RM Mambwe
Subject Content
Part I: Introduction
Module 1: Sources of water supply (WER260S)
Module 2: Water abstraction (WER260S)
Module 3: Revision of WER260S (pipe flow, conservation laws, losses &
open channel flow)
Part II: Water Distribution Systems
Module 1: Water Demand (WER260S + self-study through tutorial)
Module 2: Single pipe design (Revision of WER260S + new work)
Module 3: Pumps
Module 4: Water Distribution System (Hardy-Cross method)
Module 5: Service reservoir
Module 6: Open channel
Part III: Sewer design & sanitation
Module 1: Sanitary sewer
Module 2: Storm water sewer
Chapter 2: Potable Water Distribution System
1. Introduction
The main objectives of water supply system are to:
To supply adequate quantities of water to meet demands
To supply water of non-degraded quality
Design criteria of water distribution systems (hydraulics
and non hydraulics design)
Planning cannot be excluded
Components of Water Supply System
Storage
Stand post
Secondary storage
Main line Branch line
Source
Treatment Pump
Primary storage
Sub-Main line
2. Methods of distribution
The main purpose of water distribution network is to supply
water to the users according to their demand with adequate
pressure.
Water distribution systems are composed of three major
components:
pumping stations,
storage tanks and
Transmission & distribution pipes
Other components are:
Valves
Fire hydrants
Water meters
3. Water transmission
Water transmission in water supply is achieved by various types of pipes,
joints, fittings and connections that operate together.
Pipes are classified according to the purpose they serve as follows:
Trunk mains (250-1500mm): transport water from the treatment point to
the distribution area. Consumers can be connected but these cases are
rare.
Secondary mains (150-600mm): provides the basic structure of the
distribution network, linking reservoirs and trunk main. Large consumers
can be connected.
Distribution pipes (80-200mm): carry water from secondary mains to
smaller consumers. These pipes are laid in the smaller streets and roads.
Services pipes (<25mm): take water from the distribution pipes to
consumers
Methods of layout of distribution pipes or network configuration: dead-
end method, grid-iron method, circular method, radial method –
branched network, grid network, combined network. Explain each
method (Notes PP176-182).
Methods of transmission
Gravity
Pumping
Combined (gravity and pumping)
4. Water supply system
Water supply system is classified based on the duration of
supply. These include:
Continuous
Providing water throughout the day (for 24 hours)
Most ideal system of supply & should be adopted as far as possible
Intermittent
Supplying water during fixed hours of day only
The usual period is about 1-4 hours in the morning and about the same
period in the afternoon.
5. Methods of layout
Methods of layout of distribution pipes or network configuration can be:
Dead-end method
Grid-iron method
Circular method
Methods of layout
Methods of layout of distribution pipes or network configuration can be:
Radial method
Combined network
Methods of layout
Methods of layout of distribution pipes or network configuration can be:
Branched network
or
Looped network
6. Design of water distribution network
Basic design principles
Locations and quantities of supply and demand points
Define main pipe routes (topography, distances, barriers,
access for O&M, future extension …)
Network configuration and schematisation
Network configuration
o Serial networks (no branches or loops, has 1 source of water),
couple of intermediate nodes and 1 dead end; direction of flow is
fixed from one source to end system.
o Branched networks (combination of serial networks)
o Grid networks
o Combined networks
Network schematisation - Facilitate design and used for large
systems; its use requires experience
Analysis of water distribution networks
1. Hydraulics of a single pipe
Pipe analysis involves the determination of
o Flow rates
o Pressure heads
These should satisfy:
o The mass (continuity) & energy conservation equations
Q1= Q2 and E1 = E2 + ΔE
𝑣𝑣12 𝑝𝑝1 𝑣𝑣22 𝑝𝑝2
𝑧𝑧1 + + + ℎ𝑝𝑝 = 𝑧𝑧2 + + +ℎ𝐿𝐿
2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
(elevation, velocity, pressure & pump heads including hL – head
loss - composed of friction & separation losses)
Analysis of water distribution networks
Losses in a pipe
Friction losses
10.68𝐿𝐿 1.852 - L is the length of the pipe,
ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 1.852 4.87 𝑄𝑄
Hazen - Williams 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝐷𝐷 - D is the diameter
- Q is the flow rate.
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿
Darcy-Weisbach ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄 ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄2
12.1𝐷𝐷5 3.03𝐷𝐷 5
Manning
10.29𝑁𝑁 2 𝐿𝐿 2
ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄
𝐷𝐷16/3
Minor losses
So hL = hf + hm
Hardy-Cross Method
a) Head balance method
The method was created by Prof. Hardy-Cross in 1936
It is applicable to a closed loop pipe network
After schematising the network, successive calculation of the loops is
executed.
Steps used are:
• Identify loops
• Assign estimated flows to each pipe (to satisfy the continuity equation)
• Determine headloss in each pipe
• Check the sum of headlosses along each loop
• Correct the sum of headloss along loops (if out of requested accuracy)
• Repeat the procedure with new flows (Q+ΔQ) until the requested accuracy
is satisfied
o If a pipe is common to 2 loops, apply correction as follows:
BE = (Q+ ∆Q1 - ∆Q2) ……. Loop 1: ∆Q = ∆Q1 - ∆Q2)
EB = (- Q + ∆Q2 - ∆Q1) ……Loop 2: ∆Q = ∆Q2 - ∆Q1)
• Determine pressure in nodes after headlosses and flows are iterated
Hardy Cross Method
b) Flow balance method c) Computer application
The method was created by Cornish (3 years Advantages
after Hardy – Cross) Warning: the use of computers doesn’t
In this method, identification of loops is not relieve users’ liability for the accuracy
required. and quality of the design calculation.
The method is as follows: Variety of computer software has been
• Assign estimated piezometric heads to each developed:
node except for reference pressure node
• Static software: stimulate network
• Determine headlosses as nodal head
differences for each pipe
operation within a certain period of
• Determine flow in each pipe
time by calculating a number of
• Check inflows and outflows at each node
consecutive steady states.
• Correct the sum of inflows and outflows. If - WaterCAD
out of requested accuracy - Epanet
• Repeat the procedure using new heads - Pipemate
(H+ΔH) • Dynamic software
How to compute using the head balancing method?
The values of discharge in all the pipes branching points are assumed keeping in
mind that algebraic sum of the discharges entering and leaving a junction is zero
(∑Q = 0).
The corresponding head losses in one closed circuit are calculated by using
any flow formula.
If clockwise flows and associated headlosses are assigned positive sign, naturally,
anti-clock wise flows and associated headlosses will be of negative sign.
The total headloss or head gain ∑hf round the circuit may be computed with
due regard to the sign.
If ∑hf is zero, it means correct balance has been achieved in the circuit.
Σ𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
The value of the quantity n( ) is calculated for each pipe and results
𝑄𝑄
added together without any regard to the sign.
The initial assumed flow is then corrected (∆Q ) by the following formula
Σ𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
ΔQ = - 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, where n is the power (2 for D-W eqn, and 1.852 for H-W eqn).
𝑛𝑛Σ
𝑄𝑄
Pressure in a pipe - nodes
Pressure at nodes is determined after head losses and flows are iterated.
Apply the Bernoulli equation for adjacent nodes.
