Chapter –one

Vectors

Introduction

Suppose you have an appointments 300KM far from your living

place on the surface of the earth, there are infinite such places. The set of all
such points gives a circle of radius 300KM center at your living places.
Therefore you ask the direction of the appointment from your initial place.

Your living place

Such quantities need magnitude (distance in the above example) and also
related to a definite direction.

Physical quantities such as mass and length are completely determined

in terms of magnitude ( in terms of specific unit )such quantity are called
scalars. Forces and velocities are quantities which need magnitude and
direction such quantities are called vectors.

Quantities that have both magnitude and direction are described

mathematically by vectors. In this chapter we will study vectors, including
the description of lines and planes in space.

1
1.1 Definition of Point in n-space ;-

A number can be used to represent a point on a line once a unit length is

selected. A pair of numbers (x,y) can be used to represent a point in the
plane. Triple of numbers (x,y,z) can be used to represent a point in space
that is 3-dimensional space .Thus we can say that a single number
represent a point in 1-space, a couple represent a point in 2-space, a triple
represent a point in 3-space . Although we cannot draw a picture to the
quadruple of numbers (x1, x2,x3, x4) this is point in 4 space from this we can
see that a point in n-space to be an n-tuple of numbers (x 1,x2,x3….., xn )

(x,y) (x, y, z)

2-space 3-space

Definition Given a positive integer n an ordered n-tuple is a sequence of n

real numbers denoted by . The complete set of all ordered

n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted by

Example

1. (3, 4) is point in R2

2. (3, 1, 4) is point in R3

3. (-2, 3, -1,-5, 4) is point in R5

4. (-2, 3, -1,-5…………..) is point in Rn

2
Exercise :-Locate the point A(2,4,5) in space using the reference axis X,Y
and Z

1.2 vectors in Rn

Definition: A vector is a quantity or phenomenon that has two independent

properties: magnitude and direction. The term also denotes the
mathematical or geometrical representation of such a quantity. A vector is
an order triple (x1,x2,x3…..,xn ) of number the number x1,x2,x3…..,xn are called the
component of the vector. The vector associated with the directed line
segments with initial point P=( x 1,x2,x3….xn) and terminal point Q
=(y1,y2,y3….yn) is(y1-x1,y2-x2,…yn-xn) and is denoted by ⃗
PQ .

Consider two located vector ⃗

AB and ⃗
CD then if

i)⃗
AB and ⃗
CD are equal then B-A=D-C

ii)⃗ CD the ⃗
AB // ⃗ AB =k ⃗
CD for some constant k

Notation; vectors are denoted by bold face letters a b y c d or by an arrow

above the letter notation example vector a represented as a or

A vector is represented by a directed line segment. The directions represent

the direction of the vectors. The lengths represent the magnitude of the
vector.

10cm

A a B

A is initial point of vector B is its terminal point here is vector a (a⃗ ) or

vector ⃗
AB with length or magnitude 10 cm .

Note: The formula for the distance between two points

3
If p=( x0, y0,z0), Q=( x1,y1,z1) is

The three basic laws governing the distance between two points in space are

1.|PQ|=0 if and only if P=Q

2. =

3.|PQ|=| PR|+|RQ| for any point R in between P and Q

Exercise; Find the distance from the origin to the point p(3,4,5)

Exercise; let p= (-1, 3, 6) and Q= (4, 0, 5) find the distance between P and
Q.

Exercise; Show that the point (3, 0, 2) is equidistant from the points (1,-
1, 4) and (5, 1,0)

Exercise; Find the perimeter of the triangle with vertices (-

1,1,2) (2,0,3)and(3,4,5)

Magnitude of the vector, it was mentioned that a vector is usually

represented by an arrow, were the arrow head indicates the direction and
the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector .Thus to find
the magnitude of a vector, it will be sufficient to find the distance between
the initial point and the terminal point of the vector in the coordinate space.
Example:-if the initial point of vector u⃗ is at p( x0, y0,z0) and the terminal
point is at Q( x1,y1,z1) then the magnitude of vector u is

|u⃗|=

Position vector; vector that have a special location are called position
vectors. Vectors that are not related to a fixed position are called free
vectors. All position (located) vector have the same initial point that is the
origin. We name position vectors by the coordinate of their terminal points.

4
Magnitude of position vectors

If v is a position vector with terminal point (v1 ,v2) then we write v=(v1 ,v2)

|v| = √(v1)2 + (v2)2

N.B; the length of v is the distance of (v1, v2) from (0,0)

Zero or null vector; is a vector with magnitude zero (assume a vector with
the same initial and terminal points)

Unit vector: are vectors with magnitude 1 unit

Example. Find the magnitude of vectors u and w,

Solution We first find the length of each vector using the distance formula:
|u| = √[2 - (-1)]2 + (4 - 3)2 = √9 + 1 = √10,
|r| = √[0 - (-3)]2 + [0 - (-1)]2 = √10,

|w| = √(4 - 1)2 + [-1 - (-2)]2 = √9 + 1 = √10.

Remark: If a is a non-zero vectors, then a=-a are opposite vectors

5
Exercise

Find the magnitude and direction of the following positional vectors

1. (1, 1) 4. (- ,1)

2. (-1, ) 5. ( , )

3. (2,0) . 6 (0.-4

Combination of vectors

Number can be added, subtracted and multiplied; vector can be combined in

similar ways

Definition: - let a= (a1,a2,a3….an) and b= (b1,b2,b3…bn) be vectors and let c be

any arbitrary number then we define the sum a+b the difference a-b and
the scalar multiple ca by

a+b=(a1+b1, a2+b2 , a3+b3…… an+bn)

a-b=(a1-b1, a2-b2 , a3-b3.. an-bn)

ca=(ca1, ca2 , ca3,…can)

Example: let a= (1,-3,2) and b=(-2,-6,0)

Then

1) a+b =(-1,-9,2) 2) a-b =(3,3,2) 3) b=(-1,-3,0)

6
 Basic properties of vector Addition

For all vector u,v and w

1) v+u =u+v

2) (u+v)+ w= u+(v+ w)

3) u+0= 0+u

4) c(u+v)=cu + cv

5) u+(-v)=-v+u

6) if c and a are numbers then (c+a)u=cu +au and (ca)u=c(au)

7) if we late o=(0,0,0,…,0) be the point all of whose coordinates are 0,

then o+u = u +o for all u

8) 1.u=u

Exercise 5;

Let u=(2,-3,4) v=(0,-1,5)

Then find a) u+v b) v+u c) u+(-v) d)3 u e)-4 v

1.3. Scalars Product, Norm of a vector

Definition: Norm of Vector

Norm in Rn

2 3
n |a|= |a 2 + a 2 + a 3 +. .. a
Let a be a vector in R were a= (a1, a2, a3…an) 1 n2

|a| is the distance from the origin to the point (a1, a2,a3…an)

7
Example1: - let u⃗ = (0, 3, 4, 6) then |u|= |0+9+16+36 =√ 61

Example2: - letu⃗ = (a1, a2, a3…an)

⃗v = (b1, b2, b3…bn) then

‖⃗u −⃗v‖=|(a1−b 1 )2+(a2−b 2 )2 +(a 3−b3 )2+....+(an−b n )2

‖⃗u −⃗v‖ is the distance betweenu⃗ and ⃗v

Exercise:-let v⃗ = (2, 4, 5, 1) and u⃗ =(−1,,4 ,3,−2)

Find

1.
|⃗v| 2.
‖⃗u −⃗v‖ 3. 4. 5. 6.

n
Theorem:-let v⃗ be a non-zero vector in R

1.
|⃗v|>0

2.
|⃗
αv|=α|⃗v|

Theorem:-let be a non-zero vector then is a unit vector in the direction

0f

Exercise1: - Find a unit vector in the direction of v if v= (-2, 3, 1)

Exercise2: Find k if =3 where = (1, 2, 4)

Scalars Product

With the same n-dimensional space let a=(a1 ,a2,a3,…..,an) and

b =(b1 ,b2,b3,…..,bn) be two vectors .we define their scalar or dot product

8
 a.b to be a1b1+ a2b2+ a3b3+ a4b4+ ….. +anbn

Example let a= (1,2) and b=(3,4)

Then

a.b =1.3+2.4=11

Example = let p= (1, 3,-2) q= (-1, 4,-3)

q.p =17

NOTE; the dot product satisfies many of the laws that holds for real
numbers for example

If a,b and c are three vectors then

1. a b= b. a

2. a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c

3. c(a.b)= a (cb)= (ca) b

4. if b=0,zero vector then b. b=0 otherwise b. b=

NOTE:-The dot product also allows us to come up with a convenient

formula to find the angle between two vectors .This formula uses the laws
of cosines, which is a geometric rule valid in R 2 and R3

Theorem: let a, b be two vectors in R2 (R3) and θ is the angle between a

and b then

a.b = cos

Thus the angle between two vectors in space can be rewriting the above
a.b
equation in the form of cosθ =
|a||b|

Exercise: find the angle between the vector a and b

9
 1. a= (2,-1, 2) b= (1,-1,0)

2. a= (0,0,3) b= (2,0,0)

3. a= (1,1,0) b= (1,0,1)

Theorem: let a, b be two non-zero vectors in Rn

a.b=0 if a is orthogonal or perpendicular to b

Exercise: show that the two vectors are perpendicular

a= (-4, 5, 7) b = (1,-2, 2)

Theorem: (Pythagoras theorem) if a and b be are orthogonal vectors then

= +

Exercise1:-Find value(s) of t if the vector u=(-3,t,2)and w=(-1,t,-6)

are orthogonal to each other

Exercise2: The norm of a vector perpendicular to both vectors v= (1, 1, 2)

and v= (-1, 0, 2)

1.4 Cross Product of vectors

The second type of product of vector is cross product unlike the dot product
the cross product of a vector is vector.

Definition: - let u= (a,b,c) v=(x,y,z) be vector in v and u denoted by

v×u is defined as

v×u = , v×u =((bz-cy), -(az-cx) ,(ay-bx))

Example: let u= (2,-1, 3) v= (-1,-2, 4) then u v

10
u v= ,u v =((-1×4)-(3×-2)),-((2×4)-(3×-1)),((2×-2)-(-1×-1)))

u v = (2,-11,-5)

Exercise; let a= (3, 5, 2) b= (2,-1, 4)

Find 1)a×b

2) b×a

Theorem: let u, v and w denote arbitrary vectors and k be any constant

number

1. u ×v is a vector

2. u ×v is orthogonal to both u and v

3. u×0=0 ×u

4. u×u=0

5. u ×v=-(v× u)

6(kw)×v=w(kv)

7. u×(v+w)= u×v +u× w)

8. (u+v) ×w =u×w+v×w

Theorem: let a and b be two nonzero vector then

 a .(a×b)=0 and b.( a×b)=0 consequently if a×b≠0 then a×b is

perpendicular to both a and b

 If is angle between a and b

 a×b=0 if and only if a and b are parallel

11
Note

The vectors v and u form a parallelogram with sides of length .

The area of this parallelogram can be calculated as

. We will now show that this expression is also equal to the

magnitude of w, the cross product of v  u.

 The area of a parallelogram with adjacent side a and b is

 The triangle having a and b as two of its sides has an area one half

of the area of this parallelogram or

Exercise

1. What is a×b if a=(3,2,-4) b=(4,5,2) what is the area of the

parallelogram formed by the vector a and b

2. Find the area of parallelogram with adjacent side

a= (3,2,6) b=(5,1,2)

1.5. Lines and Planes

12
13