MODULE 2.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Module Objectives:

1. analyze the different theories of development that had impacted human social-emotional,
behavioral growth processes such as but not limited to psychosexual theory, psychosocial
theory, attachment theory, social learning theory, moral development and the sociocultural
theory.
2. recognize the various factors that influence an individual's behavior at each phase of life
span development.
3. point out how the principles of developmental psychology are at work in your professional
and personal life.

TAlK BaCk
Reflective exercise:

PRIMER: What is Theory?

Theory explains how some aspect of human behavior or performance is organized. It thus
enables us to make predictions about that behavior. The components of theory
are concepts (ideally well defined) and principles.

A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing - tree, chair, table, computer,

distance, etc. Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent - democracy,
learning, freedom, etc. Language enables conceptualization. A principle expresses the
relationship between two or more concepts or constructs.

In the process of theory development, one derives principles based on one’s

examining/questioning how things/concepts are related.
Concepts and principles serve two important functions:

1) They help us to understand or explain what is going on around us.

2) They help us predict future events (Can be causal or correlational)

A theory is a related set of concepts and principles

- about a phenomenon
- the purpose of which is to explain or predict the phenomenon

Why theory is important

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships

between concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to
bring about change. Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a
means for altering the situation.

2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain what
is being done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research

3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of

knowledge with theories from both within and with out the area of distance learning.
That body of knowledge grows with theory and research. Theory guides research.

Development of theories

Theory is constantly revised as new knowledge is discovered through research. Three stages
of theory development in any new science.

1) Speculative - attempts to explain what is happening.

2) Descriptive - gathers descriptive data to describe what is really happening.
3) Constructive - revises old theories and develops new ones based on continuing
research.

LESSON 1. The Theories of Human Development

Developmental psychologists have developed different

perspectives. Each perspective consists of one or more theories
which are broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning
phenomenon of interest. A theory provides a framework for
understanding the relationships among unorganized set of facts or
principles.

The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to optimize
development (Baltes, Reese, & Lipsitt, 1980). To describe development it is necessary to focus
both on typical patterns of change (normative development) and individual variations in
patterns of change (i.e. idiographic development). Although there are typical pathways of
development that most people will follow, no two persons are exactly alike.

a.) The Psychodynamic Perspective:

Psychodynamic perspective was pioneered by Dr. Sigmund

Freud who believed that human behavior is motivated by
inner forces, memories and conflicts about which an
individual has little awareness and control.

a) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious

forces determine personality and behavior. Our unconscious behavior contains:

Infantile wishes
Desires
Demands
Needs

These are hidden from our conscious awareness due to their disturbing nature.

According to Freud, our personality has three aspects:-

Id: It is the raw unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents
primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. Id operates
according to pleasure principle. Its main goal is to provide maximum satisfaction and reduce
tension.

Ego: It is the rational and reasonable aspect of one‘s personality. The ego acts as a buffer
between the external world and the primitive id. The ego operates on the reality principle. It
attempts to restrain the instinctual energy so as to maintain safety of the individual or help
him/her integrate into the society.

Superego: It represents a person‘s conscience. It tells us what is right and wrong. It develops
around 5-6 years of age.

Psychosexual Development:

A term used by Sigmund Freud to refer to a series of stages during which

children pass through in which pleasure or gratification is focused on a
particular biological function and body part.
Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. During
the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to
satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth
orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities
all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral
personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the anus,
and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they
are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the
demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which
adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first
conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who
hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their
mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-
training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like
giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is
also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to
six years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous
zone.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called
the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six
years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden).

Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development
and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful
resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in
our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through
heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that
sexual perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

b) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson provided an alternative psychodynamic view

which emphasized on social interaction with other people.
According to Erikson, development proceeds throughout
our lives in eight stages, which emerge in a fixed pattern
and are similar for all people. At each stage individual
experiences conflict which must be resolved. Freud viewed
development to be relatively complete by adolescence.

Erikson on the other hand suggested that growth and change continue throughout an
individual‘s lifespan.

Function

Stages arise as individuals grow and face new decisions and turning points during childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage is defined by two opposing psychological tendencies –
one positive/syntactic and negative/dystonic. From this develops an ego virtue/strength or
maldevelopment, respectively. If the virtue is adopted, it can help to resolve the current
decision or conflict. It will also help subsequent stages of development and contribute to a
stable foundation for core belief systems in relating to the self and the outer world. The
opposite is true with the adoption of the maldeveloped quality.
As an example, the ego identity crystallizes in stage 5, during adolescence. The two opposing
qualities are ego identity and confusion/diffusion. Those who develop ego identity yield the
virtue of fidelity, while the inability to do so – ego confusion – creates a quality of repudiation.
With a stronger sense of ego identity, the interaction with the outer and inner world is of
rejecting incongruent evaluations of self and a decreased level of anxiety, respectively.
While adopting the syntonic attribute is clearly beneficial in this example, doing so should be
done within reason. Extreme ego identity can become fanaticism, which can create unhealthy
interactions with the self and others. One must navigate the two opposing values in each stage
to find a balance, instead of only striving for the positive quality. Straying too far towards the
positive tendency can be maladaptive, while leaning too far toward the negative can be
malignant.

Components

Some scholars have attempted to confine stages to specific ages, but Erikson did not initially
define this. Instead, there are periods within childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each
stage provides an example in which the positive attribute may be furthered.

Stages of Childhood

Stage 1 – Infancy period: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Virtue: Hope, Maldevelopment: Withdrawal
 Concomitant Freudian stage: oral stage
 Example: Secure environment provided by the caregiver, with regular access to
affection and food

Stage 2 – Early Childhood period: Autonomy vs. Shame, doubt

 Virtue: Will, Maldevelopment: Compulsion
 Concomitant Freudian stage: anal stage
 Example: Caregiver promotes self-sufficiency while maintaining a secure environment

Stage 3 – Play Age period: Initiative vs. Guilt

 Virtue: Purpose, Maldevelopment: Inhibition
 Concomitant Freudian stage: genital stage
 Example: Caregiver encourages, supports, and guides the child’s own initiatives and
interests

Stage 4 – School Age period: Industry vs. Inferiority

 Virtue: Competence, Maldevelopment: Inertia (passivity)
 Concomitant Freudian stage: latency stage
 Example: Reasonable expectations set in school and at home, with praise for their
accomplishments
Stage of Adolescence

Stage 5 – Adolescence period: Identity vs. Identity confusion

 Virtue: Fidelity, Maldevelopment: Repudiation
 Example: Individual weighs out their previous experiences, societal expectations, and
their aspirations in establishing values and ‘finding themselves.’

Stages of Adulthood

Stage 6 – Young Adulthood period: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Virtue: Love, Maldevelopment: Distantiation
 Example: Individual forms close friendships or long-term partnership

Stage 7 – Adulthood period: Generativity vs. Stagnation/Self-absorption

 Virtue: Care, Maldevelopment: Rejectivity
 Example: Engagement with the next generation through parenting, coaching, or
teaching

Stage 8 – Old Age period: Integrity vs. Despair

 Virtue: Wisdom, Maldevelopment: Disdain
 Example: Contemplation and acknowledgment of personal life accomplishments

c. The Behavioral Perspective:

Focusing on Observable Behavior: The behavioral perspective

suggests that the key to understanding development are
observable behavior and environmental stimuli. This
perspective reflects the view that nurture is more important to
development than nature.
This perspective rejects the notion that people universally
pass through a series of stages. Instead people are affected by
environmental stimuli to which they happen to be exposed.
Developmental pattern is viewed as personal reflecting a particular set of environmental
stimuli. Some important views of this perspective include:

 Development change is quantitative rather than qualitative.

 Behavior is a result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment.

 Advances in problem solving capabilities, as children age, are largely a result of

greater mental capacities rather than changes in the kind of thinking that children bring
to bear on the problem.
Three important theories of behavioral perspective include:

a) Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is one form of associative learning and can be defined as a learning
process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus
(which always produces a response) through repeated pairing with that stimulus. The
systematic study of classical conditioning began in Russia with the work of Ivan P. Pavlov.
Classical conditioning gets its name from the fact that it is a kind of learning situation that
existed in the classical‘ experiments of Pavlov. This form of conditioning is also called as
respondent or Pavlovian conditioning. We have studied about classical conditioning in detail in
the XI Class as well as in FYBA.

b) Operant Conditioning:

It is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its

association 12 with positive or negative consequences. It differs from classical conditioning in
that the response being conditioned is voluntary and purposeful rather than automatic (as in
classical conditioning, for example saliva).

One important concept in operant conditioning is reinforcement. One application of operant

conditioning is behavior modification which is a formal technique for promoting the frequency
of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Behavior modification is used to share many practical problems such as;

 Teaching basic language to people with severe retardation
 Helping people achieve self control problems
 Stick to dieting, etc.

c.) Social-cognitive Learning Theory:

This theory was provided by Albert Bandura. It is also called as learning through imitation. It is
an approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person (i.e.,
model). According to social cognitive learning theory we are more likely to imitate the behavior
of others whom we observe (i.e., model a given behavior).

d.) The Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive perspective is concerned with gaining insight

into an individual‘s understanding and knowledge. It focuses
on the 13 processes that allow people to know understand and
think about the world. Cognitive perspective:
  Emphasizes how people internally represent and think about the world.
 How children and adults process information and how their ways of thinking and
understanding affect their behavior.
 Seek to learn how cognitive abilities change as people develop and how different
cognitive abilities are related to one another.

Theories within Cognitive Perspective: Within cognitive perspective, three theories are
important:

(a) Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

Jean Piaget was an influential figure in the area of cognitive development. According to him all
people pass through a fixed sequence of universal stages of cognitive development. Not only
does the quantity of information increases at each stage, but quality of knowledge and
understanding changes as well.

Piaget focused on the changes in the cognition that occur as children move from one stage to
the next. He was of the view that human thinking is arranged into schemes which are
organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions.

Schemes can be viewed as the intellectual computer software that direct and determine how
data from the world are looked at and dealt with. Schemes varies at each stage. For example,

 During infancy, schemes represent concrete behavior ; such as scheme for sucking, for
reaching and for each separate behavior.
 In older children, the schemes become more sophisticated and abstract such as skills
involved in riding a bike or playing an interactive video game.

Two important principles for explaining children’s understanding of the word: According to
Piaget, growth in children‘s understanding of the world can be explained by two basic
principles.

I) Assimilation: It can be defined as a process in which people understand a new experience in

terms of their current stage of cognitive development and existing ways of thinking.

II) Accommodation: It refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters

with new stimuli or environment.

(b) Information Processing Approaches:

It is an important alternative to Piagetian approach which seeks to understand and explain as

to various ways in which individuals process, store and use information that is available to
them. This approach originated as a result of developments in the area of computers.
According to this approach, complex human behavior such as learning, rehearsing,
categorizing and thinking can be broken down into series of individual specific steps.

This approach further asserts that children like computers, have limited capacity for
processing information as they develop, they employ increasingly sophisticated strategies that
allow them to process information more efficiently. This approach, in sharp contrast to the
Piagetian approach, assume that development is marked more by quantitative advances than
qualitative ones. This approach further states that our capacity to handle information changes
with age, even speed and efficiency gets influenced as we age. As we age, we are better able
to control the nature of processing and the strategies we choose to process information.

One type of information processing approach that builds on Piaget‘s research is called as Neo-
Piagetan theory. In contrast to the Piaget‘s original work which viewed cognition as a single
system of increasingly sophisticated general cognitive abilities, neo Piagetian theory considers
cognition as made up of different types of individual skills. Neo-Piagetian theory suggests that
cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in other areas. For
e.g., reading ability and the skills needed to recall stories may progress sooner than the
abstract computational abilities used in algebra or trigonometry.

Neo-Piagetian also believe that experience plays a greater role in advancing cognitive
development than traditional Piagetian approaches.

(c) Cognitive Neuroscience Approach:

This approach is a recent development which takes into consideration cognitive development
related to brain processes. They emphasize on neurological activity that underlies thinking,
problem solving and other cognitive behaviors.

Cognitive neuroscience approach seeks to identify actual locations and functions within the
brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity. For example, they have used brain
imaging techniques to demonstrate how thinking about meaning of the word activated different
areas of the brain than thinking about how the words sound when spoken.

Cognitive neuroscience have also attempted to understand the relationship between autism
and brain processes as well as the relationship between brain enlargement and other
developmental disorders.

Cognitive neuroscience research has also attempted to discover certain genes which are
associated with specific developmental disorders.

e.) The Humanistic Perspective:

This perspective concentrates on uniquely human qualities.

This perspective holds the view that people have a natural
capacity to make decisions about their lives and to control their
behavior. This perspective also holds the view that each
individual has the ability and motivation to make free choices and take decisions about their
lives independently of the societal standards. The two major proponents of humanistic
perspective were:

i) Carl Rogers and

ii) Abraham Maslow.

According to Carl Rogers individuals need positive regard which arises from an underlying
wish to be loved and respected. Since positive regard comes from other people, we are
dependent upon them and hence their view of us becomes important for us. According to
Abraham Maslow the primary goal of one‘s life is self-actualization. It is a state of self
fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique ways.

f.) The Contextual Perspective:

This perspective takes a broad approach to

development. This perspective considers the
relationship between individuals and their physical,
cognitive, personality and social worlds.

Two major theories that emphasize this

perspective are as follows:

i) Urie Bronfenbrenner‘s Bioecological Approach

ii) Lev Semenovich Vygotsky‘s Sociocultural
Theory.

(i) The Bioecological Approach to Development:

This approach to development suggests that individuals are influenced simultaneously by five
levels of environment which include:

a) The Microsystem
b) The Mesosystem
c) The Exosystem
d) The Macrosystem
e) The Chronosystem

(a) The Microsystem: It is the everyday immediate environment of a child‘s life. It includes
parents, siblings, friends, teachers, etc. The children are not passive recipients from
environment. They actively change and construct their microsystem.

(b) The Mesosystem: It refers to all those that connect the children to parents, students to
teachers, employees to bosses, friends to friends, etc. It takes in to consideration direct and
indirect influences that bind us together.
(c) The Exosystem: It represents the broader influences such as social institutions like the
local government, the community, schools, places of worship, local media, etc. Each of these
institutions have an immediate and major impact on our personal development and each effect
how micro and mesosystems work.

(d) The Macrosystem: It represents the larger cultural influences on an individual, including
society in general, types of government, religions and political value systems, etc.

(e) The Chronosystem: It underlies each of the previous systems. It involves the way the
passage of time affects children‘s development. Passage of time would include historical
events, such as 9/11 terrorist attacks or gradual changes in value system such as women
working out, changes in marriage laws, etc., that impact on children‘s development.

The Bioecological Approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on

development because the various levels are related to one another; a change in one part of the
system affects the other parts.

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

According to Vygotsky, a full understanding of development is not possible without taking in to

account the culture in which people develop. This theory describes how cognitive development
is influenced as a result of social interactions between members of a culture.

According to Vygotsky, children‘s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem
solving interactions with adults and other children. As children play and interact with others,
they learn what is important in their society and at the same time advance cognitively.

Sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is influenced by reciprocal transactions

between people in child‘s environment and the child.

g.) Evolutionary Perspective:

This perspective emphasizes on the contributions of our

ancestors to our development. This theory seeks to identify
behavior that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our
ancestors. Evolutionary Perspective grew out of the
groundbreaking work of Charles Darwin. It states that our
genetic inheritance not only determines such physical traits
such as skin and eye color but also personality traits and social
behaviors.

According to evolutionary perspective behaviors such as jealousy, shyness and aggression are
produced in part by genetic causes, presumably because they helped in increasing survival
rates of human ancient relatives.

Evolutionary perspective includes the following two important fields of study:

Ethology: It examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. One of
the most vocal advocates of ethology was Konrad Lorenz. His work demonstrated the
importance of biological determinants in influencing behavior patterns. According to him much
human behavior reflects inborn genetic patterns.

Behavior Genetics: It studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Behavioral genetics explains
how we inherit certain behavioral traits and how environment influences whether we actually
display those traits.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

1. How is theory of development helps in explaining some well-known human behaviors?

2. Why we have to used theory-based ideas in understanding human development?

ASSESSMENT: