OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

“The ozone layer is a region in the earth’s stratosphere that contains

high concentrations of ozone and protects the earth from the harmful
ultraviolet radiations of the sun.”

What is Ozone Layer?

The ozone layer is found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It
has the potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet
radiations coming from the sun that can damage life on earth. If the ozone
layer was absent, millions of people would develop skin diseases and may
have weakened immune systems.
However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over the
Antarctic. This has focussed their concern on various environmental issues
and steps to control them. The main reasons for the ozone hole are
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
Let us have a detailed look at the various causes and effects of ozone layer
depletion.

Ozone Layer Depletion

“Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone
layer in the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical
compounds containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries
or other human activities.”

What is Ozone Layer Depletion?

Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the
upper atmosphere. This happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in
the atmosphere come in contact with ozone and destroy the ozone
molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is
destroyed more quickly than it is created.
Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high
ultraviolet light, which then contributes to the ozone layer depletion. Such
compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).
The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include
chlorofluorocarbon, carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and
methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-depleting substances that contain
bromine are halons, methyl bromide.
Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It
is only when the chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not
react with ozone.
Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and
import of ozone-depleting substances and minimize their concentration in
the atmosphere to protect the ozone layer of the earth.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a
number of factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of the
ozone layer are listed below:
Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion.
These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-
conditioners, etc.
The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down
by the ultraviolet radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react
with ozone and destroy it.
Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets result in much
more depletion of ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this
might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.
Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible
for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural
processes such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not
cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.
The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
“Ozone depleting substances are the substances such as
chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon tetrachloride,
hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer.”
Following is the list of some main ozone-depleting substances and the
sources from where they are released:

Ozone-Depleting Sources
Substances

Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators,
(CFCs) air-
conditioners,
solvents, dry-
cleaning
agents, etc.

Halons Fire-
extinguishers

Carbon Fire
tetrachloride extinguishers,
solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives,

aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons Solvent
cleaning, fire
extinguishers,
solvent
cleaning

Effects Of Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment.
Let us see the major effects of ozone layer depletion on man and
environment.
Effects on Human Health
The humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiations of
the sun due to the depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious
health issues among humans, such as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns,
cataract, quick ageing and an weakend immune system.
Effects on Animals
Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in
animals.
Effects on the Environment
Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and
photosynthesis in plants. The forests also have to bear the harmful effects
of the ultraviolet rays.
Effects on Marine Life
Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays.
These are higher in the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed,
the organisms present in the lower food chain are also affected.

Solutions to Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various
programmes have been launched by the government of various countries
to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the individual level as well
to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a
global level:
Avoid Using Pesticides
Natural methods should be implemented to get rid of pests and weeds
instead of using chemicals. One can use eco-friendly chemicals to remove
the pests or remove the weeds manually.
Minimize the Use of Vehicles
The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global
warming as well as ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should
be minimized as much as possible.
Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing
chemicals that find a way into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer.
These should be substituted with natural products to protect the
environment.
Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited
The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous
oxide that is adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made
aware of the harmful effects of nitrous oxide and the products emitting the
gas so that its use is minimized at the individual level as well.

Effects on Human Health

Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UV Rays that reaches the
Earth’s surface. Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that
UV causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant
melanoma development. In addition, UV Rays has been linked to the
development of cataracts, a clouding of the eye’s lens.

Effects on Plants

UV radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of

plants. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and an ability
to adapt to increased levels of UV, plant growth can be directly affected by
UV radiation.

Indirect changes caused by UV (such as changes in plant form, how

nutrients are distributed within the plant, timing of developmental phases
and secondary metabolism) may be equally or sometimes more important
than damaging effects of UV Rays.

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

Exposure to solar UV radiation has been shown to affect phytoplankton,

resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms. Scientists have
demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone
depletion-related increases in UV rays.
UV radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental
stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians, and other marine animals. The
most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired
larval development. Small increases in UV exposure could result in
population reductions for small marine organisms with implications for the
whole marine food chain.

Relationship between ozone-depleting substances & climate change

Most man-made ozone-depleting substances are also potent greenhouse
gases. Some of them have a global warming effect up to 14,000 times
stronger than carbon dioxide (CO2), the main greenhouse gas.

Therefore, the global phase-out of ozone depleting substances such as

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has
also made a significant positive contribution to the fight against climate
change.

On the other hand, the global phase-out has led to a large increase in the
use of other types of gases, to replace ozone depleting substances in
various applications. These fluorinated gases (‘F-gases’) do not damage
the ozone layer, but do have a significant global warming effect. Therefore,
in 2016, Parties to the Montreal Protocol agreed to add the most common
type of F-gas, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), to the list of controlled
substances.
 NUCLEAR HAZARDS

INTRODUCTION

Radionuclides are elements (uranium 235, uranium 283, thorium 232,

potassium 40, radium 226, carbon 14 etc) with unstable atomic nuclei and
on decomposition release ionizing radiations in the form of alpha, beta and
gamma rays. Out of the known 45O radioisotopes only some are of
environmental concern like strontium 90, tritium, plutonium 239, argon 41,
cobalt 60, cesium 137, iodine 131, krypton 85 etc.

These can be both beneficial and harmful, depending on the way in which
they are used. We routinely use X-rays to examine bones for fractures,
treat cancer with radiation and diagnose diseases with the help of
radioactive isotopes. About 17% of the electrical energy generated in the
world comes from nuclear power plants.

Radioactive substances when released into the environment are either

dispersed or become concentrated in living organisms through the food
chain. Other than naturally occurring radioisotopes, significant amounts are
generated by human activity, including the operation of nuclear power
plants, the manufacture of nuclear weapons, and atomic bomb testing. For
example, strontium 90 behaves like calcium and is easily deposited and
replaces calcium in the bone tissues. It could be passed to human beings
through ingestion of strontium-contaminated milk. Again another example is
tritium, which is radioactive hydrogen. The amount of tritium released from
nuclear power plants to the atmosphere have reached as high as tens of
thousands of curies in one year, and releases to bodies of water have
measured as high as tens of millions of picocuries per litre.

A few occupations that involve radioactive exposures are uranium

mineworkers, radium watch dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power
plants, etc. Exposure to radioactive and nuclear hazards has been clinically
proven to cause cancer, mutations

Nuclear hazard effects can be either initial or residual. Initial effects occur
in the immediate area of explosion and are hazardous immediately after the
explosion where as the residual effects can last for days or years and
cause death. The principal initial effects are blast and radiation. Blast
causes damage to lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and
causes immediate death or injury. Thermal Radiation is the heat and light
radiation, which a nuclear explosion’s fireball emits producing extensive
fires, skin burns, and flash blindness. Nuclear radiation consists of intense
gamma rays and neutrons produced during the first minute after the
explosion. This radiation causes extensive damage to cells throughout the
body. Radiation damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, and even death, depending on the radiation dose received.

6.2 Sources

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

Natural sources

• Cosmic rays from outer space

• Emissions from radioactive materials in the earth’s crust (rocks,

marine sediments etc) Man-made sources include the nuclear wastes
produced during

• Mining and processing of radioactive ores

• Use of radioactive materials in power plants

• Use of radioactive isotopes in medical technology (x-ray machines,
radioisotopes used in medicine)

• Industrial applications include wastes from nuclear reactors

• Research applications: radioactive fallouts during nuclear weapons
testing.

• In a nuclear power plant, any leak or accident taking place emit

nuclear radiation. In either case it results in nuclear hazard.

• Nuclear tests Conducted under the ground or under oceans which

also release radiation.

• Uranium mining and milling, Nuclear reactors and reprocessing of

nuclear fuel cause nuclear pollution.

6.3 Effects

Studies shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the
level of dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells
irradiated. Radiation effects can be somatic or genetic. Somatic
affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell
membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell
functions, cell division, growth and death. Genetic affects the future
generations. Radiations can cause mutations, which are changes in genetic
make up of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA
molecules. People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to
doses around 100 to 1000 roentgens. Instantaneous deaths on exposure in
the event if disasters are many.

6.3.2 Control measures

• Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely

and scientifically.
• Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of
the geology of the area, tectonic activity and meeting other
established conditions.
• Appropriate protection against occupational exposure

• Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use

of radioactive elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive
isotopes must be prevented.

• Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements

must be ensured in nuclear plants.

• Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for

diagnosis by x-rays.

• Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high

risk area should be ensured.

Sources Explosion

Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury
the waste in hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust which is
considered to be the best safety in long term option.
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster: A lesson in the technological
disaster of human history
This disaster that occurred on April 26, 1986 in Ukraine, (i.e. former USSR)
at

the Chernobyl power plant reactor, designed to produce 1000 MW of

electrical energy. It resulted in the release of Sr-90, Ce-134, Ce-137, 1-131
etc. which polluted the whole region. The explosion occurred due to faulty
shutting down of the plant. Combustion of the graphite rods inside the
rector resulted in fire and the temperature of the reactor went up to 2000°C.
The radioactive debris, gases and plume drifted over the entire northern
hemisphere affecting mostly Sweden, Norway, Poland, and Denmark etc.
More than 2000 people died in the disaster and many children were
affected with congenital abnormalities. The disaster damaged agricultural
crops, plants and caused cancer, lung, eye and blood disorders. Many
European countries like Denmark and Sweden had banned the import of
milk and milk containing products from the former USSR. This was
because the milk was contaminated by 1-131, which had entered the cows
through grazing on pastures and plants, contaminated with the same.
 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate Change Battle: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

Climate change is real, and the evidence is all around us. While the
changes to the earth’s climate are nothing new, it is apparent recent effects
are having a devastating impact on countless people, places, and wildlife. If
you want to know what climate change really is and why it matters, then
keep reading to learn more about its causes, effects, and practical solutions
to stopping it.

What Is Climate Change

You have probably heard the terms climate change and global warming
used interchangeably. That’s because both describe changes in earth’s
climate. While global warming focuses on the rising average temperature of
the planet, climate change usually refers to the shifts in things like
precipitation, wind patterns, and temperatures over a given period.
Measured changes in climate could last a few years, decades, or even
millions of years.

Climate change has occurred for as long as the earth has existed. It
happens anytime earth’s climate patterns change and remain in place for a
measurable amount of time. This has notably manifested itself in natural
cycles of cooling and warming. Before human causes started to shift the
global climate, main factors interacted with one another as climate changes
occurred. These factors include:

1. Atmosphere (air)
2. Biosphere (living things)
3. Hydrosphere (water)
4. Lithosphere (earth’s crust and upper mantle)

What Are the Causes of Climate Change?

The American Association for the Advancement of Science has stated,

“The scientific evidence is clear: global climate change caused by human
activities is occurring now, and it is a growing threat to society.”

Below are a few of the ways humans are accelerating climate change.
Greenhouse Gases

Greenhouse gases play a vital role in the earth’s climate cycles. As the
planet gets hit with the sun’s rays, some of the energy is absorbed, and the
rest of that energy and heat gets reflected into space. Greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere trap the reflected energy, redirecting it back down to the
earth and eventually contributing to global warming. Various gases play this
role, including:

• Water vapor
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

While some of these greenhouse gases, such as water vapor, are naturally
occurring, others, such as CFCs, are synthetic. CO2 is released into the
atmosphere from both natural and human-made causes and is one of the
leading contributors to climate change. CO2 has been increasing at an
alarming rate and has the potential to stay in the earth’s atmosphere for
thousands of years unless it gets absorbed by the ocean, land, trees, and
other sources. However, as CO2 production has steadily risen, the earth’s
natural resources to absorb it has also been diminished. This is already
occurring in many ways as earth's resources are disappearing from things
like deforestation. Some studies even predict that plants and soil will be
able to absorb less CO2 as the earth continues to warm—possibly
accelerating climate change even further.

Solar Activity

Solar activity, as mentioned above, does play a role in the earth’s climate.
While the sun does go through natural cycles, increasing and decreasing
the amount of energy that it emits to the earth, it is unlikely that solar
activity is a major contributor to global warming or climate change. Since
scientists began to measure the sun’s energy hitting our atmosphere, there
has not been a measurable upward trend.
Agriculture

There are many significant ways in which agriculture impacts climate

change. From deforestation in places like the Amazon to the transportation
and livestock that it takes to support agricultural efforts around the world,
agriculture is responsible for a significant portion of the world’s greenhouse
gas emissions. However, agriculture is also an area that is making
tremendous strides to become more sustainable. As productivity increases,
less carbon is being emitted to produce more food. Agriculture also has the
potential to act as a carbon sink, and could eventually absorb nearly the
same amount of CO2 it emits.

Deforestation

Deforestation and climate change often go hand in hand. Not only does
climate change increase deforestation by way of wildfires and other
extreme weather, but deforestation is also a major contributor to global
warming. According to the Earth Day Network, deforestation is the second
leading contributor to global greenhouse gasses. Many people and
organizations fighting against climate change point to reducing
deforestation as one of, if not the most, important issues that must be
addressed to slow or prevent climate change.

Human Activity

According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the most significant

contributor to climate change in the United States is the burning of fossil
fuels for electricity, heat, and transportation. Of these factors, transportation
in the form of cars, trucks, ships, trains, and planes emits the largest
percentage of CO2–speeding up global warming and remaining a
significant cause of climate change.

Extreme Weather

According to the National Climate Assessment, extreme weather events

will continue to increase in frequency and intensity as climate change
continues to happen. Extreme weather influenced by climate change
includes:

• Stronger storms & hurricanes

 • Heatwaves
• Wildfires
• More flooding
• Heavier droughts

Safety & Economic Challenges

In 2014 the U.S. Department of Defense released a report that stated

climate change posed a severe and immediate threat to national security.
According to former Secretary of Defense, Chuck Hagel, “Rising global
temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, climbing sea levels, and
more extreme weather events will intensify the challenges of global
instability, hunger, poverty, and conflict.”

Furthermore, climate change is likely to cause economic challenges in

many parts of the world. Some estimates have the U.S. already spending
around $240 billion annually due to human-caused climate change, and
future costs are projected to be even higher. However, putting an exact
number on the real costs of climate change is difficult once you consider
the staggering costs of losing natural resources like clean air and water.

Long Term Impact of Climate Change

The long term impact of climate change could be absolutely devastating to

the planet and everyone and everything living on it. If the world continues
on its current trajectory, then we will likely continue to see increasing
effects on everyday life.

Health

There are many ways in which climate change could impact people’s
health. Depending on age, location, and economic status, climate change
is already affecting the health of many and has the potential to impact
millions more. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention,
climate change-related health risks may include:

• Heat-related illness
• Injuries and fatalities from severe weather
• Asthma & cardiovascular disease from air pollution
• Respiratory problems from increased allergens
• Diseases from poor water quality
 • Water & food supply insecurities

Negative Impact in Ecosystems

Ecosystems are interconnected webs of living organisms that help support

all kinds of plant and biological life. Climate change is already changing
seasonal weather patterns and disrupting food distribution for plants and
animals throughout the world, potentially causing mass extinction events.
Some studies estimate that nearly 30% of plant and animal species are at
risk of extinction if global temperatures continue to rise.

Water & Food Resources

Climate change could have a significant impact on food and water supplies.
Severe weather and increased temperatures will continue to limit crop
productivity and increase the demand for water. With food demand
expected to increase by nearly 70% by 2050, the problem will likely only
get worse.

Sea Levels Rising

Rising sea levels could have far-reaching effects on coastal cities and
habitats. Increasing ocean temperatures and melting ice sheets have
steadily contributed to the rise of sea levels on a global scale. At current
rates the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimate sea
levels to rise by at least 8 inches by 2100, potentially causing increased
flooding and decrease in ocean and wetland habitats.

Shrinking Ice Sheets

While contributing to rising sea levels, shrinking ice sheets present their
own set of unique problems, including increased global temperatures and
greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change has driven summer melt of the
ice sheets covering Greenland and Antarctica to increase by nearly 30%
since 1979.

Ocean Acidification

The ocean is one of the main ways in which CO2 gets absorbed. While at
first glance that may sound like a net positive, the increasingly human-
caused CO2 is pushing the world’s oceans to their limits and causing
increased acidity. As pH levels in the ocean decrease, shellfish have
difficulty reproducing, and much of the oceans’ food cycle becomes
disrupted.

Solutions for Climate Change

While the effects of climate change can seem bleak, there is still hope. By
taking immediate action to curb climate change, we may never see the
worst consequences. Likewise, as the world adopts cleaner, more
sustainable energy solutions, there may be millions of new jobs created
and billions of dollars of economic benefits. Below are some practical ways
you can battle climate change, including:

• Purchase Renewable Energy Certificate for your home power needs

• Make your home energy efficient
• Buy carbon offsets
• Adopt a plant-based diet
• Reduce food waste
• Recycle
• Stop using fossil fuels
• Stop deforestation