LECTURE 5

THE RECTIFIERS

Rectifiers are circuits that convert an alternating voltage source into a polarized ( or
rectified ) one . For example a sinusoidal voltage source can be arranged to feed a
resistor only by its zero to positive peak voltages making the average voltage to be a
certain positive amount ; this will be called a positive rectifier. Alternatively the circuit
can be arranged so that the ac source will feed the load by its zero to negative peaks , this
will be called a negative rectifier.
Generally the rectifiers, for practicality, require ac transformers where in-phase and out-
of - phase outputs will be readily available for conversion . But also poly-phase versions
exist for higher power application. In the following study only a single phase source will
be utilized which will not require the knowledge of poly-phase transformer operation.
Two types of rectifiers will be discussed 1) the half wave rectifier 2) the bridge rectifier.

1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

a) Half wave rectifier with resistive load ..

The ac source voltage is described by the equation , VS(t) = VP Sin ωt , where VP is the
voltage amplitude ( or peak value ) , ω is the angular frequency and “ t “ is the variable of
time . The angular frequency is the rate at which the angle (in rad/sec ) of the function
changes with the time “ t “ . If “ T “ is defined as the period of the cycle then the angle of
the function will change 2π radian in the interval of “ T “ i.e. ωT = 2π, or ω = 2π / T .
By definition the conventional frequency “ f “ in Hz is the number of cycles that go into
one second thus 1 / T = f . The unit of frequency “f “ used to be cycles per second but
now is renamed as Hz.

It should be noticed that in the interval of 0 < t < T/2 the angle ( ωt ) of the function
will be between Zero to π radians and hence the voltage VS(t) will be positive within the
interval ; this will be referred to as positive half-cycle. But in the interval T/2 < t < T
the angle will be between π to 2π radians and hence the voltage VS (t) will be negative
within the interval ; this will be referred to as negative half-cycle.

The scheme for a half-wave rectification is shown in fig.1 . The ac source, the diode and
the load resistor are placed in series. Reference to the ground the voltage of the load
resistor will be always positive as the diode can only allow the current to flow from
anode ( A ) to cathode ( C ) ; thus the load voltage will follow VS(t) with an offset of VF
now renamed as Von , while VS(t) > Von . But as the source voltage turns into negative
half-cycle the load voltage will drop to zero and it will not follow the source , since if it
did the current had to flow in the opposite direction from cathode - to - anode which the
diode will not permit since the diode resistance is very high ( say infinity like an open-
circuit) . As a result the negative voltages from the source will be eliminated from
reaching the load . This will leave a net positive average voltage across the load.
A negative average voltage can be obtained at the load if the direction of the diode is
reversed.
Fig. 1

Note that the output voltage all the time is equal to input less by Von while Vs(t) > Von
that is , Vo(t) = Vs(t) – Von = Vp Sin ωt - Von . But Vo(t) = 0 when Vs(t) < Von and
continuing into the negative half cycle.

The output peak voltage Vop is equal to ,

Vop = Vp – Von ……….. (1)

Where Vp is the source peak voltage and Von is the forward diode voltage.

In most applications if Vp >> Von , the output voltage will resemble to upper half of a
sine wave. By integrating VopSin x in the interval 0 to π and dividing it by 2π the
average load voltage Vo(avg) can be obtained as ,

Vo(avg) ≈ Vop / π …… (2)

The average load current , IL(avg) which is the same as the average diode current, then
will be equal to,

IL(avg) = ID(avg) = Vo(avg) / R …………..(3)

The diode repetitive peak-current , ID(pk) , will be equal to resistor peak current and
will be equal to ,

ID(pk) = Vop / R ………. (4)

The resistor root-mean square voltage , Vo(rms) , will be equal to,

Vo(rms) = Vop / 2 ………. (5)

This quantity is often required to determine the load power from PR = Vo2(rms) / R .

The peak anticipated negative voltage occurs at the time of negative peak voltage
occurrences ( check the diode voltage, Vo(t) – Vs(t) in fig.1 , at the moment t = 3T/4 ).
This maximum negative voltage is known as PIV . In rectifier design it is important to
predict the PIV in choosing the diode for its breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage
of a rectifier diode must be a safe amount higher than the anticipated PIV.
In this arrangement (without additional filtering capacitor) the peak inverse voltage, PIV ,
is equal to ,

PIV = Vp …………. (6)

b) Half wave rectifier with capacitive load ( AKA a peak detector).

Figure 2 shows when the resistor is replaced with a capacitor. Assume initial voltage of
the capacitor was zero when the ac source is switched-in exactly at t = 0 . Since the
source voltage is positive in the interval of time 0 < t < T / 4 the diode will be driven into
forward conduction. The capacitor voltage will follow the source voltage to its nearly
peak point ( Vs(t) ≈ Vo(t) for , 0 < t < T / 4 ) . The diode current , which is identical to
the capacitor current , will de equal to , ID(t) = C [ d ( Vp Sin ωt ) / dt ) ] =
= C ω Vp Cos ωt will be also positive ( forward) to the point of t = T / 4 . So in the end
of the interval the capacitor will charge to its peak voltage Vo(pk) = Vp – Von . At the
peak point the capacitor current , thus the diode current, will stop flowing since
d Vo (t) / d t will be zero .
For the remainder of time the capacitor voltage will remain constant to
Vo(pk) = Vp – Von unless the capacitor is subjected to a discharge phase .

Now the output average voltage Vo(avg) ( or referred to as DC voltage) will equal to,

Vo(avg) = Vp – Von …………. (7) .

The diode’s “ONE TIME” peak current , also known as the “Surge current” ID(sg) , will
be equal to,

ID(sg) = C ωVp …………….. (8)

Note that in practice the surge current may also depend upon other factors . Elements
such as the source and diode series resistance will limit the current if the ac power supply
was switched in at the peak point of the VS(t) as another worst case scenario.
However there will be no ID(avg) as long as no load resistor is paralleled with the
capacitor. The capacitor voltage will remain constant to Vp –Von as long as no charge is
withdrawn . Capacitor cannot discharge into the diode since the diode will block the
reverse current flow .
The first peak-inverse voltage , PIV , will occur across the diode at the time t = 3T / 4 and
will remain repetitively the same and it will be equal to,

PIV = (Vp –Von ) – Vp = 2Vp –Von ≈ 2Vp ………………(9)

Fig. 2
c) Half wave rectifier with a capacitor in parallel with a constant current load .

The schematic for a half wave rectifier is shown in fig. 3 where the effect of a load
resistor is represented by a constant current source of a value IL. Indeed in practice if
Vo(avg) happens to be nearly a constant and if a load resistor (R) is placed in parallel
with the capacitor then the load current will be equal to,

IL = Vo(avg) / R = Vop /R = ( Vp – Von ) / R ……….(10)

The waveforms show the steady state condition within the circuit. As the ac source
(Vs)charges the capacitor to the peak value, Vop = Vp – Von, the constant current IL will
continue discharging the capacitor after the occurrence of every peak. The capacitor
voltage will drop from its peak by a small amount of Vr due to the charge it has lost to
the resistor. The discharging time Td can be approximated to the period, T, for a half
wave rectifier. However just before the occurrence of every peak the diode will conduct
a brief period of, ∆T, to replace the charge that was lost to the resistor during the time Td.
Indeed Td = T - ∆T but whenever the conduction time is small the discharging time may
be approximated to the period “T”.

RIPPLE VOLTAGE ( Vr)

In a rectifier the ripple voltage is referred to the droop of the capacitor voltage from its
peak value ,Vop = Vp – Von by the amount of Vr. It can be shown that the ripple voltage
( Vr ) in terms of the load current IL and the capacitor value “ C “ and the discharging
duration ( Td ) is given as ,

Vr = IL Td / C ………………. ( 11 ) In terms of Vpp .

In the half wave rectifier take Td ≈ T and IL can be found from equation ( 10 ) if the load
is a resistor . But also IL might be a demanded current by any other additional circuit
attached to the capacitor. In a proper rectifier the value of the capacitor must be chosen
large enough so that the percentage of ripple, defined as (Vr / Vop )100 % is less
than10%.

THE PIV
The peak reverse voltage occurs when the source voltage is momentarily at – Vp, at its
negative peak values,

PIV ≈ 2 Vp …………..( 12 )

DIODE AVERAGE CURRENT [ Id(avg)]

The diode average current is identical to IL , since the capacitor does not have any dc or
average current , thus,

Id(avg) = IL ……………( 13)

where IL is determined from eqn.10 or IL is simply specified or determined by the load.

THE DIODE CONDUCTION TIME ( ∆T )

Assuming IL is a constant the capacitor voltage will drop at a constant rate from its peak
value ( Vp – Von ) to – (IL / C ) Td + (Vp – Von ) by the end of its discharge cycle. In
terms of time the end of the discharging cycle is ∆T moments before the source voltage
is beginning to climb to the next peak value. By a Mclauren expansion of the Cosine
function , the starting value of the capacitor voltage will be approximately equal to
Vp [ 1 – ( ω ∆T )2 / 2 ] – Von ; this is obtained by expanding the function
(Vp Cos ωt – Von ) up to its second term in the series in the vicinity of the peaks. Now
equation can be set up as the ending of the discharged value is equated to the beginning
of the climbing value as,

– (IL / C ) Td + (Vp – Von ) = Vp [ 1 – ( ω ∆T )2 / 2 ] – Von

Now solving for ∆T will result,

∆T = ( 2 ILTd / C Vp )1/2 / ω ……………(14)

Here in half wave rectifier take Td ≈ T , the full period assuming ΔT << T.

THE DIODE PEAK REPETITIVE CURRENT [ ID(pk) ].

Let us assume the diode current ID(t ) when conducting in the interval Δt is approximately
equal to the capacitor current , IC(t) , because the load current IL << IC(t) during the
diode’s conduction time .
Now the capacitor voltage VC(t) , which is the same as Vo(t) , will be equal to :

VC(t) = Vp[ 1 - (ωt)2 / 2 ] - Von ……….. (15)

where the t = 0 reference point in time is set at any of the positive peak points . This
equation is only valid in the interval -Δt < t < 0 while diode is conducting . From (15)
the capacitor current , IC(t) , will be derived and it will be equal to,

IC(t) = C d [ VC(t) ] / d t = - Vp C ω 2 t ……..(16)

Now IC(pk) can be derived by substituting t = - Δt in (16) which will yield ,

ID(pk) = IC(pk) = Vp C ω2 ΔT ……………….(17)

An alternative approach to finding the ID(pk) would be by equating the average value of
the rectangular ID(t) pulses with the load current IL . This will yield an alternative
formula for ID(pk) as:

ID(pk) = (2T / ΔT ) IL ……………………..( 18 )

Which ever equation 17 or 18 is used to calculate ID(pk) the outcome will be the same .
Generally with capacitor filter the repetitive peak current ID(pk) is much less than the
one- time surge current ID(sg) = C ω Vp derived earlier as eqn.(8) .

ANGLE OF CONDUCTION ( Θc )

The angle of conduction of the diode is defined as,

Θc = 2π( ΔT / T ) ….(19)

Combined with equation 18 an alternative formula to ID(pk) in terms of Θc is,

ID(pk) = ( 4π / Θc ) IL ………. (20 )

Angle of conductions are usually small, 10 to 15 degrees; convert to radian when using in
eqn,20.

Fig.3
2 ) BRIDGE RECTIFIER :

There are a few other rectifier configurations amongst them is the popular bridge
rectifier. In this rectifier diodes are arranged in such manner that they will conduct the
current in the same direction towards the load during both the positive and negative half
cycles of the source period “ T “. Bridge rectifier can produce nearly the same output
( when accompanied with a filter capacitor) with the same ac supply as the half-wave
rectifier but with half the capacitor size , half the average current and half the PIV per
diode .

a) BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITHOUT THE CAPACITOR FILTER.

The circuit of a half-wave rectifier with a resistive load and its waveforms is shown in
fig.4 .

Fig. 4
The diodes are so arranged that for the positive half cycle ( 0 < t < T/2 ) when the source
voltage polarities are as marked BLUE, the diodes D1 and D2 will conduct in series with
the load. At the peak point when t = T/4 , the resistor ( or output) voltage will reach the
peak value Vop = Vp – 2 Von. In the second half cycle ( T/2 < t < T ) when the source
voltage poles reverse as marked in RED the diodes D3 and D4 will conduct while D1 and
D2 will go into reverse . Again due to the arrangement of the diodes the current will
remain in the same direction in the load resistor.
In bridge rectifier the following will apply,

Output peak voltage Vo(pk) ‘

Vop = Vp – 2 Von ………….. (21 )

Output repetitive peak current, ID(pk) is ,

ID(pk) = Vop/ R ………………..( 22) .

The output average voltage Vo(avg) is equal to ,

Vo(avg) ≈ 2 Vop / π ………… (23) .This is twice the dc voltage of a half wave rectifier
given the same ac source .

The average current in either one of the diodes , ID(avg) is equal to ,

ID(avg) = (Vo(avg) / R) / 2 ……….(24)

The output root-mean square voltage , Vo(rms) is almost unchanged from that of the
Vs(t) and is equal to ,

VO(rms) ≈ Vop / √2 ………..(25 ) Assumes Vp >> 2Von .

The PIV occurs at the peak points and is equal to ,

PIV = Vp – Von ≈ Vp ………(26) .

b) THE BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER CAPACITOR AND A LOAD

CURRENT IL .

In case of an existing load resistor ( R ) , replace IL with Vo(avg) / R .

The schematic of the bridge rectifier with the corresponding waveforms is shown in fig.5.

The output peak voltage , Vop , will be equal to ,

Vop = Vp – 2Von ………..(27)

In the case of an existing small ripple voltage, Vr , the output average voltage Vo(avg)
can be considered being approximately equal to Vop,

Vo(avg) ≈ Vp – 2Von ……….(28)

Thus the load current , IL , would be derived from , IL = Vo(avg) / R or otherwise IL

would be specified for a particular load .

Fig.5

The load ripple voltage , Vr , can be calculated from the following equation,

Vr = IL Td / C …………(29) In terms of Vpp .

Where Td ≈ T/2 assuming T/2 >> ∆T . Comparing to a half-wave rectifier the bridge
rectifier capacitor size in bridge rectifier is half the size of a half-wave rectifier for the
same load current and ripple voltage. This will save in cost and in weight.
The PIV will occur at the peaks. By voltage inspection the PIV will be equal to,

PIV = Vp – Von ………(30) , or PIV ≈ Vp (for all diodes)

The PIV here is half the size of the PIV in a half-wave rectifier requiring lower
breakdown voltage diodes .

The average current in all diodes , ID(avg) , is also half of the load current, that is,

ID(avg) = IL / 2 ………..(31) ; this is also an improvement.

The diode conduction time ∆T is calculated with the same formal stated in eqn. 14 which
will be restated here,

∆T = ( 2 ILTd / C Vp )1/2 / ω ……………(32)

where Td = T/2 , T is the ac source period, IL is the load current, C is the capacitor value,
Vp is the ac peak voltage and ω is the source angular frequency.

The diodes (all four ) peak repetitive current ID(pk) will be calculated in the same manner
as equation 17 was derived where the diode conduction current was assumed to be nearly
equal to the capacitor current during the interval ΔT , that is,

ID(pk) = Vp C ω 2 ΔT ……….(33)

Equation 32 &33 show that the peak repetitive current is also reduced.

An alternative equation to calculating ID(pk) would be ,

ID(pk) = ( T/ ΔT ) . IL ……….(34)

Whichever equation (33) or (34 ) is used to calculate ID(pk) ,the outcome will be the same
.

POWER DISSIPATION IN A DIODE

The average power dissipation , PD , in each diode within the rectifiers discussed is
calculated from,

PD = ID(avg) . Von ……….. (35)

The above power dissipates as heat and should not exceed the power rating limit. In
heavy duty diodes heat-sinks ( a radiator ) will be required to keep the device cool to a
temperature not exceeding a specified value.
CASE STUDY , HALF-WAVE Vs. BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

In a certain application the ac source is Vp = 18 Vp at 60 Hz . The available capacitor is,

C = 3340 μF and the load current is specified to be IL = 0.1 A . Diodes are available to
construct a half-wave and a bridge rectifier similar to the diagrams shown in fig.3 and
fig.5 . Assuming the diode forward voltage is Von = 0.7 V in all diodes, calculate the
following critical values from the equations .

Note that , Vp = 18 Vp , ω = 377 rad/s , T = 1/60 = 16.7 ms , C = 3340 μF and IL = 0.1 A.

Eqn. Half-Wave Rectifier vs. Eqn. Bridge Rectifier Merit

Fig.3 Vop = 18 – 0.7 = 17.3 Vp > (27) Vop = 18 – 1.4 = 16.6 Vp NO

(10) Vo(avg) = 17.3 V > (28) Vo(avg) = 16.6 V NO

(11) Vr = 0.5 Vpp > (29) Vr = 0.25 Vpp YES

( 12 ) PIV = 36 V > ( 30 ) PIV = 18 V YES

( 13 ) ID(avg) = 0.1 A > ( 31) ID(avg ) = 0.05 A (each diode) YES

(14 ) ΔT = 0.625 ms > ( 32 ) ΔT = 0.4421 ms N.A

(17 ) ID(pk) = 5.34 Ap > ( 33 ) ID(pk) = 3.777 Ap YES

(18 ) ID(pk) = 5.34 Ap > (34 ) ID(pk) = 3.777 Ap YES

(35 ) PD = 70 mW > (35 ) PD = 35 mW. YES

Comparison of the results show that generally in a Bridge rectifier the specification on
the diode rating is less stringent than that required for a half-wave rectifier . The bridge
output is only slightly less than that of a rival half-wave.

In both rectifiers discussed the output voltage can be inverted if the direction of all diodes
are reversed.

Other ac to dc conversions schemes exist which can produce positive and negative
outputs simultaneously . In some, even multiple voltage levels of approximately Vp ,
2Vp, 3Vp and 4Vp can be obtained; such schemes are called voltage multipliers.

Every rectifier is followed by some additional circuit called voltage regulator which will
effectively eliminate the residue ripple voltage. A simple Zener diode can be used as a
regulator which will eliminate the ripple and fluctuation of Vo(avg) due to main ac
supply deregulation. Example will be covered in the lecture as a class work.