Revisiting Digital Twins: Origins, Fundamentals and Practices

Jiehan Zhou1, Shouhua Zhang1,2, Mu Gu3

1 University of Oulu (Pentti Kaiteran katu 1, Oulu, 90570, Finland)

2 Heibei University (No.180 Wusi Dong Road, Baoding, 071002, China)
3 Beijing aerospace smart manufacturing technology development Co., Ltd.
Email：[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract: The Digital Twins (DT) has quickly become a hot topic since it was proposed. It not only
appears in all kinds of commercial propaganda, but also is widely quoted by academic circles. However,
there are misstatements and misuse of the term DT in business and academy. This paper revisits Digital
Twins and defines it to be a more advanced system/product/service modelling and simulation
environment that combines the most modern Information Communication Technology (ICTs) and
engineering mechanisms digitization, and characterized by system/product/service life cycle
management, physically geometric visualization, real-time sensing and measurement of system operating
conditions, predictability of system performance/safety/lifespan, complete engineering mechanisms-
based simulations. The idea of Digital Twins originates from modelling and simulation practices of
engineering informatization, including Virtual Manufacturing (VM), Model Predictive Control (MPC),
and Building Information Model (BIM). Based on the two-element VM model, we propose a three-
element model to represent Digital Twins. Digital Twins does not have its own unique technical
characteristics; the existing practices of Digital Twins are extensions of the engineering informatization
embracing modern ICTs. These insights clarify the origin of Digital Twins and its technical essentials.

Keywords: Virtual Manufacturing, Digital Twins, Modelling and Simulation, Digitization,

Computational Engineering

1. Introduction
With the in-depth integration of computer, information and communication technology (ICT),
mechanical engineering, automation and other disciplines, and the unremitting pursuit of human beings
for the ultimate performance, such as product innovation, time-to-market, cost, quality, environmental
protection, and energy-saving, researchers and practitioners in the industry put forward demands on
advanced modelling and simulation environments for computational engineering. Following the
introduction of the concept of Virtual Manufacturing (VM) thirty years ago (Onosato and Iwata,1993),
its derived term, Digital Twins (DT), was born recently, and frequently cited by business and academic
articles.
Gartner had listed DT as one trend of the top ten strategic technology for three consecutive years
(2017 - 2019) (Liu et al., 2021). GE has built a DT system of capital flow based on Predix platform, in
which engineers and operators can respectively predict the product life cycle (Todorovic et al., 2016).
Siemens proposed to use DT to help manufacturing enterprises build an entire production line in the
digital space, and digitalize the entire cycle from product design to manufacturing in the physical space
(Tao et al., 2018a). In November 2017, the Intelligent Manufacturing Alliance of China officially listed
DT as one of the top ten scientific and technological advances in intelligent manufacturing (Wu et al.,
2021).
DT has also received extensive attention in academia, and has been introduced into industrial
applications. Although major research institutions and related enterprises have presented their own DT
concepts, there are many different definitions of DT since it was proposed (Opoku et al., 2021). With the
continuous interpretation of DT in industry and academia, its meaning has become more confusing, and
the boundaries between DT and other related concepts have become more obscure. What exactly is a DT,
what can it do, where is the boundary, what is its relationship with modelling and simulation? These
questions are confusing researchers and practitioners. Because of the unclear definition of DT, its
technology is ambiguous, and it is even more ambiguous under the entertainment of the nascent
metaverse. Numerous researchers across the fields of computer, manufacturing, and automation are
overwhelmed by the influx of literature terminology. Even more notable phenomena in academy are that
many researchers just added DT in the title of the articles based on existing traditional engineering
informatization to gain popularity (Zhang, 2020).
In response to the misuse and abuse of the term DT, this paper profoundly traces the source of DT by
consulting a large number of first-hand materials, corrects such claim that Digital Twins originated from
the mirrored space model (MSM), and corrects the misstatement that DT first appeared in the technical
report on Modelling, Simulation, Information Technology and Processing Roadmap by National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 2010, and defines the basic concept of DT as a more
Advanced System Modeling and Simulation Environment (ASM&SE). The DT-based system has the
characteristics of not only geometric visualization of the physical system, but also real-time sensing and
measurement of system operating conditions, the predictability of system performance/safety/lifespan,
the complete engineering mechanisms-based simulation, the symbiosis of physical/virtual systems, and
so on. The terms such as system, product, and service are used interchangeably in the paper. Based on
this novel understanding, and the two-element model of Virtual Manufacturing, we present a three-
element model of DT, namely the geometric shape of a real system, the information of the real system,
and the engineering mechanism of the real system. Based on the analysis of DT practices, the paper
pointed out that the current industrial application of DT is essentially an informatization solution that
combines the engineering requirements, and expands the application of modern ICT.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 traces the source of the DT idea. Section
3 defines DT as an advanced system modelling and simulation environment based on a digital gearbox
product life cycle management case analysis. Section 4 reviews the two-element model for representing
VM and proposes a three-element model for representing DT. Section 5 briefly describes some practical
research in the name of DT, and points out that current practices are an extension of traditional
engineering informatization, which partially reflects the characteristics of DT, such as the geometric
visualization of a physical system. Section 6 draws a conclusion.

2. The origin of DT
The idea of DT is essentially an ASM&SE. The current widely circulated version is that DT originated
from MSM coined by Michael Grieves at the Florida Institute of Technology (Tao et al., 2018b;
VanDerHorn and Mahadevan, 2021). This MSM model was first mentioned in a report by Grieves in late
2002 when he was studying virtual-real-driven product life management (PLM). The term MSM was
used in the first PLM courses at the University of Michigan in 2003 (Kritzinger et al., 2018). In 2005,
the MSM term appeared in the article “Product life cycle management: The new paradigm for enterprises”
(Grieves, 2005); In 2006, the MSM term was changed to the Information Mirror Model (IMM) (Grieves,
2006). In the book "Transdisciplinary Perspectives on Complex Systems" edited by Kahlen et al., Grieves
and Vicker co-published an article “Digital Twin: mitigating unpredictable, undesirable emergent
behaviour in complex systems” (Grieves and Vickers, 2017). In the paper, Grieves stated that DT
originated from his MSM, then NASA's Vickers and others borrowed his MSM idea and applied it to
NASA's technical report in 2010. Actually, his claim in 2017 was not mentioned in NASA’s technical
report published in 2010, and there is no conclusive documentary or photographic evidence that DT
originated from Grieves' MSM.
 In fact, the team led by Prof. Iwata at Osaka University proposed VM as the "virtual manufacturing
modelling and simulation environment" and developed its prototype as early as 1993 from the perspective
of the original idea of DT on “ the virtual representation of a physical system”. The concept of VM is
nearly 10 years earlier than MSM, and has a history of 30 years. VM combines concepts such as real
physical system (RPS), virtual physical system (VPS), real information system (RIS) and virtual
information system (VIS), and identifies four categories of VM systems based on ICT. Among the
numerous DT review papers, Iwata’s VM is gradually attracting the eyes of a few scholars. For example,
Semeraro et al. cited and explicitly mentioned the contribution of Iwata's team in their review article
"digital twin paradigm" (Semeraro et al., 2021): virtual manufacturing is defined as a system aimed at
generating a virtual representation of a physical system without using real facilities/entities (Onosato and
Iwata, 1993).
Second, the industry generally believes that the term DT first appeared in the Modelling, Simulation,
Information Technology, and Processing Roadmap published by NASA in 2010 (Deng et al., 2021). This
statement is also inconsistent with the fact. In fact, the term DT first appeared in the article written by
Hernández et al. in 1997 (Hernández et al., 1997). Although Hernández et al. did not define DT in the
paper, it can be considered semantically that DT is a three-dimensional digital model of the urban road
network, and it is expected that the model can be iteratively modified and coexist with the physical system
in implementation. The DT, which appeared in NASA’s technical report 13 years later, aims to explore
the digitization of advanced manufacturing, integrate and drive modern aircraft design, manufacturing,
operation and maintenance, real time cope with the complexity from hardware operation and maintenance,
and expects to significantly reduce product cost and time to market. It emphasizes presenting techniques
that can digitalize multidisciplinary physical models that not only characterize physical materials, but
also how a system operates. These models can be used in the production and operation of spacecraft
(Shafto et al., 2010).
Two other concepts that have contributed to the idea of DT are model predictive control (MPC) and
building information model (BIM). The core idea of MPC is that applying models in each control cycle
predicts the dynamic characteristics of a system, and then seeks the finite-time open-loop optimal control
strategy in the current control cycle (Garcia et al., 1989). DT and MPC simulate current states to predict
future conditions, but the goal of DT is to create virtual models in synchronization with their physical
systems.
BIM keeps accurate and interoperable records of building information to enhance planning,
construction and maintenance over the life of a facility (Khajavi et al., 2019). The main difference
between architectural BIM and DT is that BIM is designed to increase design and construction efficiency,
not real-time data. DT leverages real-time data to simulate and control physical systems, improve
operational efficiency, and enable predictions. Table 1 presents the timeline of DT ideas and terminology.
Table 1. Timeline of DT ideas and terminology
Earliest publication Misinformation or self-reporting
VM, 1993 MSM, 2003
Source of DT MPC 1970’s NASA, 2010
BIM 2000’s
Earliest reported DT Hernández et al.,1997 NASA, 2010

It is safe to say that the idea of DT has been bred since humankind developed and used computers.
The earliest and most persuasive research on DT can be traced back to the VM system modelling and
simulation environment proposed by Iwata et al. in 1993. Their idea on VM is still applicable as a system
modelling and simulation environment as targeted by its derived version, i.e., DT. In conclusion, either
early VM or its’ derived DT, their theoretical development and engineering practice deeply depend on
the in-depth development and integration of interdisciplinary engineering knowledge informatization,
industrial software, and ICT.
3. Case study and definition of DT
This section introduces DT by taking an example of the modelling and simulation of a gearbox.
Assuming that a gearbox consists of a pair of gears A and B. In the design stage, a designer applies
computer-aided design (CAD) to produce a digital copy of the gearbox according to the design
requirements. Before the actual manufacturing, computer-aided engineering (CAE) is adopted to
simulate and analyze the structure/strength/wear/lifespan performance of the gear pair. The analysis
results are fed back to the design stage. The designer optimizes and corrects the digital copy; the designs
with satisfied simulation results enter the manufacturing/assembly stage. Before the actual
manufacturing/assembly, it is also necessary to use computer-aided manufacturing/assembly software to
simulate the machining and assembly process of the gear pair. During the actual operation and
maintenance of the gearbox, the staff applies the embedded software and sensor systems to collect various
physical parameters generated by the running gearbox in real time, such as temperature, rotational speed,
and stress/strain, and applies these data to create a digital 3D gearbox model in computer world
corresponding to the gearbox in the real world. This re-constructed digital gearbox model (i.e., gearbox
twin) can help operators visually observe and predict system abnormalities and send out maintenance
and control commands in time.
conceptual model D model transmission mechanism
model

multi mechanism twins

geometric twins

transmission finite element analysis

and optimi ation

global twins
modelling and simulation of
big data, real time, visuali ation , predictability carburi ing and uenching
Fig 1. The schematic diagram for the digitization of a gearbox life cycle support by DT modelling and
simulation environment

The above case study briefly describes the digitization of a gearbox from the conceptual phase to the
manufacturing, operation and maintenance phases (Figure 1), during which various computer-aided tools
such as CAD, CAE, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and embedded real time monitoring systems
are deployed for gearbox design, performance simulation, operation, and maintenance. Following this
case study, we will further clarify what is DT by answering the following questions:
Can we call the computational geometric model (CAD) of the gearbox and gear pair the DT of the
gearbox and gear pair? Our answer is yes; it is their geometric digital twins.
Give the gears a certain number of teeth and rotational speeds for a computer motion simulation. Can
we call the computational motion simulation the DT of the gears? Our answer is yes; it is their physically
motional digital twins.
Mesh the gear pairs A and B for a relative motion simulation based on the gear transmission
mechanism in the computer, and can we call the gear transmission simulation the DT of the gear pair?
Our answer is yes; it is their physical transmission mechanism digital twins.
 There are a series of computational collision/meshing simulations evaluating the
contact/stress/strain/deformation of the gear pair with various speeds and stiffness. Can we call meshing
collision simulation the DT of the gear pair? Our answer is yes; it is their contact/collision engineering
mechanism digital twins.
In order to enhance the wearing lifespan of the gear surface, we need to operate the coating simulation
of gear as well. Can we call the carburizing simulation the DT of the gear pair? Our answer is yes; it is
their carburizing/stiffness/materials engineering mechanism digital twins.
Moreover, the global digital gearbox connects and communicates with the running physical gearbox
in the operation and maintenance phases. The static and dynamic characteristics of the real physical
gearbox are one-to-one mapped to the computer world, such as geometric models, various information
on temperatures, and speeds, and various engineering mechanisms in real time. Can we call this global
digitization the DT of the gearbox? Our answer is yes; it is the global digital twins.
We can see that it is more reasonable to define DT as an advanced computational modelling and
simulation environment for system/product/service life cycle management. This computational
environment supports the life cycle management of products/services/systems, not only from the
digitization of conceptual design, computational mechanisms simulation, but also the real-time operation
and maintenance with possible geometric mirroring. DT comprehensively applies modern ICTs,
industrial software, and engineering knowledge such as computational geometry, computational
engineering, and Internet of Things (IoT) for collecting and transmitting data on system operating
conditions in real time, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for simulating fluid mechanisms, and
artificial intelligence for predicting system health. DT-transformed industrial application has the
following characteristics:
1) System/product/service life cycle management support. DT emphasizes building a modelling and
simulation environment for the entire system life cycle management in the computer world, rather than
only for the modelling and simulation of the global system in operation and maintenance stage.
2) 3D geometric modelling of real systems. Hernández et al. (1997) first used the term DT, regarded
DT as a 3D digital model of an urban transportation network. This characteristic is generally
acknowledged by most works, including Grieves' MSM (Kritzinger et al.,2018), but it should not be the
essential feature of DT.
3) The real-time sensing and measurement of system operating conditions. With the development and
penetration of the Internet of Things in industrial applications, DT can collect and transmit data and
information on system operating conditions in real time, and provide big data for the subsequent various
mechanisms simulations and system performance predictions.
4) Multi-mechanism modelling and simulation. Mechanisms modelling (from data to model) is the
digitization of engineering knowledge with a result of industrial software such as the solver for
computational flow dynamics. Mechanisms simulation is the inverse modelling process (from model to
data) for system functional and non-functional evaluations. The system modelling and simulation under
the DT paradigm emphasizes the modelling and simulation for the system complexity and multiple
mechanisms, such as simulations on materials, geometric structures, structural strength, system lifespan,
etc.
5) Proactive system performance prediction. DT makes full use of real-time big data, employs
machine learning, deep learning, and distributed software and hardware architecture, such as cloud
computing, to predict system performance, such as equipment failures, load balance, system lifespan,
and so on.
6) Real-time system simulation and control. In addition to supporting system simulation, another core
goal of DT is to perform real-time simulation for system operation and maintenance, and send real-time
control commands for extending system lifespan.
 Leng et al. (2021) presented the enabling technology map for DT. It can be seen that DT itself is not
like the concepts of Virtual Machine and Cloud Computing with distinct technical characteristics, but is
a collective term with two major technology clusters of modern ICTs and computational engineering
know-how (i.e., digitalized engineering knowledge/industrial software). These modern ICTs include
industrial IoT, real-time synchronization, discrete event simulation, visualization, big data analytics,
industrial artificial intelligence, industrial blockchains, cloud computing, and so on. The computational
engineering know-how digitalizes engineering knowledge with CFD, finite element analysis, etc., as
result (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Key enabling technologies for DT

4. Three-element DT model
As mentioned in the review by Semeraro et al. (2021), the idea of DT mainly originates from VM,
MPC, and BIM. This section focuses on reviewing the two-element model of VM proposed by Iwata et
al. (1993), and proposes an extended version, a three-element model of DT. Readers who are interested
in MPC and BIM can refer to the literature (Qin and Badgwell, 2003; Garcia et al., 1989; Volk et al.,
2014; Miettinen and Paavola, 2014).

sensing modelling
service
operation definition VP V
development product
treatment
virtual world
decision making control
V “Turing mirror
prepare virtual ystem
device workshop
model simulation real world
sensing modelling
simulation P
virtual workshop interface
definition decision making control

Figure 3. The two-element model of (VM): RPS (real physical system), RIS (real information system), VPS
(virtual physical system), VIS (virtual information system)

Figure 3 (left) presents the modelling and simulation architecture of a VM system composed of 7
functional modules (Iwata et al., 1993; Zhou et al., 2000). Figure 3 (right) presents the core idea of the
two-element model of VM as follows: a real manufacturing system consists of RPS and RIS, a VM
system consists of VPS and VIS. VPS and RPS have similarities in geometric structures and logical
functions, and VIS and RIS are equivalent in the amount of information. It can be seen that this two-
element model emphasizes more computational modelling and simulation of a real manufacturing system,
that is, a real physical system and a computerized system can interact in information.
The two-element model assumes that the real world is composed of RPS and RIS, which ignores
engineering knowledge or generally includes engineering knowledge into the information system. Here,
we divide the information system in the two-element model into two parts: information and engineering
knowledge/know-how (i.e., engineering mechanisms), and propose a three-element model of DT (Figure
4). We believe that a real world can be represented with three elements: real physical system (shape),
real information system and real mechanism system. The purpose of building a DT is to use computer to
approximately represent the three elements in the real world, such as using computer graphics to generate
the 3D geometric model of a real scene, and using CFD to simulate the motion performance of a real
aircraft. The three-element model is also in line with the gradual human’s cognitive processes from
shapes, information to mechanisms of a real system.

sensing data modelling modelling : system lifecycle

VP V (structure, process, logic,
V
mechanism, etc.)
simulation

decision making control 010010101010

Turing mirror 101001010101
010101010101
010010101010
101010101001
sensing data modelling
P simulation: system life
performance
simulation real system (functional, non functional, virtual digital system
(three elements) time, speed, intensity, etc.)
decision making control

VMS stands for virtual mechanism system

RMS stands for real mechanism system
Figure 4. Three-element model of DT

5. Review and analysis of DT practices

With the rapid development of geometric modelling and simulation, data perception, high-
performance computing, and high-speed wireless communications, the concept of DT has been gradually
applied to engineering practices, and implemented at the system operation and maintenance level.
However, based on our definition of DT as ASM&SE, the following DT practices are largely the
extension of traditional informatization and digitization, or the informatization solution to an engineering
problem in a professional field. They might support some of the given DT features by this paper, such as
geometric visualization, real-time data collection, predictability of operating conditions with deep
learning, etc.

5.1 Smart manufacturing

Ghosh et al. proposed the concept of twin based on sensor signals, developed a DT construction
system (DTCS) and DT adaptation system (DTAS) on a JavaTM-based platform, and used real-time
processing of milling torque signals as an application case (Ghosh et al., 2021). DTCS constructs DT
based on a delay-embedded signal processing method. DTAS adapts constructed DT. DTCS consists of
five modules: input, modelling, simulation, validation, and output. DTAS only uses simulated signal
datasets that the validation module tests positive while monitoring progress. It receives real-time signals
from the machine tool for monitoring purposes. Any update in DTCS will change the content. DTAS
will also update itself and confirm the changes in DTCS in real time, which makes the two systems highly
coupled.
This DT practice covers RPS since sensor signal delays are real in intelligent machine tools. It covers
RIS because the simulated and real delayed signals are compared to determine the course of action. This
DT practice covers VPS and VIS by modelling and simulating delayed signals from sensors signals. This
DT practice covers RMS and VMS because the mechanism of delayed signals is applied when modelling
and simulating delayed signals.
Ghosh et al. pointed out that the goal of DT is to provide a computer system that helps build and use
twins, which is consistent with the idea of VM modelling and simulation environment. The studied case
is a real-time monitoring of machine tools based on embedded sensor networks. Compared with the
traditional monitoring system, it emphasizes the feature of real-time modelling and simulation.

5.2 Smart building

Khajavi et al. proposed a method for establishing a sensor network to create the DT of a building
(Khajavi et al. , 2019). This is achieved by collecting and analyzing specific environmental factors in the
exact surrounding of the building in real time. Although this study utilizes only a limited sensor network
and three environmental parameters for sensing (i.e., light, temperature, and humidity), the introduced
step-by-step framework can be used to create a more comprehensive DT of a building facade and a
building interior.
This DT practice constructs a geometric model of a building façade and presents the light, temperature,
and humidity of the building façade in real time. Therefore, it covers RPS and VPS. In real life, we can
adjust equipment such as lighting and air conditioners according to the environmental parameters.
Therefore, it covers RIS and VIS. Since it has no further processing and utilization of the environmental
parameters, it does not cover RMS and VMS. Compared to BIM, it emphasizes the real-time requirement.

5.3 Smart energy

Singh et al. (2021) presented a toolbox for implementing DT to enhance modelling and simulation
practices. The toolbox can realize the DT of a battery system for a micro-robot vehicle. They reviewed
DT from the perspective of modelling and simulation, and proposed the implementation method,
including the DT framework and process model, and gave a case analysis of a battery system. The battery
DT can be used to estimate the state of health of a battery and optimize battery life by evaluating the
capacity fading with the number of cycles. Compared to the existing tools for implementing DT models,
this approach focuses on defining the required features of a DT model and then selecting the relevant
tools.
This DT practice does not construct a geometric model for the battery. Therefore, it does cover RPS,
but not VPS. It covers RIS and VIS due to health monitoring based on real-time collected battery data.
It estimates capacity decay using an extended Kalman filter and uses an equivalent circuit model to
simulate the electrical behavior of a battery, so it covers RMS and VMS.

5.4 Smart agriculture

Pylianidis et al. (2021) analyzed the value-added services of DT for agriculture, and gave the
development route of agricultural DT. They believe that there is no unified definition of DT for various
disciplines. A feasible definition emphasizes a virtual representation of a dynamic physical object/system,
which spans multiple life cycle stages and provides decision-making with the use of data analysis
methods. The so-called agricultural DT is another term for Agricultural Informatization or Smart
Agriculture with the help of new ICT technologies. Most current DT practices in Smart Agriculture cover
RPS, RIS and VIS.
There are other practices, such as the marking robot DT prototype exhibited in Hannover Messe 2018
(Figure 5). The exhibition showed that the robot/arm in the real world perform marking tasks such as
lifting, rotating, etc., which are digitally mapped to the computer world in real time, accompanied by the
real-time visualization of multiple physical signals. Based on the rapid scene constructing, design model
optimization, and configuration simulation, this DT re-constructs a digital marking robot, and realizes
the mapping of a physical marking production line to a virtual world based on MODBUS (Modbus, 2022)
TCP protocol. the marking robot DT demonstrates that it can dynamically make plan scheduling and
operation optimization through transmiting the optimized parameters back to the physical system in real
time. Therefore, this marking robot DT covers RIS, RPS, RMS, VIS, VPS and VMS. Table 2 summarizes
the reviewed DT practices from the perspectives of the three-element DT model.
As presented, there are several major features of DT applications: product/service/system life cycle
management, geometric visualization of physical shape, real-time operating conditions sensing and
measurement, real-time mechanisms modelling and simulation, predictability of system health. But it is
not necessary for a DT application to present all these features one time. We define DT as an ASM&SE,
and its goal is to provide digitization methods and techniques to support these features. Compared with
the traditional real-time marking robot, the DT system (Figure 5) added the visualization of the 3D robot
model. This addition may have value in the safety evaluation of human-robot interaction. However, this
addition may not be necessary in the case of robot failures prediction. On the contrary, it will increase
the development costs and difficulties. Therefore, applying DT needs to consider its necessity and build
the right digital twin (Zhang et al. ,2021).

Figure 5. Marking robot DT prototype exhibited in Hannover Messe 2018

Table 2. DT practices
Application RPS RIS RMS VPS VIS VMS
Ghosh et al., 2021 √ √ √ √ √ √
Khajavi et al. ,2019 √ √ √
Singh et al., 2021 √ √ √ √ √
Smart agriculture √ √ √
The marking robot DT √ √ √ √ √ √

6. Conclusion
There have been so many different opinions about DT and its relevant practices. However, there are
misstatements and misuse of DT as well. This paper revisits the origin of the DT idea from the perspective
of an advanced modelling and simulation environment. According to literature records, Virtual
Manufacturing and its practice proposed by Iwata et al. in 1993 is the earliest research and practice on
Digital Twins to our knowledge. DT is an ASM&SE that deeply embraces contemporary ICTs and
computational engineering knowledge with software to re-construct the three elements of a
product/service/system: physical shape, physical information, and engineering mechanisms. The ultimate
goal of DT is to achieve the transparent and predictable operation and maintenance of a real physical
system. A DT application is characterized by the geometric visualization of a real system, real-time data
collection of its operating conditions, complete engineering mechanisms modelling and simulation, and
health prediction. Modern ICTs and the digitization of engineering knowledge are the fundamental
enabling technology of DT. Clearly, the existing DT practices are trying to apply or extend modern ICTs
into proposing an informatization solution to a professional problem.
For DT researchers and practitioners in engineering, the cornerstone of DT relies on engineering
mechanisms modelling and simulation. Reflected in manufacturing, it is the research and development
(R&D) of modelling and simulation tools for engineering knowledge. The results are collectively referred
to as industrial software, such as CAD, CAE, CAM, and CFD. With the rapid development of cloud
computing, industrial software as a cloud service is gaining widespread attention from academia and
industry. Recently, traditional giant industrial software companies claimed to be able to provide
customers with DT solutions, for example, CATIA 3D Experience Virtual Twin by Dassault (2022),
Fusion 360 by Autodesk (2022). Essentially, they are selling similar modelling and simulation services
with the label of Digital Twins.
For DT researchers and practitioners in ICTs, the cornerstone of DT relies on advanced ICTs such as
computer graphics, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, 5G and beyond, blockchain, mixed reality,
and mathematics to address high-performance 3D reconstruction, rendering and simulation, real-time
data sensing, predictable system maintenance, high-speed data communications, transaction security,
unbounded interaction virtual and real world, etc.

Acknowledgments
Thanks to Dr. Haibin Yang from Wuhan Huazhong Numerical Control Co., Ltd. and Dr. Xudong Cai from
CASICould for sharing the demo exhibited in Hannover Messe 2018.

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