document instances of earthquakes, underscoring the
enduring impact of ongoing tectonic processes on the islands' geological
framework. In contrast, Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea showcase
settlement patterns intimately tied to their coastal and island communities,
emphasizing adaptation to the surrounding marine environment. This intricate

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interplay between geological features and the islands' physical characteristics
shapes their distinct identities within the vast Indian landscape.

10.11 ISLAND: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS

The islands of India, comprising the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep, present a distinct set of challenges and opportunities deeply
entwined with their geographical characteristics. Positioned in coastal areas,
these islands face heightened environmental vulnerability, making them
susceptible to natural disasters like cyclones and tsunamis. Climate change
exacerbates these risks, raising concerns about sea-level rise and its impact
on the fragile ecosystems of these regions. Freshwater scarcity is a common
concern, with the Andaman and Nicobar Islands relying on rainwater
harvesting and freshwater lenses, while Lakshadweep encounters challenges
due to its limited freshwater sources, necessitating effective water
management.

The geographical remoteness of the islands poses unique challenges in terms

of connectivity, accessibility, and service delivery, hindering economic
development and fostering a dependency on external resources. Conservation
efforts are imperative to safeguard the islands' unique flora and fauna,
addressing habitat loss and the introduction of invasive species. Despite these
challenges, the islands offer significant prospects. Pristine beaches, coral
reefs, and diverse marine life make them ripe for sustainable tourism practices
that contribute to economic growth while ensuring environmental preservation.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, strategically located near international sea
routes, hold immense potential for maritime security, serving as a crucial naval
base and surveillance outpost. The islands also possess a rich cultural
heritage, home to indigenous communities whose preservation and promotion
present economic opportunities through cultural tourism and traditional
handicrafts. Additionally, the islands can harness their geographical location
for renewable energy initiatives, utilizing solar and wind power to address
environmental concerns and enhance energy security.

In navigating these challenges and capitalizing on opportunities, strategic

planning and sustainable practices are essential. The islands' unique
geographical entities demand careful consideration to balance environmental
conservation, economic development, and the well-being of their inhabitants.

10.12 SUMMARY
In this Unit, you have learnt the following:
 Prof. S. P. Chatterji, a renowned geographer, conducted a comprehensive
study in 1964, dividing Peninsular Uplands into eight meso-physiographic
regions i.e. the North Central Highlands, the south central highlands, the
Chhota Nagpur plateau, the Meghalaya -Mikir Uplands, the North Deccan,
the Western Ghats and the Eastern ghats.
 Rivers originating in the Western Ghats, such as the Tungabhadra,
Krishna, and Godavari, flow westward towards the Arabian Sea. The
Eastern Ghats, on the other hand, contribute to the drainage system of the
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Bay of Bengal, with rivers like the Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna flowing
eastward.
 The climate in peninsular India is also influenced by cyclones, with coastal
regions along the Bay of Bengal, such as Andhra Pradesh and Odisha,
being particularly vulnerable.
 The peninsular part of India is a botanical wonderland, showcasing an
extensive array of vegetation shaped by diverse topography, climatic
variations, and ecological nuances.
 The peninsular region of India features diverse soils, with black soil, or
"regur," being prominent in the Deccan Plateau. Derived from basaltic rock
weathering, it's rich in minerals like iron and magnesium. Known for its
black color and unique properties, including swelling when wet and forming
cracks when dry, black soil is ideal for monsoon cultivation. Its fertility,
especially in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Karnataka,
significantly contributes to India's agricultural output, particularly for cash
crops like cotton.
 The Deccan Plateau in Karnataka is rich in iron ore, Andhra Pradesh
contributes to limestone deposits, and the Western Ghats influence coal
and manganese reserves in Maharashtra. This region significantly
contributes to India's natural wealth.
 The Indian Peninsula boasts linguistic diversity with each state having its
official language, including Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, Marathi,
and Konkani. Hinduism is predominant, with significant Muslim and
Christian populations, particularly in Kerala, Goa, Telangana, and parts of
Andhra Pradesh, showcasing religious diversity.
 Coastal areas of the Indian Peninsula thrive on cash crops like coconut,
cashew nuts, and spices, supported by modern agricultural practices. The
region is a hub for diverse industries, with Tamil Nadu excelling in
automobile manufacturing, Bengaluru as the Silicon Valley, and a well-
established chemical and textile industry. The services sector, particularly
in IT, contributes significantly to the region's economic growth, with
Bengaluru and Hyderabad serving as prominent IT hubs. Additionally,
tourism boosts the local economy in states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Goa.
 Peninsular India's transport, shaped by ancient trade routes, features
highways like the Golden Quadrilateral and railways like the Konkan
Railway. Strategic airports, like Chennai International and Goa's Dabolim,
leverage geographical advantages. Modernized waterways, using rivers
such as Godavari and Krishna, facilitate maritime trade, with historical ports
like Chennai and Kochi.
 India's islands, notably Andaman and Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal,
showcase diverse geology with volcanic origins, limestone formations, and
seismic activity. The region's distinct physiography features rugged
landscapes with high peaks like Saddle Peak, exceeding 2,400 meters,
known for steep escarpments and dense forests.
 India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and
Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea face unique water challenges. Andaman
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relies on rainwater harvesting, while Lakshadweep uses collected rainwater
for drinking. Sriharikota Island depends on desalination and mainland
supply, and Diu Island uses desalination, dams, and reservoirs,
emphasizing efficient water management amid limited freshwater
resources.
 India's islands have diverse climates. Andaman and Nicobar, in the Bay of
Bengal, experience tropical maritime weather with high rainfall, warmth,
and cyclone risk. Lakshadweep, in the Arabian Sea, shares a similar
climate with less rainfall. Sriharikota Island has a tropical wet and dry
climate, influenced by the mainland, with hot summers and cyclone
potential. Diu Island features a tropical wet and dry climate with subtropical
traits, including hot summers and cyclone susceptibility. The islands'
vegetation, shaped by geography, ranges from tropical rainforests to
adaptive vegetation for semi-arid conditions, showcasing their ecological
diversity.
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands showcase diverse settlements,
including urbanization in Port Blair and indigenous tribes in isolated
regions. Economic activities are driven by fishing and tourism, while
geographical constraints limit agriculture. Government employment,
especially in defense, plays a crucial role. The islands rely on a well-
developed transport infrastructure, with initiatives like the Lakshadweep
Optical Fiber Cable Connectivity project aiming to enhance connectivity and
foster economic development.

10.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the relief of Peninsular India.
2. Discuss the drainage and water resources of Peninsular India.
3. Discuss the physical resource base of Peninsular India.
4. Write a note on the population of the Islands of India.
5. Discuss the Transport and Communication of Peninsular India.

10.14 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. Refer to Section 10.3.2.
2. (i) Great Boundary Fault, (ii) Northern (iii) Lime Stone Formation (iv) Tamil
Nadu Uplands
(All answers are in sub-section 10.3.3)
3. (i) T, (ii) T, (iii) F, (iv) F, (v) F
(All answers are in sub-section 10.3.7)

Terminal Question
1. Refer to sub-section 10.3.2.
2. Refer to sub-section 10.3.3.

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3. Refer to sub-section 10.3.7.
4. Refer to sub-section 10.4.1.
5. Refer to sub-section 10.4.4.

10.15 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Khullar, D.R. (2023). India: A Comprehensive Geography. Kalyani
Publisher, New Delhi.

2. Husain, M. (2020). Geography of India, Tata Mac Graw Hill, Noida, Uttar
Pradesh.

3. Tiwari, R.C. (2017). Geography of India. Pravalika Publication, Prayagraj,

Uttar Pradesh.

4. Singh, R.L. (2010). India: A Regional Geography, National Geographical

Society of India, Varanasi.

5. Spate, O.H.K and ATA Learmonth (2017). India and Pakistan: A General
and Regional Geography, Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, New York.

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GLOSSARY
Bangar : Bangar is the older alluvial floodplains.
Coniferous Trees : Trees found at higher altitudes that develop conical
structures. For example, Pine and fir, etc.
Environmental : An environmental hazard is a substance, state, or
Hazards event which has the potential to threaten the
surrounding natural environment or adversely affect
people’s health.
GLOF : A glacial lake outburst flood is a flood caused by the
failure of a dam containing a glacial lake. An event
was similar to a GLOF, where a body of water
contained by a glacial melt overflows causing loss of
lives and property in the lower altitudes.
Kankar : Kankar is the nodular calcium carbonate of less than
one centimetre to more than 5 centimetres in
diameter.
Khadar : The Khadar soils are much more fertile as they are
alluvial deposits. The Great Plain of India is divided
into newer or younger deposits known as khadar
while the older deposits are known as Bhangar.
Khadar : These are the low-lying flood plains of the alluvial
plain.
Population Density : The number of populations living in a unit area is
known as population density. It is also referred to as
the man-land ratio. The density of the population is
higher in urban cities as more population gets
concentrated in a small geographical area.
Transhumance : Seasonal movement of animals from higher to lower
altitudes during winter and lower to a higher altitude
during summer season. For example, Dokpas in
north Sikkim practice transhumance through the
seasonal movement of Yaks to different altitudes.

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