INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH WRITING

LESSON 1: RESEARCH
TIME FRAME: APPROXIMATELY 60 MINUTES
AT THE END OF THIS LESSON THE STUDENTS MUST BE ABLE TO:

● Define what is “Research”

● Determine the importance of Research

● Formulate their own Research Problem/Titles

● Identify the major parts of a Research Paper

What is Research?
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of
knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of information to
increase understanding of a topic or issue. A research project may be an
expansion on past work in the field.

What is a Research Problem?

A research problem is a statement that addresses a gap in knowledge, challenge
or contradiction in your field. Scientists use research problems to identify and
define the aim of their study and analysis. You may decide to conduct research
based on a problem if you're interested in contributing to social or scientific
change or adding additional knowledge to an existing topic. A research problem
may also help identify key concepts and terms, overarching questions and
variables.

Things to keep in mind when formulating a Research Problem:

1. Identify a general area of interest
Assess how you might address the area of concern and whether you can develop
a research problem related to this issue.

If your research is action-based or applied, consider reaching out to those who

work in a relevant field to get feedback about problems to address, or follow up
on research that others have already started. Consider these various aspects
when choosing an area of interest:

● Contradictions between two or more theoretical perspectives

● Situations or natural relationships that are not well investigated

● Processes in an institution or organization that you and your research team

could improve
● Areas of concern by individuals who work or are experts in a particular
industry
2. Learn more about the problem
Ask yourself what you need to know about a particular topic before you begin
your study. Assess who or what it might affect and how your research could
address those relationships. Consider whether other research groups have
already tried to solve the problem you're interested in and how your approach
might differ.
3. Review the context of the information
Reviewing the context of your research involves defining and testing the
environmental variables in your project, which may help you create a clear and
focused research problem. By reviewing the context, you may easily estimate the
amount of data your research is likely to deliver.
4. Determine relationships between variables
Consider generating as many potential perspectives and variable interactions as
possible. Identifying the relationships between variables may be useful when
deciding the degree to which you can control them in your study and how they
might affect potential solutions to the problem you're addressing.

5. Select and include important variables

The research team summarizes how they plan to take these variables into
consideration and how they might influence the results of the study. Selecting the
most important variables can help the reader understand the trajectory of your
research and the potential impact of the solution.
6. Receive feedback and revise
Consider reaching out to mentors, teachers or industry experts for feedback on
your research problem. They may present you with new information to consider
or suggest you edit a particular aspect of your research design. Revising your
research problem can be a valuable step in creating impactful and precise
research. However, before asking for feedback, consider these aspects of your
study:

● Does your research problem allow for several solutions and outcomes?

● Did you create a study that has a testable hypothesis or theory?

● Did you define all the terms correctly?

● Is your research objective comprehensive?

● Are all parts of your project understandable?

How is Research Important?

Having a well-defined and practical research problem is important to help you
create a focused and comprehensive project. A research problem may help to
ensure that your project is innovative and unique and that you're conducting
research with an intentional purpose and justification. Research problems help
you create a plan for contributing relevant and new insights about a particular
challenge or issue. It's also important because it can help you identify steps to
take in the data-collection process and outline the research procedure.

Common Major Parts of a Research Paper:

A research paper can generally be split into five (5) parts, five (5) chapters and
these are the following:

● CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

o Background of the Study
o Statement of the Problem
o Significance of the Study
o Hypothesis
o Scope and Limitations of the Study
o Definition of Terms
● CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

● CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

o Method of Research/Research Design
o Subjects of the Study
o Description of the Research Instrument
o Data Gathering Procedures
 o Statistical Treatment Applied
● CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

● CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

o Summary of Findings
o Conclusions
o Recommendations

Some of the more miscellaneous parts commonly found on a research paper are
also listed below along with their functions:

● Table of Contents – contains paging of each part of the research paper.

● List of Tables/Figures – contains the paging of each table/figure that was

used in the study, if any.
● Bibliography – where all the sources are cited.

● Appendix – contains various attachments used within the research paper,

such as, but not limited to: survey questionnaires, interview questions,
forms, etc.
LESSON 2: RESEARCH CHAPTER I
TIME FRAME: APPROXIMATELY 60 MINUTES
AT THE END OF THIS LESSON THE STUDENTS MUST BE ABLE TO:

● Recount the different parts of the Chapter 1 of a Research Paper

● Make a proper Statement of the Problem for their Research

Paper
● Formulate both a Null and Alternative Hypothesis

● Write a complete Chapter 1 portion of a Research Paper

THE PARTS OF CHAPTER 1

Background of the Study
The background of the study establishes the context of the research. This section
explains why this particular research topic is important and essential to
understanding the main aspects of the study. Usually, the background forms the
first section of a research article/thesis and justifies the need for conducting the
study and summarizes what the study aims to achieve.
Tips on Writing the Background of the Study

A good way to start writing the background of the study is to try and answer the
following questions regarding one’s chosen topic:

● What is known about the broad topic?

● What are the gaps or missing links that need to be addressed?

● What is the significance of addressing those gaps?

 ● What are the rationale and hypothesis of your study?

As well as try to follow these tips:

● Don’t write a background that is too long or too short; focus on including all
the important details but write concisely.
● Don’t be ambiguous; writing in a way that does not convey the message to
the readers defeats the purpose of the background, so express yourself
keeping in mind that the reader does not know your research intimately.
● Don’t discuss unrelated themes; try and center your discussion around the
pivotal aspects of your research topic i.e. highlight the gaps in the
literature, state the novelty of the study, and the need to conduct the
study.
● Don’t be disorganized; not discussing the themes in a chronological manner
can confuse the reader about the progress in the field, so try and organize
your writing carefully.

Statement of the Problem

A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the
problem addressed by a study. The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is
to transform a generalized problem (something that bothers oneself; a perceived
lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one that can be resolved through
focused research and careful decision-making. Writing a statement of the
problem should help one clearly identify the purpose of the research project that
will be proposed. Often, the statement of the problem will also serve as the basis
for the introductory section of one’s final proposal, directing the reader’s
attention quickly to the issues that your proposed project will address and
providing the reader with a concise statement of the proposed project itself.

A good Statement of the Problem can be characterized as such:

1. It should address a gap in knowledge.

2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of
research.
3. It should lead to further research.
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of
data.
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and
resources.
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical.

The Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your
research was needed. It's a justification of the importance of your work and
impact it has on your research field, it's contribution to new knowledge and how
others will benefit from it.

The Hypothesis

What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that
one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous
observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific
theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used
interchangeably, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A
working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further
research, in a process beginning with an educated guess or thought. There are
generally two types of hypotheses used in a research paper.

TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

The NULL HYPOTHESIS reflects that there will be no observed effect in our
experiment. In a mathematical formulation of the null hypothesis, there will
typically be an equal sign. This hypothesis is denoted by H0. If the null hypothesis
is not rejected, then we must be careful to say what this means. The thinking on
this is similar to a legal verdict. Just because a person has been declared "not
guilty", it does not mean that he is innocent. In the same way, just because we
failed to reject a null hypothesis it does not mean that the statement is true.
The ALTERNATIVE or EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS reflects that there will be an
observed effect for our experiment. In a mathematical formulation of the
alternative hypothesis, there will typically be an inequality, or not equal to
symbol. This hypothesis is denoted by either Ha or by H1. The alternative
hypothesis is what we are attempting to demonstrate in an indirect way by the
use of our hypothesis test. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then we accept the
alternative hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is not rejected, then we do not
accept the alternative hypothesis.
Basically, the difference between a null and alternative hypothesis is that the
former contradicts the research question, while the latter affirms it. In short, a
null hypothesis is a negative statement relative to the research question, and an
alternative hypothesis is a positive statement. Moreover, it is important to note
that developing the null hypothesis at the beginning of the assignment is for
prediction purposes. As such, the research work answers the research question
and confirms or disapproves of the hypothesis. Hence, some of the tips that
students and researchers need to know when developing a null hypothesis
include:

● Formulate a research question that specifies the relationship between an

independent variable and a dependent variable.
● Develop an alternative hypothesis that says a relationship that exists
between the variables.
● Develop a null hypothesis that says a relationship that does not exist
between the variables.
● Conduct the research to answer the research question, which allows the
confirmation of a disapproval of a null hypothesis.

Examples:
1. Do physical exercises help individuals to age gracefully?
A Null Hypothesis (H0): Physical exercises are not a guarantee to graceful old age.
An Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Engaging in physical exercises enables individuals
to remain healthy and active into old age.
2. What are the implications of therapeutic interventions in the fight against
substance abuse?
H0: Therapeutic interventions are of no help in the fight against substance abuse.
H1: Exposing individuals with substance abuse disorders to therapeutic
interventions helps control and even stop their addictions.
3. Does income inequality contribute to crime in high-density urban areas?
H0: There is no correlation between income inequality and incidences of crime in
high-density urban areas.
H1: The high crime rates in high-density urban areas are due to the incidence of
income inequality in those areas.

4. Do assistive devices and technologies lessen the mobility challenges of older

adults with a stroke?
H0: Assistive devices and technologies do not provide any assistance to the
mobility of older adults diagnosed with a stroke.
H1: Assistive devices and technologies enhance the mobility of older adults
diagnosed with a stroke.
5. Do high school grades determine future success?
H0: There is no correlation between how one performs in high school and their
success level in life.
H1: Attaining high grades in high school positions one for greater success in the
future personal and professional lives.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The topic and boundaries of the research problem to be investigated are defined
by the scope and delimitations of a thesis, dissertation, or research paper. The
scope of your study specifies how thoroughly you intend to investigate the
research question, as well as the parameters under which it will operate in
relation to the population and timeframe. A study's delimitations are the factors
and variables that are not included in the investigation. In other words, they are
the limits that the researcher establishes in terms of study duration, population
size, and participant type, etc.

Tips on Writing Scope and Delimitation

When writing a scope you should be able to answer the (W's and H);

Why – the research's overall goals and objectives (purpose).

What – the subject to be investigated, as well as the variables included.

Where – the study's location or setting, i.e. where the data will be collected and
to which entity the data will belong.

When – the timeframe for collecting the data.

Who – the study's subject matter and the population from which they will be
drawn upon. This population must be large enough to allow for generalizations.

How – a description of the research design (e.g., whether it is quantitative

research, qualitative research, or a case study), methodology, research tools, and
analysis techniques.

Importance of the Scope and Delimitations of the Study

Since the delimitation parameters are under the researcher's control, readers
must understand why they were chosen, what alternatives were available, and
why these alternatives were rejected.

For example, if you are collecting data from three different but similar
experiments, the reader must understand how and why you chose the one you
have.

Your justifications should always be linked back to your research question, as all
delimitations should be the result of attempting to make your study more
relevant to your scope. As a result, when writing a paper, the scope and
delimitations are usually considered together.

In addition, there is a difference between delimitation and limitation.

Delimitations are boundaries of a research determined by the researcher's
decision on what to include and exclude. They focus your research to make it
more manageable and relevant to what you're trying to prove. Limitations are
aspects of the research design or methodology that are beyond your control but
have an impact on your research findings. In simple words, limitations are what
the researcher cannot do and delimitations are what the researcher will not do.

Definition of Terms

The Definition of Terms contains the various key terms that were used within the
study that may have a different meaning given the context of the research; these
terms must be listed down along with their definition within the research paper
to avoid confusion or conflict with the general use of the words.
LESSON 3: LITERATURE, STUDIES AND CITATIONS
TIME FRAME: APPROXIMATELY 60 MINUTES
AT THE END OF THIS LESSON THE STUDENTS MUST BE ABLE TO:

● Determine types of sources

● Cite using different citation formats

● Differentiate studies from literature

● Write their own Review of Related Literature

Different Types of Sources

PRIMARY SOURCES - are first hand documents that provide direct evidence on
your topic. The Library of Congress refers to them as the “raw materials of history,
original documents and objects which were created at the time under study. They
are different from secondary sources, accounts or interpretations of events
created by someone without first-hand experience”. A primary source is most
often created during the time the events you are studying occurred, such as
newspaper articles from the period, correspondence, diplomatic records, original
research reports and notes, diaries etc. They may also include items created after
the events occurred, but that recount them such as autobiographies and oral
histories.
SECONDARY SOURCES - are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of
hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary
sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence.

Different Citation Styles

MLA Style - was developed by the Modern Language Association, hence the name
of the citation style, now on its 8 th edition. This citation style is especially popular
in language and literary studies. MLA uses parenthetical citations containing the
author and page number.

APA Style - was created by the American Psychological Association and was
originally used in psychology and the social sciences. Today many other
disciplines also use it. APA’s citation style uses an author-date system of
parenthetical citation. APA 6th edition is widely used throughout various kinds
of research.
Chicago Style - Exists in two different styles but both published by The Chicago
Manual of Style, the two different styles are as different depending on their
general usage and format:
Chicago A: You cite the source in a footnote or endnote.
Chicago B: You use a parenthetical author-date citation in the text.

Above is an example of a Chicago A Style along with its parts; this type of citation,
if used, can be found before or after a piece of literature.
This is an example of a Chicago B In Text
citation; In Text citations can be found
within the pieces of literature itself, usually when the pieces are excerpt from the
original source.

Above is an example of a Full Detail Chicago B style of citation; these are found at
the end of the document, usually on the bibliography or on the list of sources.

Two Types of Related Resources in Research

Before defining both, they can be split into two (2) depending on where they
came from geographically; they may be classified as: 1. Local, if the inquiry was
conducted in the Philippines; and 2. Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.
RELATED LITERATURE
These materials are classified as 1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and 2.
Foreign, if printed in other lands. Studies, inquiries, or investigations already
conducted to which the present proposed study is relate or has some bearing or
similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses,
and dissertations.
RELATED STUDIES
Studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present
proposed study is relate or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually
unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.
Plausible Source of Information Online
1. MENDELEY
2. SCIENCE DIRECT

3. ELSEVIER

4. RESEARCH GATE
LESSON 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
TIME FRAME: APPROXIMATELY 120 MINUTES
AT THE END OF THIS LESSON THE STUDENTS MUST BE ABLE TO:

● Identify different basic types of Research Design

● Differentiate Population from Sampling

● Use appropriate Sampling Methods

● Know what Research Instruments are

● Gather data effectively

● Know the commonly used statistical tools in Research

What is Research Design?

We can understand the term "research" to mean a collection of data that includes
critical information by taking research methodologies into account. In other
words, it is a collection of information or data that has been explored by
formulating a hypothesis and then coming up with substantive findings in an
organized manner. Research can be conducted on both an academic and a
scientific level. Let's start with an explanation of what a research design is.

Major types of Research Design

Taking its dynamics into account, the research design is divided into two distinct
perspectives, namely There are two types of research designs: quantitative
research design and qualitative research design. Furthermore, there are four main
characteristics of research design: reliability, neutrality, validity, and
generalization. Moreover, a researcher should have a firm grasp on how their
project can be incorporated into the research design.

Quantitative Research Design

In Quantitative Research Design, a researcher examines the various variables in a

project while including numbers and statistics to analyze its findings. The primary
method of data collection, measurement, and meta-analysis is the use of
graphics, figures, and pie charts.

Qualitative Research Design

This type of research is completely contrary to quantitative research design. It is

explanatory in nature, and it is always looking for answers to "What's" and
"How's." It primarily focuses on why a particular theory exists and what the
respondent's response to it would be. This enables a researcher to reach a
conclusion based on accurate findings. Case studies are primarily used in
Qualitative Research Design to comprehend various social complexities.

Below are the differences between the two research design.

Subjects of the Study

A research subject is a person who takes part in research. To help answer the
question under study, information (or 'data') is collected from or about the
individual. Human subjects, research participants, and study volunteers are all
terms used to describe research subjects.

Population vs Sample

A RESEARCH POPULATION is a large group of people or objects that are the focus
of a scientific inquiry. Research is carried out for the benefit of the general public.
However, due to the large size of populations, researchers are frequently unable
to test every individual in the population because it is too costly and time-
consuming. This is why scientists rely on sampling techniques.
A SAMPLE, in research terms, is a group of people, objects, or items that are
taken from a larger population for measurement. The sample should be
representative of the population to ensure that we can generalize the findings
from the research sample to the population as a whole.

What are Sampling Techniques/Methods?

Sampling is a technique for selecting individual members or a subset of the

population in order to make statistical inferences and estimate population
characteristics. Various sampling methods are widely used by researchers in their
research so that they do not have to research the entire population to collect
actionable insights.

Types of Sampling

Probability Sampling

is a sampling technique in which a researcher selects a few criteria and randomly

selects members of a population. With this selection parameter, all members
have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

Non-probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, the researcher selects study participants at random.

This sampling method is not a predetermined or fixed selection process. As a
result, it is difficult for all elements of a population to have equal chances of being
included in a sample.

Tips in Choosing the Right Sampling Technique/Method

The effectiveness of a sampling method depends on many factors. Because these

factors interact in complex ways, the "best" sampling method is seldom obvious.
Good researchers use the following strategy to identify the best sampling
method.
 ● List the research goals (usually some combination of accuracy, precision,
and/or cost).
● Identify potential sampling methods that might effectively achieve those
goals.
● Test the ability of each method to achieve each goal.

Choose the method that does the best job of achieving the goals.

Sampling Size Calculations

In getting the proper amount of sample from a population, researchers use the
Slovin’s Formula, it is as follows:

Where:

n is the Sample Size.

N is the Population.

e is the Margin of Error.

Margin of Error

Margin of Error is a statistical way of measuring how likely the result of something
may be off or may vary from the real value itself, it is used to ascertain that there
is wiggle room for mistakes within the study (in case of unknown variables).

In getting the Margin of Error, we use the equation below:

Where:

Z is the Z-score of the confidence level of the study.

(Confidence level is commonly set by the researcher, it is a value to

gauge the trustworthiness of their study)

P (P-hat) is the Sample Proportion.

n is the Sample Size

Below is the table of values for Z-score

Sample Proportion

In statistics, the letter "p" denotes the probability of a certain event occurring or a
certain parameter being true for a certain population, but when a population is
large, it may be impractical or impossible to measure it directly. As an alternative,
statisticians take a sample that they can measure, and they denote the result as
"p-hat," which is written as a p with a triangular hat over it (^).

It can be solved using:

X
P=
n
Where:

P is the Sample Proportion

X is the number of occurrences for an event (How many times has it

occurred)

n is the Sample Size

Research/Data Gathering Tools

Data collection tools are the devices or instruments of gathering data, such as a
paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system.

In addition, here are some of the data collection techniques used by the Data
Collection Tools:

● Interviews

● Questionnaires
 ● Case Studies

● Usage Data

● Checklists

● Surveys

● Observations

● Documents and records

● Focus groups

● Oral histories

Moreover, Different Data Collection tools use different techniques as their

working principles and not all the tools are capable of functioning on all these
techniques. These tools are developed especially for gathering specific types of
information applying individual data collection methods.

Data Gathering Procedure

There are many different techniques for collecting different types of quantitative
data, but there’s a fundamental process you’ll typically follow, no matter which
method of data collection you’re using. This process consists of the following five
steps.

1. Determine What Information You Want to Collect

The first thing you need to do is choose what details you want to collect. You’ll
need to decide what topics the information will cover, who you want to collect it
from and how much data you need. Your goals — what you hope to accomplish
using your data — will determine your answers to these questions. As an
example, you may decide to collect data about which type of articles are most
popular on your website among visitors who are between the ages of 18 and 34.
You might also choose to gather information about the average age of all of the
customers who bought a product from your company within the last month.

2. Set a Timeframe for Data Collection

Next, you can start formulating your plan for how you’ll collect your data. In the
early stages of your planning process, you should establish a timeframe for your
data collection. You may want to gather some types of data continuously. When it
comes to transactional data and website visitor data, for example, you may want
to set up a method for tracking that data over the long term. If you’re tracking
data for a specific campaign, however, you’ll track it over a defined period. In
these instances, you’ll have a schedule for when you’ll start and end your data
collection.

3. Determine Your Data Collection Method

At this step, you will choose the data collection method that will make up the
core of your data-gathering strategy. To select the right collection method, you’ll
need to consider the type of information you want to collect, the timeframe over
which you’ll obtain it and the other aspects you determined. We’ll go over various
methods you can use in the next section of this article.

4. Collect the Data

Once you have finalized your plan, you can implement your data collection
strategy and start collecting data. You can store and organize your data in your
DMP. Be sure to stick to your plan and check on its progress regularly. It may be
useful to create a schedule for when you will check in with how your data
collection is proceeding, especially if you are collecting data continuously. You
may want to make updates to your plan as conditions change and you get new
information.

5. Analyze the Data and Implement Your Findings

Once you’ve collected all of your data, it’s time to analyze it and organize your
findings. The analysis phase is crucial because it turns raw data into valuable
insights that you can use to enhance your marketing strategies, products and
business decisions. You can use the analytics tools built into our DMP to help with
this step. Once you’ve uncovered the patterns and insights in your data, you can
implement the findings to improve your business.

Ethics in Data Gathering

Data collection is central part of community health improvement efforts.

Sometimes, the aim is to learn more about a problem as it is experienced by a
specific group of people; other times it is to see if people are better off after
participating in an intervention. Most data are collected through surveys,
interviews, or observation. It’s important to keep in mind the following when you
collect data:

● It is good practice to let people know who you are (your name, organization
and reason for collecting data when you ask them if they would like to
participate.
● You should have permission from participants (people providing the data)
and they should be made aware that their involvement is voluntary.
Participants are free to withdraw from any active data collection or
intervention program at any point without pressure or fear of retaliation.
● Avoid or minimize anything that will cause physical or emotional harm to
participants. Make participants aware of any potential harms prior to their
participation.
● Try to remain neutral and unbiased. Don’t let your personal preconceptions
or opinions interfere with the data collection process.
● Collecting data (i.e. through surveys) is often done under the assumption
that information provided is confidential and the findings will be
anonymous. You should let participants know when you will have to break
confidentiality (e.g. in the case of harm to themselves or someone else) and
whether results will be anonymous or not.
● When collecting data, try to avoid taking advantage of easy to access
groups simply because they are there (this is called “convenience
sampling”). Data should be collected from those that most help us answer
our questions.
● Be respectful of people’s time and when possible, compensate them for it.

● Be sure to protect the data you collect from people. Do not leave anything
with personal information in a place that can easily be accessed by people
who do not need to see the data (e.g. the back seat of your car). If possible,
keep the information in a secure, or locked location.
● After data are analyzed, it is always good to share the results back to the
participants.
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