ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
ICT
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE ICT

4. Utilities: A system software that provides the

necessary facilities (Antivirus, Scan Disk, Disk
1. Types and Components of Defragmentation, etc.)
5. Operating systems: To enable computer
Computer Systems systems to function and allow users to
communicate with computer systems, special
1.1. Hardware & Software software, known as operating systems (OS),
have been developed.
Hardware
Analogue and Digital Data
the electronic, physical components that make up a
Computers can only understand data in the form of binary
typical computer system. These may include input and
digits (0,1); this is commonly known as digital data. However,
output devices as well.
data in the real world is analogue, not limited to two specific
Internal Hardware Devices:
values.
Central processing unit
Processor
Motherboard
Internal memory consisting of RAM & ROM
Graphics & Sound Cards
Internal Storage devices like Hard disk drives (HDD)
and solid-state drives (SSD)
Network interface card (NIC)
External Hardware Devices:
Monitor
Keyboard
Mouse
Printer
External Storage Devices

Software

The techniques, methods, commands, and instructions tell

the device what to do and how to do it. They are the
programs that control the computer system and process
data.
Relates to ideas & instructions for using physical objects. The figures show how data changes in analogue and
digital forms; analogue data forms smooth curves,
Two types of software: whereas digital data changes in discrete steps.
So, for a computer to process real-world data, it first
Application software:
needs to convert the received data into digital form. This
Provides services that allow the user to do specific
is done by hardware known as ADC (analogue to digital
tasks.
converter), and its output is given back in analogue form
It can be general-purpose software or custom-made
using DAC (digital to analogue converter).
software. (Specialist software)
E.g., Spreadsheets, databases, and word processors.
System Software: 1.2. The Main Components of Computer
The software is designed to provide a platform all Systems
other software can run. For example:
1. Compilers: The software translates the High-
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
level language into Machine code (Language
Processor). The component of the computer that understands and
2. Linkers: A Software that creates the links executes hardware and software operations. Nowadays,
between Language processors into workable it’s also known as a microprocessor. It is a single
solutions (Data definition language). integrated circuit at the core of most PCs and is also
3. Device drivers: A software that enables the present in many household gadgets and equipment
device to work with another, externally where some control or monitoring is required.
connected device.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

It consists of a control unit (CU) that manages the input Backing and Secondary Storage
and output devices, an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) that
performs computations and makes logical judgments, and Required to store significant amounts of data
tiny memory regions known as registers. permanently.
It processes the input and produces the outcome of the Most commonly in the form of Hard disk drives and Solid-
processing in the form of output. state drives.

Internal Memory Differentiating between internal memory and backing

storage:
1. Random access memory (RAM): temporary memory
1. RAM contents are lost when power is lost, ROM is
storage, lost after power is shut down, performs read
read-only, and backing storage is permanent even
and write functions, is used to store data that are
without power.
currently in use, and can be increased in size to
2. RAM and ROM are much smaller than backing
improve operational speed.
2. Read-only memory (ROM): permanent memory storage.
3. RAM and ROM are significantly faster in accessing
storage, non-volatile, can only be read from, used to
data than backing storage.
store computer’s configuration data, such as BIOS.
4. Backing storage is much cheaper than internal
N.B: The BIOS (basic input/output memory.
system) stores the date, time and 5. Internal memories are fixed, and backing storage can
system configuration on a non-volatile be fixed or portable.
chip called a CMOS (complementary 6. Internal memories can be directly read by the CPU,
metal oxide semiconductor) – this is while backing storage needs to be moved into the
usually battery powered. RAM before being read by the CPU.

Differentiating between Internal memories:

1.3. Operating Systems
1. RAM is a temporary memory device, whereas ROM is
a permanent one. Controls operation of input, output & backing storage
2. RAM is volatile, ROM is non-volatile. Supervises loading, running & storage of application
3. RAM can be written to and from, but ROM can only be programs.
read from. Deals with errors in application programs.
4. RAM is used to store data, files, programs, and parts Maintains security of the whole computer system
of OS that are currently in use. However, ROM is used Maintains a computer log.
in storing start-up data,
Operating systems offer various types of user interfaces, for
example:
Input & Output Devices
1. Command line interface: user needs to type in
Input devices are pieces of hardware that allow users to commands to communicate with the computer. The
enter data into computers.
user is in direct communication with the computer.
An output device displays the computer's output in a Not restricted to pre-defined options. Possible to alter
human-readable format. For example, words on a printer computer configuration settings. Needs to learn many
or moving graphics on a monitor. commands for basic operations. All commands need
to be typed in, which is time-consuming. Very error
Input devices Output devices
prone, as commands must have correct format,
An input device is any An output shows the result or spelling etc.
hardware that enables data solution of the input after it N.B: Mainly used by programmers who need to have
entry. has been processed. direct communication with the computer.
An input device can only send An output device can only 2. Graphical user interface: Uses WIMP (windows icons
data. receive data. menu and pointing device). The user does not need to
Input devices are necessary Output devices are needed in learn any commands. It is more user-friendly; icons
for a computer to receive order to display the outcome are used to represent applications. A pointing device
commands from the user for of the processing that took is used to click on an icon to launch the application,
processing to be permitted. place to the user. this is simpler than typing in commands. This type of
interface uses up considerably more computer
Input devices are complex as
Output devices are simpler as memory than a CLI interface. The user is limited to the
they must ensure proper
they only need to display the icons provided on the screen. Needs a more complex
communication between the
finale. operating system.
computer and the user.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

N.B: Mainly used by end-users who don’t have great up the desk space.
knowledge of how the computer works. 3. Because they aren’t portable, files must be copied
3. Dialogue-based user interface: use the human voice to another portable storage device to take work
to give commands to a computer system. no need for elsewhere.
a driver to take their hands off the steering wheel. In a
home, it is especially useful for people with disabilities Mobile Computers
because many tasks can be carried out by the spoken
word only. Possible to use it as a security feature 1. Laptop computer:
because voice recognition could be used to identify a
person. Still unreliable, with many commands not (Or notebook) refers to a type of computer where the
being recognized or needing to be repeated several monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor are all
times (especially if there is background noise). Can be together in one unit. This makes them extremely portable.
quite complex to setup. User needs to know which lightweight (to aid portability). Low power consumption
commands can be used. (and also long battery life). Low heat output (cooling is
4. Gesture-based user interface: relies on human very important).
interaction by the moving of hands, head or even feet. Uses:
Replaces mechanical input devices. No physical 1. office and business work
contact is required. Very natural interface for a human 2. educational use
operator. No training is needed to interface with the 3. used as a gaming device.
computer. It is possible for unintentional movement to 4. general entertainment
be picked up. Only works near the camera or sensor Advantages:
(maximum of 1.5 meters). May only accept a limited 1. Portability: all components are in a single unit, so
number of movements (for example, it may take they can be taken anywhere.
several attempts to determine exactly what finger 2. Because of one single unit, there are no trailing
movements are recognized). wires and desk clutter.
3. take up much less room on a desk, so they can be
easily used in public spaces.
1.4. Types of Computers 4. portability allows them to take full advantage of
Wi-Fi features.
Desktop Computers
Disadvantages:
1. portability makes it easier for them to be stolen.
Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer
2. limited battery life means the user needs to carry
that is made up of a separate monitor, keyboard, mouse,
a charger at all times.
and processor unit. It is distinguished from, for example, a
3. keyboards and pointing devices may be awkward
laptop computer by the fact that it is made up of several
to use.
separate components, which makes it not very portable.
4. not easy to upgrade, like adding more RAM.
Uses:
1. office and business work
2. Smartphones:
2. educational use
3. general entertainment
Allow normal phone calls to be made, but also have an
4. gaming device
operating system (such as iOS, Android, or Windows),
Advantages: allowing them to run a number of computer applications
1. They are easier and less costly to upgrade and
(known as apps or applets). Smartphones communicate
expand.
with the internet either by using Wi-Fi hot spots or by
2. Spare parts are standardized, which makes them
using 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.
cheaper.
Uses:
3. They tend to have better specifications for a given
1. They allow users to send/receive emails.
price.
2. They allow users to use a number of apps.
4. No critical power consumption because they plug
3. They allow users to use a camera feature (to take
into a wall socket.
photos or videos).
5. Due to fixed positions, they are less likely to be
4. They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music
damaged or stolen. and videos).
6. As they usually have wired connections, they have
Advantages:
more stable internet access.
1. very small in size and lightweight, makes them
Disadvantages:
portable.
1. They are not particularly portable because they
2. connecting to the internet while on the move.
are made up of separate components. 3. because they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone
2. More complicated because all the components
networks, they can be used almost anywhere.
need to be hooked up by wiring, which also clutters

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

4. they have apps which can tell instant location, Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a
which is a feature that isn’t available in either hybrid between a tablet and a smartphone, referred to as
desktops or laptops. a phablet. They have much larger screens than a
5. they have reasonable battery life. smartphone but are smaller than a tablet.
Disadvantages:
1. small screens and keyboards make pages difficult
to read.
2. more difficult and slower when typing things in.
3. Web browsing and photography can quickly drain
the battery.
4. Memory size in most phones is not very large
when compared to laptops and desktops.
5. Not all website features are compatible with
smartphone operating systems.
6. Because of their small size, it is much easier to
lose a smartphone or for it to be stolen compared
to laptops or desktops.
7. The data transfer rate using mobile phone Uses:
networks can be slower than with Wi-Fi. Entertainment (streaming of music, videos, and
television programs).
3. Tablets: Gaming (including group games).
As a camera or video camera.
They work similarly to a smartphone. The only main Internet use (online sales, social networks, using QR
difference is that they are somewhat bigger in size as codes, and so on).
compared to a smartphone. Sending/receiving emails.
Uses: Global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to
1. They allow users to send/receive emails. a location).
2. They allow users to use a number of apps. Calendar functions.
3. They allow users to use a camera feature (to take Telephone banking (sending and receiving money
photos or videos). using banking apps).
4. They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music Voice over Internet Protocol: telephone network using
and videos). the internet, which also allows video calling.
Advantages of tablets compared to laptops: Instant access to social networks (social contact with
1. very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the friends no matter where you are in the world).
operating system to load up). Instant messaging.
2. fully portable – they are so lightweight that they Office and business management (allows rapid voice
can be carried anywhere. and video communication).
3. touch screen technology means they are simple to Education use (using interactive software to teach or
use and don’t need any other input devices. learn from).
4. not much heat, they use solid-state technology. Remotely control devices.
5. The battery life of a tablet is a lot longer.
6. when the power button is pressed, it goes into Laptops are the most expandable of these devices, while
standby but remains connected to the internet so smartphones are the most portable. Tablets and phablets fall
the user still hears alerts when emails or other somewhere in between, offering a balance of portability and
‘events’ are received. expandability. The choice of device will depend on your
Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops: specific needs and use case.
1. tend to be rather expensive when compared to
laptops. 1.5. Impact of Emerging Technologies
2. they often have limited memory/storage when
compared to a laptop. Artificial Intelligence (AI): There are many definitions of
3. typing on a touch screen can be slow and error- artificial intelligence (AI). Essentially, AI is a machine or
prone compared to a standard keyboard. application which carries out a task that requires some
4. laptops tend to support more file formats than degree of intelligence. –
tablets. the use of language
recognizing a person’s face
4. Phablets: the ability to operate machinery, such as a car,
aeroplane, train, and so on,

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

analyzing data to predict the outcome of a future Input devices can be complicated because they must ensure
event, for example, weather forecasting. Impact: the user can interact with the computer correctly.
Whenever AI is mentioned, people usually think of
science fiction fantasies and think of robots. The 1. Keyboards:
science fiction writer Isaac Asimov even went as far as
producing his three laws of robotics: » Robots may not Uses:
injure a human through action or inaction. » Robots
Input of data into applications software
must obey orders given by humans without question. »
Typing in commands to the computer
A robot must protect itself unless it conflicts with the
two laws above. Everyday uses: Advantages:
1. An autonomous (driverless) vehicle – we already
have driverless trains and autopilots on airplanes, Fast entry of new text into a document.
but future developments include driverless cars. Well-known method.
2. Robotic research is leading to improvements in Easy to use for most people.
technology to help amputees and people with Easier to do verification checks as data is entered (can
disabilities. immediately compare the source document with typed
3. Robots are used to help people carry out data on the screen).
dangerous or unpleasant tasks – for example,
bomb disposal, Negative impacts of AI: Disadvantages:
4. Unemployment, robots are capable of doing
It can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist
tedious human tasks with much more efficiency
use.
and excellence than humans.
Slow method when compared to direct data entry.
5. Dependency on technology could lead to problems It is a fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.
in the future.
6. De-skilling: Tasks that used to be considered a
talent are now part of general, tedious processes
that are done on a regular basis by machines.
Extended reality refers to real and virtual combined
environments. The two most common examples at the
moment are:
Augmented reality (AR) is a merger between the
virtual and physical (real) world; it lays objects onto
pre-existing objects. e.g., Pokémon GO! Impact: safety 2. Numeric keypads:
and rescue operations’ training, shopping and retail
(getting a better look at a car before the purchase),
Uses:
healthcare (better understanding of a patient’s body)
Virtual reality (VR) enables an entirely new world to be Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the customer
created, unlike AR, which has no link to the actual can key in their PIN, amount of money, etc.
surroundings of the user. It requires the user to be Mobile phones allow phone numbers, etc., to be keyed in.
specially equipped with a VR headset, joystick, and Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode reader
headphones. Impact: Military applications, educational fails to read the barcode – the number has to be keyed in
purposes (looking at ancient buildings), healthcare, manually by the operator.
media (interactive special effects in a movie), scientific Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards.
visualization (part of molecular structures/cells). Fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.

Advantages:
2. Input & Output Devices
Faster than standard keyboards when entering numeric
data.
2.1. Input Devices and Their Uses Because many are small devices, they are very easy to
carry around.
An input device is any hardware device that allows a user
to enter data or instructions into a computer directly. Disadvantages:
An input device can send data to another device, but it
cannot receive data from another device. Sometimes, they have small keys, which can make input
Input devices are necessary for a computer to receive more difficult.
commands from its users and data to process; they are
under the user's control or can be direct data entry.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Sometimes, the order of the numbers on the keypad is not Because the touchpad is integrated into the laptop
computer, there is no need for a separate mouse; this
aids the portability and is a big advantage if no flat
surfaces are available.

Disadvantages:
intuitive. People with limited hand/wrist movement find the device
difficult to use.
3. Mouse: It can be more difficult to control the pointer when
compared to a normal mouse.
Uses:
Drag and drop operations are more complicated using a
Opening, closing and minimizing software
grouping, moving and deleting files.
Image editing, for example, controls the size and position
of a drawing pasted into a document.
Controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow
selection.

Advantages:

It is a faster method for choosing an option than a

keyboard. touchpad.
It's a very quick way of navigating through applications
and the internet. 5. Tracker ball:
Does not need a large desk area when compared to a
keyboard. Uses:

Disadvantages: A good alternative to a mouse for people with conditions

such as RSI.
It can be more difficult for people with restricted Used in an industrial control room environment.
hand/wrist movement than using a keyboard for data Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as
entry. radio.
Easy to damage, the older type of mouse quickly becomes
clogged up with dirt. Advantages:
Difficult to use if no flat surface is readily available.
Does not need the same fine control as a mouse.
It is easier to use than a mouse if the operator has
problems with their wrist.
More accurately position the pointer on the screen.
They are more robust than a mouse.
Needs less desk space than a mouse or keyboard.

Disadvantages:

4. Touchpad: It is not supplied with the computer as a standard;

therefore, it is more costly.
Uses: Users may need training because it is not standard
equipment.
Opening, closing and minimizing software
grouping, moving and deleting files.
Image editing, for example, controls the size and position
of a drawing pasted into a document.
Controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow
selection.

Advantages:

Faster than a keyboard for choosing options.

Used to navigate applications and the internet.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Uses:

Used in video games.

Used in simulators to mimic the actual controls.

Advantages:

It is easier than keyboards for screen navigation.

In some applications, the control is more realistic than
using a mouse.

Disadvantages:

The on-screen pointer is more difficult to use.

6. Remote Control:

Uses:

Televisions, satellite systems, DVD/Blu-ray players and Hi-

Fi systems, to alter controls such as volume, on/off, etc.
Used to control multimedia systems.
Used in industrial applications to remotely control
processes.

Advantages:

It can be operated from any reasonable distance.

In some conditions, e.g., in chemically hazardous
environments, we can control and measure from safe
distances.
8. Driving wheel:
Disadvantages:
Uses:
Difficult to use for people with limited hand/wrist
movements. Used in video games, especially car racing games.
Physical obstacles can easily block the signal. Used in simulators to mimic actual vehicle controls.

Advantages:

It's a more realistic experience than both mouse and

joystick.
Easier than a keyboard or joystick to control steering
movements.

Disadvantages:

It is a rather expensive input device as compared to a

mouse or joystick.
Steering movements tend to be over-sensitive, which
gives an unrealistic feel.
Unless it is an expensive simulator, feedback to the
steering wheel is non-existent.

7. Joysticks:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

9. Touch screen (as an input device): Limited quality, depending on how good the scanner’s
resolution is.
Uses: Fairly slow input method, especially if color mode is

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) to choose from on-

screen options.
Point of sale terminals such as in restaurants.
Interactive whiteboards in education.
Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are
selected during on-screen testing.

Advantages:
selected.
Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
Very easy method for choosing options. 11. Digital Cameras:
User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
Uses:
Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.
Taking photographs is still better than using smartphones
Disadvantages:
and tablets.
A limited number of input options are available. Data-capture device, e.g., as a reversing aid in cars.
This can lead to problems if an operator uses the system Dentistry, to help capture pictures for better diagnosis.
frequently (straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc., are all The creation of virtual reality tours around houses,
possible). buildings, etc.
The screen can get very dirty with constant touching.
Advantages:

Easier to produce better-quality photographs than with a

traditional camera.
Uploading photographs to a computer is faster than
scanning hard copies.
Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.
There is no need to develop film and printouts; it saves
money and is more environmentally friendly.
Unwanted images can quickly be deleted from a memory
card.

Disadvantages:

Need to be computer literate to know proper use.

10. Scanners: Loss of artistry due to clever software doing all the work.
Images need to be compressed to reduce the amount of
Uses: memory used.

Scanning documents and converting them into different

formats
Scanning in old documents to protect them in case the
original is lost/damaged.
Scanning in photographs for storage
Scanning in barcodes at POS terminals.

Advantages:

Images can be stored for editing at a later date.

When used with OCR, they are much faster and more
12. Microphones:
accurate than typing the documents in.
It is possible to recover damaged documents by scanning Uses:
and producing an acceptable copy.
To input speech to be used in various applications.
Disadvantages: Input in voice recognition software for authentication.
As a sensor to pick up sound in an intruder alarm system.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Used in audio conferencing or VoIP applications. Selecting objects on CRT screens

Drawing on screens
Advantages:
Advantages:
It is faster to read text than it is to type it in.
It is possible to manipulate sound in real time rather than Greater accuracy than touch screens
working on a completed recording. Small makes them portable and capable of being used in
It improves security if used as an authentication system. small spaces.
Easy-to-use technology.
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Sound files use up a lot of computer memory.
Reading data is more error-prone than typing in. Lagging problems while drawing on the screen.
It only works with CRT monitors.
Rather dated technology.

13. Sensors:

Uses: 2.2. Direct Data Entry & Associated

Temperature sensors are used in automatic washing Devices
machines, central heating systems, ovens, and
glasshouses. 1. Magnetic Stripe Readers:
Pressure sensors are used in intruder alarm systems and
Uses:
washing machines.
Light sensors are used in automatic glasshouses, doors, On credit/debit card for use at ATMs
and street lighting control. Security device to allow entry to buildings, hotels, etc.
Sound/acoustic sensors are used in intruder alarm
systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in pipes. Advantages:
Humidity/moisture sensors are used in automatic
glasshouses, environmental monitoring, and in factories Faster than keying in data manually.
where moisture levels are crucial. Error-free, no human intervention needed.
pH sensors are used in automatic glasshouses, chemical Secure information isn’t in human-readable form.
processes and environmental monitoring. Robust, there are no moving parts.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Readings are more accurate as compared to human If the card is damaged, the data is lost.
operators. Doesn’t work at a distance.
Readers are continuous, with no breaks in the monitoring. As the information isn’t human-readable, this can be a
Because it is a continuous process, any action or warnings disadvantage in some cases.
needed will be initiated immediately.
Automatic systems don’t need human intervention.

Disadvantages:

Faulty sensors can give spurious results.

Most sensors are analogue; therefore, they require
conversion using Analogue to Digital Convertors.

14. Light pens:

2. Chip and PIN reader:
Uses:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Uses: Advantages:

Where payments are made using cards Very fast way of inputting survey results.
It is more accurate because there is no human
Advantages: intervention.
More accurate than OCR methods.
It is more secure than contactless cards as the PIN acts as
a second security layer. Disadvantages:
More robust system than Magnetic Stripe Cards
Designing the forms can be complicated to ensure the
Disadvantages: marks are correctly positioned.
If there are problems, they need to be manually checked,
Be very careful so the PIN isn’t seen by anyone while
which can be time-consuming.
being typed in.

5. Optical Character Recognition/Reader:

Uses:

Processing passports and identity cards.

3. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) reader: Converting hard copy documents into electronic form.
Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
Uses: systems.
Digitizing historic hard copies for archiving.
Livestock tracking
Retail, instead of barcodes, as they don’t need to be Advantages:
scanned in.
Admission passes. It is a much faster data entry system than manual typing.
Library books, to acknowledge the books which have been No human intervention, its error free.
borrowed.
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
System has difficulty in reading different handwritings.
No line-of-sight contact is needed. Still not a very accurate technique.
Very robust and reliable technology.
Very fast read rate.
Bidirectional data transfer.
Bulk detection is possible.

Disadvantages:

Tag collision
As they use radio waves, they are easy to jam/interrupt.
Easy to hack into the signal.
RFID is more expensive than a comparable barcode 6. Barcode readers:
system.
Uses:
4. Optical Mark Reader/Recognition (OMR):
Used in supermarkets for stock control.
Uses: In libraries, to keep track of books.
As a safety function to ensure checking of electrical
Used in MCQs checking. equipment on a daily basis.
Used in reading voting papers.
Advantages:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Much faster than manually keying in data. QR codes can be used to transmit malicious data.
Allow automatic stock control.
They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages:

Relatively expensive system to administer.

Not fool-proof, barcodes can be swapped between items.
Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic

stripes.

7. Quick response (QR) code scanner:

Uses:

used in advertising to contain information about the

advertising company.
Wi-Fi authentication 2.3. Output Devices and Their Uses
Used in restaurants, you can see the menu by scanning.
1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors:
Advantages:
Uses:
hold much more information than normal barcode.
fewer errors than with barcodes. Their large screens allow complex diagrams to be created
QR codes are easier to read because the cameras can in Computer-aided design.
even read them on a smartphone. Used with light pens to allow designs to be created.
It is possible to encrypt QR codes.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Can be seen at a wider range of angles, unlike LCDs.
More than one QR format is available. Allow the use of light pens.

Disadvantages:

They are very heavy and bulky.

They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended.
They use a lot more power than LCDs.
Their flickering can lead to headaches.
Image burn-in is a common issue.

2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Uses:

Main output device for modern computers.

Mobile phones, laptops, video games use LCD screens.

Advantages:

Very efficient, low power consumption.

Lightweight devices.
Screens can made in various sizes.
No flickering images.
Very sharp image resolution.

Disadvantages:

Colour and contrast from different angles are

4. Multimedia projectors:
inconsistent.
Motion blur is a common issue. Uses:
Lower contrast than CRT monitors.
Training presentations to allow the whole audience to see
images.
Advertising presentations.
Home cinema systems.

Advantages:

More people can watch as they don’t have to crowd

around a laptop.
Avoids the need for several networked computers.

Disadvantages:

Images can be fuzzy.

Expensive to buy.
Set-up can be complicated.

3. Touch screen (as an output devices):

Uses:

ATMs
POS terminals
Information kiosks.

Advantages:

Don’t need additional input devices. 5. Laser printers:

They are very interactive, and many functions, such as
Uses:
swiping, can be done.
They add a high-tech feel to devices and interfaces.
In uses where low noise is required.
If fast, high quality, high-volume printing is required.
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
They tend to get dirty with frequent use.
Frequent use results in straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc. Printing is fast.
If large amounts of data are input/output, they aren’t very
They can handle very large print jobs.
accurate, and the interface isn’t very fast. Quality is consistently high.
Toner cartridges last for a long time.

Disadvantages:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

They are only considerably fast if several copies are being Advantages:
made.
Color laser printers are expensive to run. Can be used in varying environments unlike laser/inkjet
They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds printers.
because of their printing method and toner. Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
Very cheap to run and maintain.
Good for continuous printing.

Disadvantages:

Very noisy
Initial cost is more than an inkjet printer.
Very slow, poor-quality printing.

6. Inkjet printers:

Uses:

Where low-output volumes are required.

Where high-quality printing is required for single pages.

Advantages:
8. (Graph) Plotters:

High-quality output Uses:

Cheaper than laser printers.
Producing architectural drawings
Very lightweight
Producing engineering drawings
Don’t produce ozone and volatile organic compounds.
Drawing animation characters.
Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Slow output if many copies are needed.
Very high-quality output.
Can’t do large print jobs.
can produce large, monochrome and color drawings very
Printing can smudge if user isn’t careful.
accurately.
Can be expensive if used a lot.
Can print on a variety on materials.

Disadvantages:

Very slow printing.

Expensive equipment to purchase initially.
Have a very large physical footprint compared to a

7. Dot matrix printers:

Uses:

Used in environments where noise isn’t a major issue. printer.

Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
Widely used in till receipts. 9. 3D printers:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Uses: They take up a lot of desk space.

Custom-made prosthetic limbs.

In aerospace, if parts of the aircraft are made using 3d
printers they can be very lightweight.
Making spare parts for items that aren’t now
manufactured, e.g., parts of a vintage car.

Advantages:

Manufacturing objects has become much easier.

Even though the initial cost is high, it is still cheaper than
the more conventional way.
Parts for machinery that aren’t available can be made.

Disadvantages:

Potential to make counterfeit items.

Could lead to manufacture of dangerous items by almost
11. Actuators:
anyone.
Uses:

Used to turn on motors, buzzers, and switches.

Allow a computer to control physical devices,

Advantages:

Allow remote operation of many devices.

Relatively inexpensive devices.

Disadvantages:

They are an additional device in the system that could go

wrong.
Job loss potential. As analogue devices, signals need to be converted using a
DAC.
10. Speaker:

Uses: 3. Storage Devices and Media

Used in all phones and most computers.
Helps visually impaired people. 3.1. Backing-Up Data
Plays downloaded sound files.
Backing up refers to copying files or data into a different
Advantages: medium in case of damage or loss of original copy.
Amplified sounds can be much louder than the original
sound.
Why do we back up data?
Amplified sounds can be enough to be heard by a huge
To safeguard against loss of data.
crowd.
To safeguard against damages caused by hackers.
Very simple technology.
In case files need to be sent elsewhere, to protect the
They are especially useful for blind people, for instance,
original format of files.
reading e-books.

Disadvantages: 3.2. Magnetic Backing Storage Media

Speaker output can disturb irrelevant people in the same Holds data magnetically.
area, e.g., an office. The surface area of the media is magnetised so that it can
Sound quality is high only expensive speakers. hold bits of data.
The device that reads media can also read the bits held
on the surface area

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Magnetic tape drives Disadvantages:

Uses: They can be easily damaged if user accidentally drops it

or doesn’t correctly shut down the drive after use.
used in applications where batch processing is used. The data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard disk
used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need drives.
to be stored.
used in long-term archiving of data, they have huge data 3.3. Optical Media and Optical Storage
storage capacities and are known to be very stable.
Devices
Advantages:
Holds data by burning ‘dots’ onto the surface with a high-
They are generally less expensive than hard disk drives. powered laser.
It is a very robust technology.
The data that reads the media can read the data by
They have a huge data storage capacity. shining a lower-powered laser over the dots.
The data transfer rate is fast.

Disadvantages:
CD-R/DVD-R

Prolonged data access times (uses serial access). Uses:

When updating, another tape is needed to store the final
Home recordings of music and (CD-R) and films (CD-R).
updated version.
Used to store data to be kept for later use to be
They are affected by magnetic fields, a strong field can
transferred to another computer.
corrupt data stored on the tape.
Advantages:
Fixed Hard Disks/Drives
Cheaper medium than RW disks.
Uses: Once burned (and finalised), they behave like a ROM.

To store the OS, systems software and working data/files. Disadvantages:

Storing applications files.
Used in real-time systems and in online systems. It can only be recorded once; if an error occurs, then the
Used in file servers for computer networks. disk has to be thrown away.
Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.
Advantages:
CD-RW/DVD-RW
They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access
times to data. Uses:
They have a very large memory capacity.
Used to record television programs which can be
Disadvantages: recorded over, time and time again.
Used in CCTV systems.
It can be fairly easily damaged.
It can be used as a backup device for files and data.
They have many moving parts which affect overall
reliability. Advantages:
Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when
compared to solid-state drives. It can be written over many times.
You can use different file formats each time it is used.
Portable Hard Disk Drives It is not as wasteful as the R format because the files/data
can be added later.
Uses:
Disadvantages:
Can be used as a backup system to prevent data loss.
It can be used to transfer data/files/software between It can be relatively expensive media.
computers. Possible to accidentally overwrite data.

Advantages: CD-ROM/DVD-ROM

Data access time and data transfer rate are very fast. Uses:
It has a very large memory capacity.
It can be used as a method of transferring information These are read-only memory (ROM), which means they
between computers. can’t be written over and can only be read. Permanent

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

storage method.
3.4. Solid State Backing Storage
CD-ROM is used to store music files and to store software,
computer games and reference software. Holds data on devices that don’t have any moving devices.
DVD-ROM has much larger storage and is used to store
films. Solid-state drives (SSD)
Used in applications where there is a real need to prevent
deletion or overwriting of important data. Uses:

Advantages: storage device to store files, applications, OSs, and so on.

They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems. Advantages:
They are very portable as they are small and light.
Data stored on them is read-only, so it cannot be They are more reliable as they have no moving parts.
accidentally overwritten. They are considerably lighter, and suitable for laptops.
They do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work
Disadvantages: correctly.
They have lower power consumption.
Hold far less data than hard disk drives or memory sticks.
They run much cooler than HDDs.
Very slow data transfer rate and data access times, as
Because of no moving parts, they are very thin.
compared to hard disk drives.
SSD data access time is only 0.1 milliseconds compared
You cannot add your own files to the disks because they
to 10 milliseconds for HDD.
are both read-only.
Data transfer speed for SSDs is also much faster than for
HDDs.
Blu-Ray Discs
Disadvantages:
The main differences between DVD and Blu-ray are:
SSD endurance - SSDs are conservatively rated at only
1. Blu-ray uses a blue laser rather than a red laser. (The
20GB write operations per day over a three-year period.
wavelength of blue light is 405nm, much smaller than More expensive than magnetic hard disks.
the 650nm red laser) This makes pits and lands much
Smaller storage capacity than magnetic hard disks.
smaller, so they store five times more data than DVDs.
2. Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure Pen drives (Memory sticks)
encryption system, which helps to prevent piracy and
copyright infringement. Uses:
3. The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps, and for a
Blu-ray disc, it is 36 Mbps. Transporting files between computers or using as a
backing store.
Uses: Used as a security device to prevent software piracy
(known as a dongle).
Home video consoles.
Storing and playing back movies. Advantages:
Computers can use this technology for data storage or
backing hard drives. Very compact and portable media.
Camcorders can use this media to store movies. Very robust.
Does not need additional software to work on most
Advantages: computers.
They are not affected by magnetic fields.
Very large storage capacity.
Very fast data transfer rate. Disadvantages:
The data access speed is also greater than with other
optical media. Cannot write protect the data/files by making it ‘read-only’.
Blu-ray discs automatically come with a secure encryption Easy to lose (due to the small physical size).
system. The user needs to be very careful when removing a
memory stick from a computer - incorrect removal will
Disadvantages: corrupt the data on the memory stick and make it useless.

Relatively expensive discs.

Flash Memory cards
Encryption problems when used to store videos.
The introduction of HD (high definition) DVD players has Different types of memory cards:
reduced the advantages of using Blu-ray technology.
» SD cards (secure digital card)
» XD cards (extreme digital card)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

» CFast card (compact, fast card). data into an electrical signal that allows network
Uses: access. Usually integrated into the motherboard.

Storing photos on digital cameras. Each NIC is given a unique hardwired media access
Used as mobile phone memory cards. control (MAC) address.
Used in MP3 players to store music files. Media access control (MAC) address: a number that
Used as a backing store in hand-held computer devices. uniquely identifies a device when connected to a network.
The first six hex digits identify the manufacturer’s code,
Advantages: and the next 6 identify the device’s serial number.
Very compact. 2. Hubs: they are hardware devices that can have
Because of no moving parts, they are very durable. several other devices connected to them. They are
They can hold large amounts of data. used to connect devices together to form a local area
Compact cameras and smartphones can read and write network (LAN). It takes a data packet received by one
memory cards, allowing the user to transport extensive of its ports and sends it to all relevant or irrelevant
collections of photographs, songs etc. devices that are connected to it.
Disadvantages: It is not very secure to broadcast data to all devices.
Unnecessary network traffic.
Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to
HDDs. 3. Switches: intelligent hubs. Used to connect devices to
Have a lower storage capacity than hard disks. form a LAN. Unlike hubs, the switches store the MAC
Have a finite life regarding the number of times they can addresses of all devices on a lookup table. So, it only
be read from or written to. sends data to the relevant device.
Memory cards, specifically the micro SD card, are the In summary:
smallest storage devices available, making them more
likely to be lost, stolen or damaged. Both are used to connect devices in LAN.
Users must often purchase a card reader or USB Both use data packets.
converter to view the data. Hubs send data to every device on the network.
Switches send data to a relevant device only.
Switches have better security.
4. Networks & the Effects of Switches use lookup tables to determine the destination
for a data packet.
Using Them Switches use MAC addresses for relevant device
locations.
4.1. Networks 4. Bridges: Devices that connect one LAN to another LAN
that use the same protocol. Unlike routers, they can’t
Routers
communicate with external networks, such as the
A device that enables data to be sent between different types
Internet.
of networks. It can be connected through cables or wirelessly
Comparison:
to connect a LAN to the internet.
It can be used for: Bridges connect LANs together; routers connect various
types of networks together.
connecting networks and devices to the internet,
Bridges scan MAC addresses while routers scan the IP
storing computer addresses,
addresses.
routing data packets.
Both send out data in the form of data packets.
When a data packet is received, the router checks if the Bridges connect networks with the same protocol; routers
packet is intended for it or another network. The data packet can connect networks with different protocols.
The router uses routing tables to direct data packets, but
is routed to the local switch/hub if it's meant for its network. If
not, the data packet is sent to the relevant router, which bridges don’t.
sends it to the relevant device. Bridges have only two ports; routers have multiple ports.

They consult routing tables to know where to send the Wi-Fi & Bluetooth
data.
Both are used for wireless communication between devices.
Common Network Devices They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of
data transmission.
1. Network Interface Cards (NIC): These are needed to Bluetooth uses:
allow a device to connect to a network. Turns binary

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

When transferring data between 2 or more devices that Files can be synced across multiple devices.
are very close together. There is no need to carry storage devices around.
When the speed of data transmission isn’t crucial.
For low-bandwidth applications. Disadvantages:

Wi-Fi uses: A stable internet connection is always required.

Data storage in clouds may be vulnerable to security
Full-scale networks. breaches.
When the data transfer rate is crucial. The user depends on the storage provider for reliability
For uses where a higher range and better security are and availability of services.
required. The services may become expensive as the amount of
storage or bandwidth required increases.
Differences and similarities:
Common Network Environments
Bluetooth uses a transmission frequency of 2.4 GHz,
whereas Wi-Fi uses a 2.4 – 5.0 GHz range.
1. Internet:
Wi-Fi has a much faster data transfer rate.
Wi-Fi has a higher geographical range in which it is
The Internet is a very large global network that consists of
effective.
many other interconnected networks
Bluetooth only allows up to 7 devices to be connected
The World Wide Web is a vast collection of web pages that
simultaneously, whereas the number of devices
can be accessed using a web browser.
connected to a Wi-Fi network depends on the
The World Wide Web allows you to access information by
router/routers used.
using the internet
Bluetooth uses key-matching encryption. However, Wi-Fi
uses WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) and WEP (wireless Characteristics:
equivalent privacy).
It is an open network, meaning everyone can access the
Cloud Computing same resources and information as everybody else.
People from all over the world can communicate with
This method is where data is stored on remote servers each other in real-time.
accessed online. Available to anyone who has a suitable device and access
The three types of cloud storage are: to any one of the interconnected networks.

1. Public Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage Uses:

provider are different companies.
2. Private Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage Education and training
provider are a single organization. Social Networking
3. Hybrid Cloud - Combines public and private cloud Online shopping
options and allows sensitive data to remain private Entertainment
while providing public cloud services for less sensitive
information. 2. Intranet:

Cloud data is duplicated and stored on other servers to Usually private and are used to send information securely
ensure availability during system failures, upgrades, and and safely.
maintenance. Access to an organization’s Intranet is restricted and only
accessible to authorized users such as employees.
Advantages: Intranets have many advantages over the internet, such
as:
Services can be scaled up or down according to changing
better bandwidth than the internet,
requirements.
data is kept within the organization,
Cloud storage eliminates the need for a business to
less chance of hacking and attacks,
purchase expensive equipment for infrastructure and
administrators can manage access to external sites
maintenance.
and links.
Readily available globally, allowing both remote working
and data sharing. Characteristics:
Providers offer high levels of ensuring that services are
always available. A private network that is accessible to employees within a
It can offer an almost unlimited amount of storage. company or organization.
A backup of the data from the cloud will allow full data Usually behind a firewall to ensure security.
recovery in case of incidents.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Allows for document sharing and the use of collaboration Disadvantages:

tools between users.
It can be customized to meet the specific requirements of The network may not function correctly in case of
the business. hardware failure.
Users will require a username and password to access They are more prone to attacks than standalone
the Intranet. computers.
Data and peripheral accessing can be slow, based on
3. Extranet: network traffic.
LAN networks require maintenance to ensure the
Private Intranet that also allows access by selected software is up-to-date.
parties that reside outside of the organization. These
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Local Area
parties, for example, maybe customers, key stakeholders
Networks allow devices to connect wirelessly rather
or clients.
than using physical cables. Wireless Access Points
Users will have an authorization level once they have
successfully logged in, which will determine which (WAPs) are connected to an existing wired network,
which provides wireless connectivity. Support a vast
resources they may access.
range of devices, such as smartphones and laptops,
Similarities between the Internet, Intranet and extranet
are very popular in public areas such as shopping
are as follows:
malls.
They are all web-based technologies
They allow users to access information remotely Advantages:
They all use client-server architecture
They all use security measures such as Allows users to connect anywhere in the range of a
authentication and encryption Wireless Access Point (WAP).
They all promote and facilitate information and They can be used in various indoor and outdoor
resource sharing environments, making them highly flexible.
Differences between the internet, intranet and extranet As the requirements change, additional WAPs can be
are as follows: added relatively easily.
The internet is a global network, whereas an Printer access can be given to wireless devices.
intranet/extranet is a private network contained within
an organization Disadvantages:
The use of the internet covers a wide range of
The strength of their signals can be affected by obstacles
purposes, whereas an intranet/extranet is designed
such as walls.
for specific users and purposes.
Speeds can be affected by high-traffic areas.
Much information is publicly available, whereas an
It can sustain interference from other devices which can
intranet/extranet is not.
affect performance and connectivity.
The Internet is not owned solely by one person or
Can be vulnerable to security threats due to signal
organization, whereas the organization usually owns
interception.
intranets/extranets.
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN): is formed by several
Network Types LANs connected through a router. It is expensive.
However, it comes with a more enhanced security.
1. Local Area Network (LAN): networks usually contained Additional hardware is needed for a WAN: Routers,
within a single building or small geographical location. modems, and proxy servers.
It is made up of hubs and/or switches, which will
connect several devices together. One hub or switch Advantages:
commonly connects to a router, allowing LAN
connectivity to other outside networks such as the Provide the ability to connect geographically dispersed
Internet. locations, such as offices in different cities or countries.
Offer the flexibility to scale up or down based on the
Advantages: organisation's needs.
Administrators can monitor and manage the network
Allows centralized management of updates, backups and infrastructure from a single location.
software installations.
Can secure its devices with the use of firewalls, antivirus Disadvantages:
software and other security features to prevent
unauthorized access. Setting up and maintaining a WAN can be expensive,
A LAN allows users on the network to share resources especially compared to LANs.
such as printers and other peripherals. Cover larger distances and rely on public networks or
leased lines, which can introduce latency and affect

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

performance. 4. Smart Cards: Smart cards are portable devices with

WANs are subject to the reliability and availability of integrated circuits to store and process data. They are
external service providers. used for authentication, identification, and secure
transactions in various applications such as banking,
4.2. Network Issues and telecommunications, and access control.
5. Physical Tokens: It is a type of authentication that
Communication takes the shape of a solid object. The user
demonstrates ownership of the token through
Connection to a network exposes a user to: interaction with a login system. Physical tokens have
Hacking: Unauthorized access given to the computer. embedded clocks that create one-time passwords
This can lead to identity theft or the misuse of (OTPs) when a PIN and other authentication
personal information. information are entered.
Phishing: Phishing involves getting sensitive 6. Electronic Tokens are applications that users install on
information, such as usernames, passwords, and their hardware, such as smartphones. Say a person
credit card details, for malicious reasons by mimicking wants to access a website on a tablet computer. To
a reliable webpage on the network access this website, users must first authenticate
Pharming: This is malicious code installed on a user’s themselves using electronic tokens. The user has
computer or a web server; the code will redirect the already set up the electronic token app with their
user to a fake website without their knowledge (the smartphone. The user launches the app on their
user doesn’t have to take any action, unlike phishing). smartphone when the website asks them to verify
Viruses: Program code that replicates (copies itself) to their identity. The program creates an OTP that is only
delete or corrupt files and cause the computer to good for a short period of time.
malfunction
Anti-malware Software
Passwords
Anti-malware software is designed to protect devices
It is a common form of security often accompanied by a against viruses and malicious software. It has 3 primary
username or email address. purposes: detect, prevent and remove malicious software.
It is installed onto a computer system and will operate in
There are many ways to enhance the security of your
the background.
password, such as the following:
Ensure that the password is changed regularly in case Standard features of Anti-Malware software include the
it has been obtained illegally or accidentally following:
Ensure that the password uses a combination of
uppercase, lowercase, numbers and special Comparing the scanned files against an extensive
characters to make the password more difficult to database of known threats
guess. Real-time scanning
iloveict is a weak password Regular updates to gather an up-to-date list of known
1lov3ICT# is a strong password threats
Anti-spyware software can be run regularly to ensure that Quarantine of infected files
your information, including your password, is not passed Quarantining files allows threats to be automatically
to an unauthorized third-party user. deleted.
Allows the user to determine if the file is a legitimate
Other Authentication Methods threat and not a false positive.

1. Zero login: A security concept that eliminates Heuristic Checking: Instead of relying solely on a database of
traditional login methods, such as usernames and known viruses, this method looks for behavioural patterns
passwords, using biometrics or other authentication and other features in a file to identify possible risks.
factors for seamless and password-less access.
2. Biometric Recognition: These authentication methods Electronic Conferencing
use unique physical or behavioural characteristics,
such as fingerprints, iris scans, or voice recognition, to 1. Video Conferencing: It is a form of audio and video
communication. It serves as a stand-in for face-to-face
verify a person's identity.
meetings between several persons who may reside
3. Magnetic Stripes: These are authentication features
on cards storing data magnetically. They enable abroad or in another region of the country. It utilizes a
network in some way and is done in real-time.
secure identification and authorization by containing
encoded information that magnetic stripe readers can
The basic hardware includes:
read.
webcams,

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

large monitors/television screens, Heavily relies on technology, and technical issues such as
microphones, poor audio quality, background noise, or connectivity
speakers. problems are common.

The software used are: 3. Web Conferencing:

Web conferencing, often known as webinars or
Webcam and microphone software drivers webcasts, makes use of the Internet to enable
CODEC (coder and de-coder) conference calls. This system makes use of numerous
Echo cancellation software computers that are interconnected over the internet. It
operates in real-time, just like video conferencing, and
Advantages:
enables the following meeting types:
It is much easier to access important documents or bring » business meetings to discuss new ideas
in ‘experts’ at key parts of the conference. » presentations
It is possible to hold conferences at short notice. » online education or training.
Reduced travelling costs.
Advantages:
There is no need to pay for hotel accommodation or
venue hire. Allows participants to see each other through video,
Reduces the cost of taking people away from work for two providing a more immersive and engaging experience
or three days to travel. than audio conferencing.
Using video conferencing is better than having delegates Often offer screen sharing capabilities, enabling
travel to potentially unsafe places worldwide. participants to share presentations, documents, or other
visual content in real-time.
Disadvantages:
Often provide features like chat, polling, hand raising, and
Potential time lag in responses/delays when talking. Q&A sessions, fostering interactivity and engagement
Images can jerk. among participants.
It is very expensive to set up in the first place.
Disadvantages:
Problems if the delegates live in different countries with
large time zone differences. Heavily relies on internet connectivity and technical
Requires IT knowledge to some extent. infrastructure.
It's not the best for people who consider travelling a job They can be susceptible to distractions and multitasking.
perk. It often has various features and settings that participants
Completely reliant on stable internet connections. need to familiarize themselves with, especially if they are
new to the platform.
2. Audio Conferencing: Meetings held using audio
(sound) technology are called audio conferencing. The
normal telephone network can be used for audio
conferencing, frequently called a phone conference.
5. The Effects of Using IT
The hardware required is: 5.1. Microprocessor-Controlled Devices
a computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)
A microprocessor-driven labour-saving machine enables
external microphone and/or speakers
users to focus on other activities while the machine
an internet phone
completes its work. The second generation of devices
a standard phone.
containing microprocessors is more user-friendly and has
Advantages: more functionality, such as "intelligent tuning" in
television sets.
Allows participants to join meetings from any location.
Eliminates the need for travel expenses, such as Advantages of microprocessor-controlled labor-saving
transportation, accommodation, and meals. devices:
Saves time by eliminating travel time and allowing
no need to do manual tasks at home
meetings to be scheduled and conducted quickly.
more time for leisure activities
Disadvantages: no need to stay home while chores are being done
web-enabled devices allow devices to be switched on or
Lacks the visual aspect of face-to-face meetings, which off while the owner is out
can hinder communication. automated burglar alarms give a higher sense of security
It can limit interaction and engagement compared to in- and well-being
person or video conferencing.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

smart fridges and freezers prevent food waste by keeping Uses:

track of products’ expiry, availability, etc.
monitoring traffic on motorways
Disadvantages of microprocessor-controlled labor-saving congestion zone monitoring
devices: automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
automatic traffic light control
unhealthy lifestyle due to inactivity caused by devices air traffic control systems
doing all tasks railway signalling systems
tend to make people lazy
potential deskilling Advantages of transport monitoring and control systems:
any device containing a microprocessor and can
communicate using the internet displays a threat of smart motorways keep updating according to changing
cybersecurity breaches traffic conditions
more efficient
General advantages of using a microprocessor-controlled traffic offences can be remotely penalized using ANPR
device: car thefts can be spotted using ANPR
minimizes human errors, reducing the rate of accidents
save energy due to being efficient, as well as turning off
after inactivity Disadvantages:
can be easier 'programming' these devices to perform
tasks rather than turning knobs and pressing buttons If a hacker breaches security, the vehicle could be
manually controlled by them.
The system might come to a halt if it malfunctions.
General disadvantages of microprocessor-controlled devices: Systems with a poor design could compromise safety.
The easy tracking of harmless people's movements is
lead to more wasteful devices made possible by ANPR equipment. Who can access such
can be more complex to operate for technophobes data?
leaving devices on standby is wasteful
Autonomous vehicles in transport
Data Security Issues To properly execute their activities, autonomous cars require
sensors, cameras, actuators, microprocessors (along with
Any home appliance managed remotely could provide very complex algorithms). Automobile control systems can
hackers access to your personal information. These devices accomplish essential tasks by sensing information from
frequently have default (or no) password settings, which cameras and ultrasonics.
makes it simple for attackers to get sensitive information. For Consider an autonomous vehicle approaching a set of red-
instance, it is easy to discover holiday dates by hacking into a lighting traffic signals.
central heating controller (or the software used to interface
with it), making a home an obvious target for break-ins. It is The vehicle's control system must first recognize the road
likely for a hacker to obtain important information, such as sign before consulting the database to determine the
credit card numbers, if the refrigerator or freezer appropriate action.
automatically orders goods from a retailer. The CPU must instruct the actuators to apply the brakes
and put the gear in "park" since the traffic light is red.
Social Interactions The light must be continuously watched until it turns
green.
The positive aspects include: After that, the CPU will again tell the actuators to engage
first gear, let go of the brakes, and open the throttle
easier to make new friends using chat rooms (accelerator).
easier to find people who share similar interests/hobbies
less expensive to keep in touch using VoIP technology. Advantages of an autonomous car, bus, or van:

The negative aspects include: safer due to the removal of human error
due to the more efficient operation of vehicles, it is better
people do not meet face-to-face as much (social isolation) for the environment
a lack of social interaction may make people more reduced traffic congestion
anxious about meeting people in real life
increased lane capacity
When communicating online, people can act less politely reduced travel times
or more harshly, and cybercrime is a serious issue, stress-free parking for motorists
especially for teenagers.
Disadvantages:
Monitoring and Controlling Transport
very high installation prices

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

driver and passenger reluctance of the new technology Cause: due to prolonged use of monitors
reduction in taxi requirements could lead to Minimizing health risks: use adjustable chairs, footrests, and
unemployment tiltable screens.
maintenance of the sensors and cameras is crucial 3. Eyestrain: strain and fatigue, unwanted harm to vision.
the ever-present fear of hacking into the vehicle’s control Cause: due to bad lighting and prolonged screen usage.
system Minimizing health risks: use LCDs instead of CRTs, take
regular breaks, use anti-glare screens, and do regular eye
Advantages of an autonomous train: testing.
4. Headaches: pain or discomfort in the head or face area.
improved punctuality
Cause: incorrect lighting, screen reflections, flickering
reduced running costs due to fewer staff
screens, etc.
no human error
Minimizing health risks: use anti-glare screens, take regular
minimized energy consumption
breaks, regular eye-testing.
possible to increase the frequency of trains as the
5. Ozone irritation: inflammation and irritation of the tissues
possibility of delays is removed
lining human airways
more straightforward to update changes in train
Cause: inhalation of ozone released by laser printers in an
schedules
office.
Disadvantages: Minimizing health risks: proper ventilation, laser printers
should be housed in a separate room, replace laser printers
fear of the system being hacked into with inkjet printers, if possible.
initial instalment costs are very high
ensuring passenger behaviour is vital, especially during
rush hours. 6. ICT Applications
human reluctance to new technology
without drivers, CCTV monitoring will be continuously
6.1. Communication
required

Advantages of autonomous aeroplanes: Newsletters and posters

improvement in passenger comfort Paper-based communication is used to inform people

reduced running costs, fewer staff about their interests
as most accidents are due to pilot-induced errors, safety Schools use these to inform parents about events/dates
is improved Advantages
improved aerodynamics as an outcome of the removal of Released regularly
the cockpit The recipients have a permanent copy
Disadvantages
Disadvantages: Requires distribution
There are no special effects, sound/video/animation
security aspects due to the absence of pilots
There are printing costs, paper/ink
emergencies may be challenging to deal with
The targeted audience may or may not receive the
hacking into the system
information
passenger reluctance
software glitches can be catastrophic
Websites

5.2. Potential Health Problems related Collection of webpages, text, graphics, video, and sound
to the Prolonged use of IT Equipment Hosted on a web server on the internet
Need to write code or use a web authoring application
Long-term exposure to computing devices may affect user Hyperlinks to other pages can be added
well-being. Interactive websites require programming knowledge
Can use a camera, scanner, and microphone to input data
Mentioned below are some of the health issues,
accompanied by their causes and prevention tactics: Usually, hire space from the web hosting company
1. Repetitive strain injury (RSI): A condition affecting the Advantages
Ability to add sound/video/animation
muscles and nerves
Cause: repetitive movements and overuse of muscles, such Links to other websites/hyperlinks
as wrists The use of hot spots
Minimizing health risks: regular breaks, ergonomic Buttons to navigate/move around the website
equipment, correct typing techniques. Hit counters to see who has visited the websites
2. Back and neck strain: Back pain and other related issues. worldwide advertising capability
Disadvantages

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Can be hacked and modified, or viruses introduced Advantages

Need for a computer and internet connection aid portability
Lack of portability compared with the paper-based they are often more affordable than paperback books.
system Offer interactive elements that enhance the reading
Need to maintain the website once it is set up experience.
Disadvantages
Multimedia Presentations reading from an electronic device for a prolonged
time can cause eyestrain
Uses a mixture of media to present information: ePublications lack the tactile experience and physical
animations, video, sound, transitions, hyperlinks presence that some readers enjoy
Produced using software packages compatibility issues can arise if the ePublications is in
Used with a projector so a large audience can view a format that is not supported by the reader's device
Advantages or software
Use of sound and animation/video effects
Interactive/hyperlinks built into presentations Mobile Communication
More likely to hold the audience’s attention
Disadvantages Mobile devices support many forms of communication, such
Need for special equipment – expensive as:
It may require internet access 1. Short message service (SMS) messaging: permits
Distracts the audience from the sole content of the extremely quick communication with another person via
presentation typing on a keyboard (a mobile phone or tablet's keyboard is
It is very easy to make a presentation with too many frequently virtual). Its benefit is that the recipient can get the
features text whenever they choose without being available.
2. Phone calls: Making calls while on the go is among the
Media streaming most fundamental applications of a mobile phone. Mobile
phones are the perfect method to stay in correspondence
Real-time transition of audio and video files over the anywhere there is a network signal because they are
internet compact and have an independent battery.
allows users to access content without downloading it to 3. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): a communication
their devices technique for Internet users. VoIP transforms sound captured
popular services include Spotify, YouTube, and social by the built-in mic of the cell phone into individual data
media websites packets that may be transmitted via the internet to their
uses buffering, which makes sure the video plays back intended recipient.
smoothly without freezing. While the buffer receives data 4. Video calls: enables real-time video conversing between
packets, it sends previously received ones to the playback multiple participants with a camera-enabled device. Uses an
device so that there are no gaps in the played data internet connection or cellular data. Software that may be
Advantages used for video calling includes FaceTime, Skype, and Zoom.
Users can access any information at any time and 5. Accessing the Internet: Another helpful feature is accessing
from any location the net from a mobile device. Any mobile device with a
Offers an extensive library of content wireless broadband connection or a mobile phone network
Compared to traditional cable or satellite TV can link to the internet.
subscriptions, media streaming can be more cost-
effective
Disadvantages
6.2. Modelling Applications
Heavily relies on a stable and high-speed internet
Advantages of using models:
connection.
Not all content is available on every streaming using models is less expensive than having to build the
platform due to licensing agreements and exclusivity real thing
deals. safer to use a computer model
You don’t own the media when streaming media, so if allows you to try out various different scenarios in
the streaming service removes a movie or a TV show advance
from its library, it may no longer be accessible to you. nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real
life due to high risk
ePublications faster to use a computer model than to do the real thing

digital versions of printed materials, such as eBooks, Disadvantages of using models:

eMagazines, and eNewspapers.
It can be read on electronic devices. a model can’t be completely reliant as the output is
entirely based on the input

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

frequently, computer modelling can be a very costly potential gaps or inaccuracies in the analysis.
option Based on assumptions and simplifications, introducing
human reluctance is a common problem in this a level of uncertainty.
technology Their programmed algorithms and data inputs bind
models. They may struggle to adapt to unforeseen
Some of the applications of computer modelling include: circumstances or rapidly changing conditions that
1. Personal finance: Computer modelling involves using humans can more readily navigate and respond to.
mathematical algorithms and data analysis to simulate
various financial scenarios, such as investment strategies,
retirement planning, and risk assessment, aiding individuals 6.3. Computer-controlled Systems
in making informed decisions and optimizing their financial
Robotics in manufacturing: involves using automated
goals.
machines to perform tasks such as assembly, welding,
2. Bridge and building design: Computer modelling is crucial
and packaging. These robots are designed to mimic
in bridge and building design. It allows engineers to simulate
human actions with precision and speed, increasing
and analyze structural behaviour, assess load capacities, and
productivity and quality control. They offer benefits like
predict the response to external forces. It aids in optimizing
enhanced worker safety, improved efficiency, and the
designs, ensuring structural integrity, and minimizing
ability to handle repetitive tasks, revolutionizing the
potential risks before construction begins.
manufacturing industry.
3. Flood water management: Computer modelling plays a
Advantages:
vital role in flood water management by simulating water flow
can work in environments that may be harmful to
behaviour, predicting flood extents, and assessing potential
humans
flood risks. It helps design and optimise flood mitigation
can work non-stop
measures, such as levees and floodplain zoning, allowing
low running costs, majorly due to reduced employees;
authorities to make informed decisions, develop effective
thus less wages need to be given
emergency response plans, and minimize the impact of
have higher productivity
flooding on communities.
provide greater consistency
4. Traffic management: Computer modelling simulates and
can do long, boring, tedious tasks
analyses traffic flow, predicts congestion patterns, and
can carry out different tasks by fitting them with
optimises traffic control strategies. It aids in designing
different-end effectors
efficient road networks, optimizing signal timings, and
Disadvantages:
evaluating the impact of transportation infrastructure
robots find it difficult to do unusual tasks
projects. This enables authorities to make informed
can cause higher unemployment
decisions, alleviate congestion, and improve overall traffic
robots do many of the tasks once done by humans,
efficiency for better urban mobility.
leading to deskilling
5. Weather forecasting: Computer modelling plays a pivotal
robots are independent of the skills base; factory
role in weather forecasting by simulating the Earth's
headquarters can be moved internationally
atmosphere, oceanic conditions, and other environmental
initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be
factors. These models use complex algorithms to predict
expensive
weather patterns, including temperature, precipitation, wind
Production line control: Computer-controlled systems in
speed, and storm systems. By assimilating real-time data,
production line control involve using computers and
computer models provide forecasts that aid meteorologists in
software to monitor, coordinate, and optimize
predicting weather conditions, issuing warnings, and helping
manufacturing processes. These systems ensure efficient
society prepare for potential hazards.
coordination of machinery, manage inventory, track
Advantages of using computer modelling rather than production metrics, and automate tasks. They enable
humans: real-time data analysis, error detection, and adjustment,
It can provide more precise and accurate results than improving productivity, reducing downtime, and
human-based methods, minimizing errors and enhancing overall operational efficiency in the production
increasing reliability. line.
Can analyze large amounts of data and perform Autonomous vehicles: Self-driving cars and drones guided
complex calculations faster than humans by computer algorithms.
It can be reused and updated easily, reducing the enhance safety
need for repetitive manual analysis and potentially reduce traffic congestion
lowering costs in the long run. increase fuel efficiency
Disadvantages of using computer modelling rather than Advantages of using computer-controlled systems rather
humans: than humans:
It may overlook nuanced factors or intangible increased efficiency and productivity
elements that humans can consider, leading to greater consistency
ability to work in any environment

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

reduced human error The use of computer-based technologies to help

can work with large or delicate items students acquire academic material is known as
Disadvantages of using computer-controlled systems computer-aided learning (CAL). They are meant to
rather than humans: supplement classroom instruction, not serve its
very high instalment costs purpose. Students will take online assessments to
very high maintenance costs track their progress while learning on computers.
dependency on reliable Although CAL cannot consistently assist a student with
lack of flexibility an issue, in certain circumstances, students would
requires costly backup systems need to get other aid.

6.4. School Management Systems 6.5. Booking Systems

Computer-controlled School Management Systems: These web-based platforms and applications allow users to
Comprehensive software applications that automate reserve and purchase tickets or services for various events
administrative tasks, such as attendance tracking, grading, and industries. Some of the applications for online bookings
scheduling, and student information management, improving include:
educational institutions' efficiency, accuracy, and 1. Travel industry: Booking flights, hotels, and holiday
organization. packages provides a convenient platform for travellers to
plan and book their trips.
Advantages: 2. Concerts: Reserving tickets for live music events allows
Absenteeism can be addressed more quickly. music fans to secure their spot at popular concerts.
Parents are kept updated. 3. Cinemas: Booking movie tickets in advance enables
Reduced workload for teachers. cinema-goers to reserve seats and avoid queues.
Disadvantages: 4. Sporting events: Purchasing tickets for sports matches and
Operating the software will require training. competitions offers sports enthusiasts an easy way to attend
The initial cost of the software is very high. their favourite events.
Unauthorized access will have to be prevented as
there is lot of personal information Advantages:
Learner registration and attendance convenience and accessibility
ID cards with magnetic tapes: The students will have instant confirmation and ticketing
to swipe their ID cards, which contain the student’s ability to compare prices and options
name, school’s name, date of birth and the promotions and personalized offers
registration ID when they enter and leave the school; faster to change/update
this way, time is saved, and the attendance is more automated reminders via email/text
accurate. repeated bookings can be easily made
Biometrics: Every student’s fingerprint is stored on a cost-saving as there are fewer wages due to reduced
database along with their personal information, the staff requirements
students must put their finger on a fingerprint scanner Disadvantages:
to enter or leave the school premises. potential for technical issues
Advantages of biometrics over magnetic ID cards possible security and privacy concerns
Unique fingerprints disable attendance forgery transaction and booking fees
Portability makes them easy to lose impersonal customer service
Easy to be stolen due to small size dependent on a stable internet connection
ID cards can be easily cloned can lead to unemployment
Disadvantages of biometrics over magnetic ID cards
It is time-consuming for all fingerprints to be 6.6. Banking Applications
individually collected
Expensive equipment is required to read fingerprints Online banking systems depend on the ability to update
If the finger is cut/damaged, the fingerprint won’t be files instantly to avoid double scheduling, which might
readable, and access will be denied. occur if the system reaction time is slow.
There is an invasion of privacy in storing fingerprints The use of computer technology has revolutionized how
on a school database. we do our banking transactions, for example:
Learner’s performance Internet banking
Spreadsheets can be used to record students’ The use of automated teller machines (ATMs)
performances. It is easier to compare each other’s Chip and PIN technology
performances and an individual student’s
performance over the academic year. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
Computer-aided learning

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Automated teller machines (ATMs) are places where technology. The system depends on electronic money
customers can get cash (or carry out certain other banking transfers between accounts; no cash is moved. The computer
activities, such as ordering a statement) using their credit or system automatically moves the requested amount from one
debit card. account to another when it receives an EFT command.
What goes on behind the
Sequence at ATM Advantages:
scenes
very secure payment method
Customer puts card into Contact is made with bank’s
very quick payment method
ATM computer
less expensive than cheques
PIN is checked to see if it is the customer has the right to dispute an EFT payment
correct for up to 60 days
Card is checked to see if it is Disadvantages:
PIN is entered using the valid the bank transaction can’t be reversed without full
keypad The transaction is closed if the dispute investigations
card is stolen or the number of customer needs to have funds available immediately
PIN attempts allowed is cannot guarantee the recipient’s identity
exceeded.
Several options are given: Credit/debit card transactions
change PIN, pay in cheques,
pay a bill, see balance, get Several credit/debit cards come with a magnetic stripe and a
money chip; the chip houses important data like the PIN. This
technique is intended to increase security because it is
The customer selects the
superior to depending solely on a signature. A chip and PIN
cash option & several cash
card to make purchases is an example of an electronic funds
options are shown
transfer (EFT).
The customer’s account is
accessed to see if they have Advantages of credit cards:
sufficient funds, it is checked to customer protection if ordered goods don’t arrive
see if they are withdrawing internationally accepted payment method
The customer accepts one of
more than their daily limit. interest-free loan if money is paid back within the
the options or types in a
If the limit is not exceeded and agreed time period
different amount
all other checks are OK, then can make purchases online
the transaction is authorized, Disadvantages of credit cards:
and the machine then counts can be charged high interest rates
out the cash annual fees often apply
The customer is asked if they easy to end up with credit damage
want a receipt security risks in online transactions
Advantages of debit cards:
The card is returned
money comes from the user’s current account, there
Money is dispensed Customer’s account is updated
is no interest
safer than carrying cash
Advantages: can make online purchases
possible to withdraw at any time of the day Disadvantages of debit cards:
offer many banking services without having to go to less customer protection if goods don’t arrive
the bank
no credit allowed; funds are needed at the time of
possible to access an account from anywhere in the
purchase
world
security risks in online transactions
usually provides quicker service than waiting in a
queue at a bank Cheques
Disadvantages:
often in places where theft can take place at night Individuals and organizations use cheques as a form of
potential for shoulder surfing payment. When issuing a cheque, the payer writes the
some banks charge customers for using ATMs recipient's name, the payment amount, and the date on the
cash withdrawal limits are often imposed on people cheque. The recipient then deposits or presents the cheque
to their bank for processing. The payer's bank verifies the
Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): fund’s availability, and upon clearance, the specified amount
is transferred from the payer's account to the recipient's
It is possible to send money transfer instructions directly to a account, completing the transaction.
bank's computer system via electronic funds transfer (EFT)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Advantages: replace damaged or diseased tissue in the human

more convenient and safer than cash body.
can be post-dated Artificial blood vessels are synthetic structures
can be traced if they are lost designed to mimic the function of natural blood
Disadvantages: vessels, facilitating the flow of blood and nutrients
aren’t legal tender and can be refused throughout the body to support tissue repair and
slow method of payment regeneration.
easier for fraudsters than other methods Customized medicines are personalized drug
relatively expensive payment method formulations tailored to individual patients' specific
needs. They utilize advanced technology and precise
Internet Banking measurements to create medications with accurate
dosages and unique compositions, optimizing
Enable online access to banking services via a secure website treatment outcomes.
or app, allowing for transfers, bill payments, account
management, and more.
6.8. Expert Systems
Advantages:
convenience and availability It is an AI-based computer program that emulates the
easy account management decision-making capabilities of human experts. It uses
branch visiting won’t be a requirement knowledge and rules to provide accurate advice or solutions
interest rates may be better in a specific domain.
easier to shop around for the best account Examples include:
Disadvantages:
Diagnostics
security of transactions
Mineral prospecting
requires a reliable internet connection
Tax and financial calculations
More risk of fraud
Strategy games
Easier to make errors
Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds
Physical cash can't be deposited/withdrawn
Route scheduling for delivery vehicles

6.7. Computers in Medicine

Information Systems in Medicine

Patient records: Healthcare professionals maintain

databases to communicate information between them
and pharmacists (for instance, to guarantee no
medications are administered that interact dangerously
with one another).
Pharmacy records: Pharmacy records maintain a
comprehensive record of patient prescriptions. This
includes details like the prescribed medication, dosage,
quantity dispensed, prescribing physician's information, Components of an Expert System
and the date of dispensing. These records help track 1. User Interface
medication usage and can be used to verify prescription
accuracy and detect potential drug interactions or This is the only thing that the end user sees
allergies. Allows the user to interact with the system
Often requires training to operate effectively
3D Printers
2. Explanation system
Using 3D printers in medicine:
Informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert
Prosthetics: 3D printers print out artificial body parts
system’s conclusions
such as false teeth, artificial limbs, hearing aids, etc.
It will supply a conclusion and any suggested actions to
This is a less expensive method of replacing body
take
parts. It will also give the percentage probability of the accuracy
Tissue engineering: it is the field of combining cells, of its conclusions
biomaterials, and engineering principles to create
functional tissues or organs, aiming to repair or 3. Inference engine

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

The main processing element of the system securely transferring funds from their bank accounts. EFTPOS
It acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base terminals authenticate and authorize transactions in real-
Responsible for gathering information time, providing convenience and security for customers and
This is the problem-solving part of the system businesses during retail purchases.
Attempts to use information gathered from the user to The process of checking credit and debit cards at a
find a matching object supermarket EFTPOS is much the same as was described for
paying a restaurant bill in Section 6.6.
4. Knowledge base Some functions of EFTPOS include:
It is a repository of facts Use of chip and PIN cards:
stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise Enhance security with two-factor authentication
a collection of objects and their attributes Require customers to enter a personal identification
number (PIN)
5. Rules base
Use of contactless cards:
The rules base is a set of inference rules. Allow for faster transactions
Used by the inference engine to draw conclusions Enable customers to tap their card on the terminal
They follow logical thinking Use of Near Field Communication (NFC):
Facilitate payments through smartphones and other
How an expert system is used to produce possible devices
solutions Increase convenience for customers
Communication between supermarket computers and
Below is an example of how an expert system works to bank computers:
diagnose a medical issue: Share transaction details securely
Enable instant payment processing and verification
The interactive screen asks questions for the doctor to
answer using a keyboard or a touch screen. Internet Shopping
The inference engine compares the symptoms with the
knowledge base, using the rule base to find matches. Characteristics of Internet Shopping:
The system suggests the possible illness with a probability
of each, cures, and recommendations on the next step. Online stores accessible through web browsers
The explanation system will explain how that particular A wide variety of products and services are available
diagnosis was suggested. Convenient and often open 24/7

Advantages (To customer) :

6.9. Computers in the Retail Industry
access to the global market
Point of sale (POS) terminals: Computerized systems used at comparison between different products effortlessly
checkout counters to handle purchases and oversee stock. It can shop from anywhere in the world
is extensively used in retail stores to process sales able to avoid queues and busy stores
transactions. They enable quick and secure payment
Advantages (To business) :
processing through various methods, including cash,
credit/debit cards, mobile payments, and digital wallets. POS can target prices and services based on buying data
terminals calculate totals, generate itemized receipts, update can update stock availability and prices more quickly than
inventory, and provide real-time sales data for effective a physical store
business management. cheaper to publicize special offers
international customer base
Some features include:
increased profits due to lower staff
update stock files immediately
track inventory levels in real-time Disadvantages ( To customer):
prevent stock discrepancies and ensure accurate
records security concerns
monitor inventory levels and reorder when stock is can’t correctly examine products before purchase
lower than a predefined value occasionally, products may take weeks before being
streamline supply chain management and minimize delivered
stockouts additional shipping and handling costs
lack of face-to-face interaction with staff
Electronic funds transfer at Point of sale (EFTPOS) terminals:
Devices for processing electronic payments; they allow Disadvantages ( To business):
customers to make payments using debit or credit cards by
increased competition

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

digital fraud and security concerns It can automatically control the entry and exit to a car
technical issues and downtime park or private roads.
costs of delivery and return It can be used as a security system to prevent illegal
fake negative reviews can lead to a lousy company parking.
reputation It can be used to analyze driver behaviour.
It can be used in inner-city congestion charging
6.10. Recognition Systems systems.
Disadvantages:
1. Optical Mark recognition (OMR) media in schools: A lack of manned security car park surveillance could
lead to vandalism.
School registers: Paper-based registers are fed into OMR There could be an invasion of privacy due to recording
to be scanned and stored in a database. drivers’ number plates.
Multiple-choice examination papers: The position of a Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be
mark is stored in a computer’s memory after being read recognized.
by the OMR, a device using a template that maps out the The ANPR system only recognizes the number plate
X-Y coordinates of each tablet (pen/pencil mark). and not the car so that a car can be fitted with a
Used at POS terminals for scanning and reading the cloned number plate, thus bypassing car park security,
information stored in barcodes. for example.
Many digital devices have OMR scanners, which may be
used to scan QR codes. 3. RFID in tracking stock:
Advantages:
Tracking of stock using RFID involves either tracking
very fast way of inputting the results of a survey
livestock (on a farm) or goods in a shop, supermarket, or
more accurate than keying in data
distribution centre.
more accurate than OCR methods
RFID in passports:
Disadvantages:
The data on the RFID chip is read when the passport is
designing the forms is a very complex job
scanned.
there can be problems if they haven’t been filled
Your photo is clicked and compared to the RFID chip
correctly
image.
often only work with black pens or pencils
If face recognition passes, some checks are made to
2. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) ensure you are eligible to enter the country, and if you
are, the gate opens automatically.
Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) systems: RFID in automobiles:
The sensor sends a signal to instruct a camera to Tags allow or deny access to parking in a secure,
capture an image of the front of the vehicle private car park.
An algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number RFID tags in lorries and delivery vans can be used at
plate from the image taken by the camera. weigh stations to ensure the vehicle is not carrying too
The brightness and contrast of the number plate are much weight.
first adjusted. Each character on the number plate is RFID tags can be used on a car production line to track
then segmented. its progress through assembly.
Each character is then recognized using OCR RFID in contactless payments:
software. The characters are converted into a string of The embedded chip on credit/debit cards and the
editable text by the software. antenna enable customers to wave their card over a
This text string is then stored in a database. reader at the point of sale terminals to make
A barrier is raised, and the motorist is issued with a payments
ticket. The ticket shows the date and time of entering Smartphone apps can also be used to make
the car park. contactless payments.
When the car returns to the car park, they insert their Advantages:
ticket into a machine that calculates their charges and No line-of-sight contact is necessary.
registers the payment into the database. It is a very robust and reliable technology.
Advantages: Tags are much more difficult to forge than barcodes.
Used to automatically monitor the average speed of RFID tags can reduce the number of staff needed in,
vehicles over a stretch of road. for example, a warehouse because tracking items is
There is no need to employ a car park or security automatic (thus reducing costs).
guards. It provides a very fast read rate.
It's a much faster system than checking a ticket at the It allows bi-directional data transfer.
exit. Bulk detection is possible.
Disadvantages:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Tag collision is when the signals from two or more three satellites
tags overlap, interfering with each other.
Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively Satellite Navigation (satnav):
easy to jam or interrupt.
Used to determine the exact location of a car.
It is relatively easy to hack into the data/signal
The computers onboard can be used to show directions to
transmitted by the tag.
a destination.
The initial cost of an RFID system is more expensive
than a comparable barcode system. Advantages:

4. Near Field Communication (NFC): Better focus as there isn’t a need to constantly check
paper maps.
Enables short-range wireless communication between
Reduces fines by warning drivers about upcoming speed
devices.
changes.
Allows payment using a smartphone.
The system shows an Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).
Advantages:
It is possible to program in the fastest route to avoid
Convenient and secure method of payment
towns.
allows for contactless transactions
The system can also give helpful information such as the
Disadvantages:
location of petrol stations.
Limited range
compatibility issues with some devices Disadvantages:

5. Biometric recognition: If the maps are not updated, they can give incorrect
instructions.
Usually refers to automated technologies for
Road closures due to accidents or roadworks can cause
authenticating and verifying human body characteristics
problems.
such as face, iris, retina, finger, thumb, hand and voice.
The loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
Advantages:
The system will give incorrect information if an incorrect
very high accuracy
start-point or end-point is keyed in.
very easy to use
very fast verification time Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
non-intrusive method
relatively inexpensive technology Used to capture, manage, analyze, and display
Disadvantages: geographically referenced information.
it can make mistakes if the skin is dirty or damaged Use to determine the distance between two places.
very expensive to install and set up Used to find the nearest petrol station or restaurant, etc.
uses a lot of memory for the data to be stored To protect animal and plant life in certain vulnerable
a person’s voice can be quickly recorded and used for places.
unauthorized access It can be used in geography, science, or engineering
an illness, such as a cold, can change a person’s voice, lessons.
making absolute identification difficult or impossible
Advantages:
6.11. Satellite Systems Allows geographical and thematic data of any kind to be
combined to show how they are connected to each other.
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) It allows the handling and exploration of vast amounts of
data.
Used to determine the exact location of several modes of
It allows data to be integrated from a wide range of very
transport
different sources.
Cars usually refer to GPS as satellite navigation systems
Satellites surrounding the Earth transmit signals to the Disadvantages:
surface
Computers installed in the mode of transport receive and The learning curve on GIS software can be very long.
interpret these signals GIS software is very expensive.
Knowing their position on the Earth depends on very GIS requires enormous amounts of data to be input.
accurate timing – atomic clocks are used in the satellites, It isn't easy to make GIS programs that are both fast and
which are accurate to within a fraction of a second per user-friendly.
day
Each satellite transmits data indicating its position & time Media Communication Systems
The computer on board the mode of transport calculates
its exact position based on the information from at least Using satellite signals for communication.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Used by media companies when sending Disadvantages: relatively expensive, time-consuming,

stories/videos/pictures from remote locations. no user-anonymity, which may affect the response
Questionnaires:
Advantages: set of predetermined questions is given to the users to
complete and give their opinion on the current system
They have good global coverage.
it is majorly used in collecting data from a larger
They are cheaper, faster, and safer than laying cables in
group of people
difficult or treacherous terrain.
Advantages: allows for quantitative analysis, efficient
They have very high bandwidth.
data collection, questions can be answered quickly
It is relatively easy to expand the network.
Disadvantages: limited by predetermined questions,
Security in satellite transmission is very good because
may suffer from low response rates, users may
data is coded, and the receiver requires decoding
exaggerate answers due to anonymity
equipment.
Examination of existing documents:
During emergency situations, it is relatively easy to move
reviewing system documentation, user guides, or
stations on the ground from one place to another.
reports
They are well-suited for broadcasting.
understanding the current system's design and any
Enable mobile communication in very remote locations.
known issues
Disadvantages: Advantages: provides insights into the system's
history, can reveal previously unknown issues
There is a time delay in receipt of the signals. Disadvantages: it may be outdated, incomplete, time-
The signals received can be affected by bad weather. consuming, and rather expensive.
Sunspot activity can affect the performance of a satellite.
They must be monitored and controlled regularly to Record and Analyse Information about the Current
remain in the correct orbit. System

Identifying key aspects of the current system

7. System’s Life Cycle
Data inputted, processed, and outputted into the system
are identified.
7.1. Analysis Problems with the current system are identified. What
could be improved?
Stages of Analysis:
The requirements of the user and the potential new
1. Analysis system are identified. What is the new system meant to
2. Design do?
3. Development & Testing Problems: issues that users face with the current system
4. Implementation User requirements: what needs to be added to the new
5. Documentation system
6. Evaluation Information requirements: data or information the new
system must process
Analysis of the Current System
New System Requirements Specification:
The current system is studied using four different • Once the systems analysts have completed the systems life
methodologies. These are the four techniques: cycle analysis stage, they should be fully aware of the current
system's limitations.
Observation: • The next step will be to design a new system (normally
involves watching users interact with the system to computer-based) to resolve the problems identified by the
figure out its workings users and the systems analyst.
it is used for understanding how users interact with • The Requirements Specification will be created, outlining the
the current system required improvements and expectations for the new system.
Advantages: provides first-hand, unbiased information
Disadvantages: can be time-consuming, may not System Specification
reveal all issues
Interviews: Hardware and Software Selection
direct one-to-one conversations with users on their
It is vital to identify the suitable hardware needed for the
experience with the current system
new system
used to gather comprehensive information about
contemplating system requirements, compatibility,
individual users
costs
Advantages: allows for in-depth exploration of issues

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

justifying choices based on user needs and system Validation Routines

performance
Hardware that needs to be considered: It is a method of examining data submitted to a computer to
barcode readers, determine if it meets specific requirements. It is a routine
scanners, check that the computer does as part of its programming.
touch screens, 1. Range check: ensures data is within a specified range of
3D printers, values
monitors, 2. Character check: ensures data contains only allowed
speakers. characters
Identifying suitable software needed for the new system 3. Length check: ensures data is of a specified length
considering functionality, compatibility, and ease of 4. Type check: ensures data is of the correct data type
use 5. Format check: ensures data conforms to a specific format
justifying choices based on user requirements and 6. Presence check: ensures data is present and not left blank
system efficiency 7. Check digit: a digit added to a number to verify its accuracy
Software that needs to be considered:
operating system, 7.3. Development and Testing
applications software,
size of storage, Guarantees the system's functionality before it is put into
type of storage. use.
Identification and removal of errors, thus improving
7.2. Design system reliability and performance.

Once the analysis has taken place and the systems analyst Test Designs
has some idea of the scale of the problem and what needs to
be done, the next stage is to design the critical parts of the Test data structures, file structures, input formats, output
recommended system. formats, and validation routines
Ensure all components function correctly and interact
File/Data Structures seamlessly

Field length: number of characters allowed in a field Test Strategies

Field name: an identifier for the field in the data structure
Data type: specifies the kind of data that can be stored in Test each module: verify individual components function
a field, e.g., text, numbers, dates as intended
Coding of data: using codes to represent data, e.g. M for Test each function: ensure all features work correctly
male, F for female Test the whole system: confirm overall system
performance and integration
Input Formats
Test Plan
Data capture forms: These are designed to collect data
from users in a structured format. They come in two Test data: specific data used for testing purposes
types: paper-based and electronic-based. Paper-based Expected outcomes: predicted results based on test data
data-capturing forms must be carefully designed with Actual outcomes: results obtained from testing
headings, concise instructions, character and information Remedial action: steps taken to fix identified issues
fields, checkboxes, and enough writing space. Text boxes,
on-screen help, drop-down menus, radio buttons, Test Data Types
automatic validation, and control buttons for data entry
are all features of computer-based forms. The following data types will be explained using the example
Consider a user-friendly layout, clear instructions, and
of months in a year.
appropriate data fields. Normal data: valid and expected data values within the
range of acceptability have an expected outcome. E.g.,
Output Formats
any whole number between 1 and 12.
Abnormal data: invalid or unexpected data values. This
Screen layouts: how information is presented to users on
can either be:
a screen
Data outside the range of acceptability or
Report layouts: how information is organized in a printed
Data that is the wrong data type
or digital report
In this case, examples could be…
Consider readability, visual appeal, and efficient use of
any value less than 1 (i.e. 0, -6, etc.)
space

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

any value greater than 12 (i.e. 13, 15, etc.) staff have time to train with the new system
letters or nun-numeric data (i.e. July, etc.) few errors as it's fully tested
non-integral values (i.e. 3.5, 4.2, etc.) Disadvantages
Extreme data: values at the limits of acceptability (E.g. 1 Slower implementation
or 12) potential inconsistencies
confusion as there are two systems in use
What is live data? There is no backup for the department/center/branch
using the new system
Data that has been used with the current system
Hence, the results are already known 4. Phased Implementation

The new system is implemented in stages, with each

7.4. Implementation stage replacing a part of the old system
Used when a gradual transition is preferred to minimize
The system must then be fully implemented after it has been disruption
thoroughly tested. Advantages
We will now think more carefully about switching to the new reduced risk
system. Four popular techniques are utilized to transition easier to manage
from the old system to the new one. Disadvantages
Before selecting the approach best suited for a given Takes longer
application, the pros and cons of each must be carefully potential compatibility issues
considered.

4 Methods of Implementation 7.5. Documentation

1. Direct changeover: In the life cycle of a system, documentation enables the

correct recording of design, implementation, testing, and
The old system is replaced by the new system maintenance data, facilitating effective communication,
immediately troubleshooting, and potential future improvements.
Used when quick implementation is necessary Technical documentation: detailed information on the
Advantages system's inner workings and programming for developers
fast implementation and IT staff
cost-effective as only one system is in operation
Disadvantages Used to maintain, repair, and update the system with
High risk of failure improvements
no fallback
Purpose of the system/program: Explanation of the
users can’t be trained on the new system
system's intended function and goals
2. Parallel Running Limitations: Known constraints or issues with the system
Program listing: The code or scripts used in the system
Both current and new systems run simultaneously for a Program language: The programming language used to
period before the old system is phased out develop the system
Used when a smooth transition with minimal risk is Program flowcharts/algorithms: Visual representations or
required descriptions of the system's logic and processes
Advantages System flowcharts: Visual representations of the
Lower risk interactions between system components
easy system comparison Hardware & software requirements: Necessary
Disadvantages equipment and software to run the system
Time-consuming File structures: Organization and layout of the system's
resource-intensive files and data
List of variables: Collection of variables used within the
3. Pilot Running system, including their names and purposes
Input format: Structure and format for entering data into
The new system is implemented in a small, controlled
the system
environment before full-scale implementation
Used when testing the new system in a real-world setting Output format: Structure and format for presenting data
generated by the system
Advantages
Sample runs/test runs: Examples of system operation,
Low risk as only trialled in one
including input and expected output
department/centre/branch
Validation routines: Techniques used to check and confirm
allows for fine-tuning
the accuracy of data entered into the system

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

User Documentation Does it operate by reducing staff costs?

Instruction and guidance for end-users on how to operate the Evaluate the Ease of Use
system. Used to help users effectively use the system and
overcome problems Look at the solution's usability and accessibility for the
target market. Check to see if the system is simple to
Purpose of the system: Explanation of the system's understand and use and if users have no trouble
intended function and goals completing their jobs.
Limitations: Known constraints or issues with the system Describe the user interface and how it facilitates
Hardware & software requirements: Necessary interaction with the system
equipment and software to run the system Mention any feedback from users regarding their
Loading/running/installing software: Instructions for experience with the system and address any issues
setting up the system on user devices they encountered
Saving files: Procedures for storing data within the system Questions to ask:
Printing data: Steps to produce hard copies of system Are all the users able to use the system and make
data bookings easily?
Adding records: Instructions for creating new entries in Are all the users able to change and cancel bookings
the system easily?
Deleting/editing records: Guidelines for modifying or Can all staff understand how to use the system with
removing existing entries in the system minimal training?
Input format: Structure and format for entering data into
the system Determine the Suitability of the Solution
Output format: Structure and format for presenting data
generated by the system Examine how well the implemented solution satisfies the
Sample runs: Examples of system operation, including desired outcome by contrasting it with the original task
input and expected output criteria.
Error messages: Explanations of system warnings and Outline the initial objectives of the system and discuss
error notifications how the solution addresses each one
Error handling: Steps to resolve issues and errors within Highlight any requirements that may not have been
the system fully met and discuss possible reasons for this
Troubleshooting guide/helpline: Assistance for diagnosing Questions to ask:
and addressing common problems Is the system suitable for each of the departments?
Frequently Asked Questions: Answers to common user Does it meet the needs of the customers?
inquiries Does it meet the needs of the staff?
Glossary of Terms: Definitions of key terms and concepts Does the solution match the original requirements?
related to the system
Collect and Examine User’s Feedback
7.6. Evaluation Collect users' responses to the results of testing the
system. Their feedback can provide insights into potential
It measures a system's productivity, efficiency, and
issues and improvements and help determine overall
compliance with its goals to identify its strengths,
user satisfaction.
shortcomings, and potential development areas. This
Summarise the testing process, including test data
assessment informs decision-making and improves overall
expected and actual outcomes.
performance over the course of a system's life cycle.
Discuss users' reactions to the system, addressing
any concerns or suggestions they may have
Assess the Efficiency of the Solution

Analyse the system's efficiency in time, money, and Identify Limitations and Suggest Necessary
resource use. Examine whether the system is performing Improvements
at its best or if its efficiency could be increased.
Provide examples of specific aspects that contribute to Based on the analysis of efficiency, ease of use,
the system's efficiency appropriateness, and user feedback, identify any
Identify areas that may be consuming excessive limitations in the system and suggest necessary
resources or time and suggest ways to optimize them improvements
Questions to ask: List the limitations and provide explanations for each
Does it operate quicker than the previous system? one
Does it operate by reducing staff time in making Recommend specific changes or enhancements for
bookings? these issues

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

inspect equipment and locations containing devices for

8. Safety & Security signs of wear or damage.

8.1. Physical Safety 8.2. eSafety

1. Electrocution: ICT devices require electrical power to Data Protection
charge or run; the electrical device can cause electrocution,
caused by the electric current moving through a body, The Data Protection Act (DPA) controls personal data
causing fatal injuries and/or death. collection, storage and processing.
There are multiple causes for electrocution, including:
In the UK, the European Union’s General Data Protection
Contact between liquid substances and electronic devices: Regulation (GDPR)
Keep liquids away from electrical equipment. Protects personal data, whether stored on paper or a
Open cables: Ensure that cables are entirely insulated and computer system
packed, and use circuit breakers or fuses to prevent
electrical overload. Principles of the Data Protection Act

2. Fire: ICT devices require electricity to charge or run; too Data must be processed lawfully, fairly, and transparently,
many devices using a single socket can cause the plug socket with clear consent from the individual.
to overload, and heat is generated by too much electricity, Data should only be collected for specific, explicit, and
causing the wiring to degrade and ignite a fire. legitimate purposes.
The causes and reduction tactics for fire include: Organizations should only collect and retain the minimum
personal data necessary for their stated purpose.
Socket overload: Ensure enough plug sockets in the room, Data should be accurate and up-to-date, and reasonable
don’t plug too many devices into the same socket, and steps must be taken to rectify or erase inaccurate
don’t leave devices plugged in and unattended. information.
Overheated equipment: Ensure that equipment is Personal data should not be kept longer than necessary
properly ventilated and not obstructed, keep flammable
and should be securely deleted when no longer needed.
materials away from heat sources, regularly check Organizations must protect personal data against
equipment for signs of wear or damage, use fire unauthorized or unlawful processing, accidental loss,
extinguishers in case of emergencies, turn off or unplug
destruction, or damage.
devices when away from the location, do not cover any air
vents on devices. Why is data protection legislation required?
3. Trailing cables: Devices can be plugged in using cables.
Protecting Individual Rights: Data protection legislation
Cables that are protruding can cause an accident; you can
safeguards individuals' right to privacy and control over
trip over a cable left out in a location, and body damage can
their personal information.
occur during a fall, for example, breaking bones, ligament
Preventing Misuse of Personal Data: It helps prevent
damage, bruising, sprains, etc. depending on the area fell on
unauthorized access, identity theft, fraud, and other forms
Trailing cables causes and prevention strategies:
of data misuse.
Unorganized/insecure cables: use cable ties to secure Promoting Trust: Data protection laws build trust between
cables, keep cables packed correctly in, let’s say, a table, individuals and organizations by ensuring their personal
therefore not coming in the way of walking paths, use information is handled responsibly.
wireless devices where possible, and regularly inspect Encouraging Responsible Data Handling: Legislation
cables for signs of wear or damage. promotes responsible data collection, storage, and
processing practices among organizations.
4. Heavy falling equipment: Devices have varying levels of Enabling Data Subject Rights: Legislation grants
weight, and if a device falls on you, it could cause injury; any individuals rights such as access to their data, right to
device should be placed in a secure location, like a PC on a rectification, erasure, and objection to processing.
solid desk and not near the edge.
Causes and reduction tactics for falling equipment: Personal Data
Improperly secured equipment: Ensure that equipment is Refers to information that can be used to identify an
properly secured and stable. Regularly check the stability individual
of locations containing devices. Examples
Equipment on unstable surfaces: Keep equipment away Personal Name
from edges and other potential hazards, and regularly Address
Date of birth

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

A photograph in school uniform Develop responsible online behaviours, promoting

Medical history respectful conduct while interacting with others online.
Threats that can be avoided by protecting personal data: Maintain a healthy balance between online and offline
Identity theft lives, reducing the risk of addiction, mental health issues,
Privacy breaches or negative impacts on relationships and self-esteem.
Misuse of the information
Data be sold to third-party companies Safety Suggestions
Individuals could be held to ransom over personal
data gathered The internet:
could be used to commit a physical crime Use trusted websites recommended by teachers or
How to avoid inappropriate data disclosure: reputable sources
Personal data must be kept confidential and protected Utilize search engines that only allow access to age-
through privacy settings on websites such as social appropriate websites and use filters to ensure
media or strong passwords on websites where inappropriate content is not seen
personal data is held or used Never reveal personal information
Access to personal data should be limited to Email:
authorized individuals Be aware of the potential dangers of opening or
Think before you post - consider what information replying to emails from unknown people, including
could be gathered from your image or content attachments; potential dangers include phishing,
Check website details about the collection, storage, spam
and use of personal data Ensure you know who the email is for when
Only access websites where personal data is used or considering sending personal data or images via
viewed when on a secure, encrypted connection email, only with people you know and not with
identifiable content like school photos
eSafety Social media:
Know how to block and report people who send
E-safety is about knowing about and using the internet safely content or messages that are unwanted
and responsibly. Know where the privacy settings are to reduce the
It refers to when an individual is using the internet, email, number of people who can see your posts or images
social media, online gaming. Be aware of the potential dangers of meeting online
E-safety refers to the individual knowing how to protect contacts face to face, do not meet anyone you do not
themselves from potential dangers and threats know; if you do, take an adult and meet publicly.
Do not distribute inappropriate images and
The need for eSafety inappropriate language
Respect the confidentiality of personal data belonging
Awareness that personal information should not be to other people
shared freely Only accept friend requests from people you know
Awareness of how to act online and avoid falling victim Parents should be aware of what you are doing online,
creates a safe and respectful environment. discuss what you are doing online
Identify and avoid online scams, phishing attempts, and Do not post images or details that can be used to
fraudulent websites that may try to trick them into sharing locate you
personal or financial information. Online gaming:
Mindful of online behaviour and interactions, protecting Do not use real names as usernames
your digital reputation, which can have long-term Never share personal or financial details with other
consequences in your personal and professional life. players
Control privacy settings on social media platforms, Know how to block and report players for
limiting who can access/view personal information and inappropriate messages or comments
posts. Sensitive Data is data that might result in loss of an
Avoid encountering explicit or harmful content online, advantage or level of security if disclosed to others. Ie,
reducing the risk of exposure to inappropriate material or ethnicity, religion, criminal record, etc. At the same time,
online predators. personal data can be used to identify the user, i.e.,
Engage in online gaming responsibly, avoid sharing passport number, name, age, etc.
personal details, and behave respectfully towards other
players.
8.3. Security of Data
Protecting devices from malware, viruses, and other
online threats, preventing data loss, privacy breaches, or
device damage.
Threats

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

There are multiple methods by which data can be threatened, Creating data in a format that cannot be read without a
including: decryption key Data on hard drives, emails, cloud storage,
and secure websites (HTTPS) are all protected by
Hacking: Unauthorized access to computer systems or encryption. Without a decryption key, it assures that even
networks to gain control, steal information, or cause if unauthorized people obtain data, it cannot be decoded.
damage, thus leading to identity theft, privacy breaches,
and misuse of data 5. Firewall:
Phishing: Deceptive emails or messages that are received
from trusted sources to trick individuals into revealing A firewall is a network security device that monitors and
personal data manages incoming and outgoing network traffic. Its goal
Pharming: Manipulation of DNS (Domain Name System) is to separate an internal network from other networks by
to redirect users to fraudulent websites, often to steal filtering data according to established criteria. It assists in
personal data preventing malware, unauthorized access, and other
Smishing: Phishing attacks carried out through SMS or network risks.
text messages
6. Two-factor authentication:
Vishing: (aka voicemail phishing) Phishing attacks carried
out through voice messages to trick users into calling the A security mechanism that requests two different kinds of
telephone number contained in the message identification from users to confirm their identity. To
Viruses and malware: Viruses are program codes that can provide additional protection outside of just a username
replicate/copy themselves to cause data loss or and password, 2FA was created. Typically, it combines
corruption. Malicious software designed to disrupt, something that uniquely identifies a user, like biometric
damage, or gain unauthorized access to computer data, with something the user has, like a smartphone and
systems or networks a token or something they know, like a password.
Card fraud: Unauthorized use of credit or debit card
information for fraudulent purposes caused by shoulder 7. User ID and password:
surfing, card cloning, or keylogging.
A typical authentication technique uses a password plus a
Protection of Data secret code (user ID) to identify. To strengthen data
security, user IDs and passwords restrict access to only
Multiple techniques are implied for the protection of data, authorized users. Using secure passwords and changing
inclusive: them frequently is critical to ensure security. When
1. Biometrics: creating passwords, it is advised to utilize a mix of
uppercase, lowercase, digits, and special characters.
Individuals' distinctive physical or behavioural traits, such
as fingerprints, faces, or irises, can be used for access
control and verification. Since biometric data is hard to 9. Audience
fake or duplicate, it offers a more secure form of
identification. 9.1. Audience Appreciation
2. Digital certificate:
To express gratitude and value for the users by providing
A digital record that attests to a website's reliability and helpful and relevant information, fostering positive
integrity. A digital certificate is used to provide safe experiences, and contributing to their understanding and
communication and to build confidence between parties. learning.
Identifier data, the entity's public key, and a third party's
digital signature are frequently found in digital Planning ICT Solutions
certificates.
The first step to building effective ICT solutions is
3. Secure Socket Layer (SSL): identifying and understanding the intended audience's
needs. These needs can be functional, like processing
a protocol that creates a secure connection between a information, or aesthetic, like a visually appealing
client computer and a server. SSL ensures that interface.
information communicated between a server and client After identifying the needs, select the appropriate
stays private and cannot be intercepted or changed by technology and tools to create a solution. This choice
unauthorized parties. A website's identification for it is the depends on factors like the complexity of the task, the
S at the end of HTTP. budget available, and the technical expertise of the users.
An essential aspect to remember while designing ICT
4. Encryption:
solutions is to ensure they are user-friendly. This means

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

they should be intuitive to use, require minimal training, Other techniques include software product activation,
and have easy-to-understand instructions. which needs a unique code to be fully functional.
Additionally, ICT solutions should be accessible to all Given that pirated software frequently cannot receive
users, including those with disabilities. This could involve automatic upgrades, which renders it less effective and
adding features like voice commands, larger text options, secure over time, automatic updates may also serve as a
or compatibility with assistive devices. kind of copyright protection.
Once the solution is created, it is crucial to test it to
ensure it functions as expected and fulfils the users'
needs effectively. 10. Communication
Analysing Audience Requirements 10.1. Communication with Other ICT
Designing an ICT solution requires an understanding of users Using E-mail
the target audience. The study should consider elements
affecting the audience's capacity to use the solution, like E-Mail
age, technical proficiency, and expertise.
The solution creator should know the audience's Uses:
requirements for information. This could serve as a
design cue for the data processing elements and the Email is a technique of sending and receiving messages
information architecture. and files via the Internet.
How the audience utilizes and consumes the content also It is employed in personal communication, business
influences the design. For instance, the answer should be communications, and marketing.
mobile-friendly if the audience accesses it mostly through Acceptable language must be used based on the email's
mobile devices. recipient, for example, professional when composing a
Finally, the designer should consider any unique work-related email.
requirements of the audience, such as visual or auditory Employers frequently establish requirements for
impairments. These requirements should be taken into professional language, substance, and email frequency.
account when designing the solution ensuring inclusivity. Email security is critical to preventing sensitive data from
being accessed or manipulated.
Netiquette is the proper conduct and politeness when
9.2. Copyright using email.
Don’t be abusive
What makes Copyright Necessary? Don’t send spam
Be clear and concise with your message
Copyright regulation is crucial to safeguard the rights of
Remember that posts are usually public and can be
developers and innovators.
read by anyone.
It stops software piracy, which is unauthorised use,
Always check your spelling and grammar.
replication, or distribution. Respect people's privacy and do not discuss or publish
It guarantees developers receive compensation for their
information that might embarrass somebody.
efforts, fostering additional innovation and development.
Forgive people’s mistakes
Do not use CAPITAL LETTERS to highlight comments
Principles of Copyright in a Computer Software
Do not plagiarize
Do not use too many emoticons, as they might annoy
Copyright law prohibits the unauthorized copying,
your readers.
distribution, or modification of software.
Email groups enable mass communication to a specific
It also includes the End-User License Agreement (EULA),
group of subscribers.
which outlines what the software can and cannot be used
for Guidelines set by employers:
Violations of these principles, such as software piracy, can
lead to legal consequences. It is up to companies to decide if personal emails should
be permitted on their systems
Preventing Software Copyright Violation Companies may specify which company devices are
allowed to be used
Software developers employ various copyright protection There needs to be a company standard style when
strategies, such as Digital Rights Management (DRM). sending emails
Due to DRM methods and systems, copyrighted works are It must be made clear what email content is not permitted
subject to usage, modification, and distribution Employees should be told only to use their accounts when
restrictions. sending emails

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

There must be clear rules regarding the confidentiality of means.

information It acts as a massive database of information on almost
Staff need to be aware of the method and duration of any subject
storing emails The Internet has transformed business by offering a
Incoming emails should only be read by the recipient platform for online purchasing, electronic payments, and
Company policy on how to deal with and prevent viruses digital transactions, allowing enterprises to reach global
must be laid out consumers.
Monitoring of emails may be carried out, and staff must
be aware that the company has the right to read all Advantages of the Internet:
emails
users have access to an incredible amount of information,
Suitable ongoing training will take place to ensure staff
empowering them to learn
follow company policy at all times
enables individuals and businesses to connect and
communicate with people from different parts of the
Carbon Copies (Cc) and Blind Carbon Copies (Bcc)
world in real-time
the Internet has made many things easier to complete,
Carbon copies are used to send the email to multiple
thus providing simplicity and effectiveness
recipients.
Blind carbon copies are made to send the email to Disadvantages of the Internet:
multiple recipients without them acknowledging that it has
been sent to other recipients. Raises data security and personal privacy hazards
Forward enables users to send an already existing email through the possibility of identity theft, data breaches, and
to a new recipient. online monitoring.
To attach files to be sent with an email, we make use of The spread of propaganda, fake news, and
Attachments. misinformation due to the simplicity with which content
can be created and distributed online.
Spam The digital divide resulting from unequal Internet access
threatens to widen existing disparities.
It is defined as any unwanted email delivered via the Internet.
These can range from annoying to genuinely harmful, as they The differences between the internet, intranet, and extranet:
may contain viruses.
Definition:
The main disadvantages are:
The Internet is a vast network of linked computer
wasting time networks and gadgets that communicate with one
annoying people another using the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).
using up valuable bandwidth on the internet, thus slowing The intranet is a secure network that operates within
it down an organization using internet technologies and
may have viruses or be a part of a phishing scam protocols, such as TCP/IP.
can take up significant space in user inboxes Extranets are managed private networks that can give
access to third-party users and give users, such
To minimize the spam you receive: as partners, suppliers, or clients, safe access to a
portion of the intranet.
use spam filters
Accessibility:
avoid disclosing your email address publicly
The Internet is open and accessible to the public,
don’t click on links in spam emails or reply to them
allowing users to access a wide range of information,
services, and resources worldwide.
10.2. Effective Use of the Internet Intranets are restricted to internal users and typically
secured by firewalls and other security measures to
Characteristics of the Internet: maintain the security of critical corporate data.
Extranet provides authorized external users only
Allows individuals from all around the world to connect
limited access, in contrast to the internet, which is
and chat with one another instantaneously
public, or the intranet, which is entirely restricted. To
It runs on a distributed network design, which means a
access the extranet, these users need a secure login.
single central authority does not control it.
Purpose:
It is mainly used for transmitting data in a variety of
The Internet acts as a hub for intercultural dialogue,
formats, such as text, photos, audio, and video.
the sharing of knowledge, and access to a range of
Uses of the Internet: Internet resources, including websites, email, social
media, online shopping, and more.
A vital communication tool that allows people to
communicate via emails, instant messaging, and other

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

An intranet's main goal is to make it easier for platforms where users can connect with others and
employees to communicate, work together, and share share content
information. include platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram,
Extranets make it easier for external stakeholders to and LinkedIn
collaborate and communicate with a company. It require users to create a profile and allow them to
enables the organization and its reliable clients or share text, images, videos, and links
partners to share information, documents, and facilitate interaction, collaboration, and information
resources securely. sharing on a large scale
privacy settings allow users to control who can see
Many use the terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web” their content
interchangeably. However, they can’t be used in the same
context: The Functionality of the Internet
- The internet refers to the global network of computers and
other devices connected through routers and servers. Internet service providers (ISP): A company that provides
However, the World Wide Web is a collection of websites and internet access. Typically, a monthly fee is charged for
webpages accessed via the Internet. this service. Users' accounts are created when registering
with an ISP and acquiring login information such as user
Blog:
ID and password.
It is a website or section of a website that continually
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The address of a web
shares new information, frequently written informally page on the WWW. It is a text-based address that uniquely
or conversationally, similar to a journal.
identifies the location of any resource available on the
usually presented in a reverse chronological manner
internet. The three main components are:
usually managed by individuals or small groups
Protocol:
allow for reader comments, facilitating some level of
It is the communication protocol used to transfer data
discussion between the client and the server
often focus on specific topics, such as food, travel,
E.g. HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, and others
fashion, technology, or personal experiences
Domain:
also serve as a platform for sharing opinions or
it is the name of the server where the resource is
insights
located
Forum:
it can be a name or an IP address
an online discussion site where people can hold
Webpage/file name:
conversations in the form of posted messages
it is the location of the file or resource on the server
often organized around specific topics or interests and
it can contain the name of the file or directory where
divided into categories known as threads
the resource is located
primarily focused on peer-to-peer interaction A URL looks like this:
may require users to create an account before posting
protocol://domain/path/filename
can be moderated or unmoderated
E.g. https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/IGCSE/ICT is a
A moderated forum is an online discussion forum
URL that consists of the HTTPS protocol, the domain
in which an administrator checks posts before they
name "www.hoddereducation.co.uk", the path is
are allowed to be posted.
“IGCSE” and the filename is “ICT”
The internet is essentially a huge unmoderated
A hyperlink is a word/phrase/image which references
forum. No one ‘owns’ the internet, and it is
data that the reader can follow by clicking or tapping,
essentially not policed.
usually taking you to another web page
Wiki:
A web browser is a software application used to locate,
a type of website that allows users to add, remove, or
retrieve, and display content on the WWW, including web
edit content
pages, images, video, and other files
designed to facilitate collaboration and knowledge
sharing from many people Use of Search Engines
holds information on many topics which can be
searched There are two fundamental methods for obtaining
posts are not in chronological order information via the Internet. The first method is to enter the
structure is determined by the content or its users URL if you know the website's address. If you don't know
The most famous wiki is Wikipedia, an online where to look, the second option is to employ a search engine
encyclopedia to locate the information you seek.
changes can be tracked and reverted if necessary,
and the content is usually written in a neutral style Advantages of using the Internet to find information
Social networking: information tends to be up to date because it is
quicker and easier to amend

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

The Internet has vast amounts of information Evaluating Information Found on the Internet
searching for information using a search engine is fast
and easy Although the internet provides much information, not all
people can look for information in the comfort of their are genuine or dependable.
own home Consider the source's reputation and trustworthiness
information on the internet is essentially free of when determining the information's dependability.
charge Check the accuracy of information by comparing it to
webpages may have multimedia elements, making other reliable sources.
learning more interesting Assess whether the information is skewed, keeping an
Disadvantages of using the Internet to find information eye out for views pushing a particular point of view.
it isn’t regulated; anything can be posted Check if the material is current, as obsolete information
always the risk of accessing inappropriate websites might be deceptive.
too easy to be distracted by the many distractions
available on the internet Internet Protocols
Some research skills are lost when using the internet,
as search engines do all the work for you. Protocols are rules on which the sender and recipient agree
when data is exchanged between devices.
Speed of Searching 1. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP): when a web page is
being accessed, entering http:// at the front of an address
Search engines may scan billions of online pages to locate tells the web browser that ‘HTTP rules’ for communication are
matches to your search query in a fraction of a second. to be obeyed.
Your internet connection and the effectiveness of the 2. Hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS): A secure
search engine's algorithms influence the speed. version of HTTP that encrypts data for security.
3. File transfer protocol (FTP): network protocol used when
Amount of Information transferring files from one computer to another over the
internet. It is similar to HTTP, but the protocol specifically
Because search engines can deliver a deluge of transfers files.
information, utilising particular and relevant search 4. Secure sockets layer (SSL): a protocol that allows data to be
phrases is critical. sent and received securely over the internet.
Adding quotation marks for specific phrases, "+" signs for
required terms, and "-" signs for omitting terms can help Risks of Using the Internet
narrow the search.
Inappropriate and unlawful content: The internet may
Finding Relevant and Reliable Information attract people to potentially dangerous or illegal
materials.
The search engine algorithm determines the relevancy of Data restriction: Parental, educational, and ISP
information by considering parameters such as keyword restrictions can all be used to restrict access to specific
frequency & page quality. information or websites.
Reliable information is often obtained from recognized
sources such as educational, government, or well-known
industry websites.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

1. Document Production
1.1. Word Processing (MS Word)
Serif – with flicks, e.g. Cambria
Sans-serif – without flicks, e.g. Calibri
One part of the document is 1 column, and the rest is in
two columns. a → section break.
the option All Caps
When you want to move text to the next column, a →
To set certain bullets to a list style → click on format →
column break.
click on Numbering → Bullets tab → choose the required
To force all further text onto the next page → page break
option
A widow= single line that appears on the next page or
To indent text for a style → click on format → Paragraph
column, separated from the rest of the paragraph
and input required indents under the Indentation section.
An orphan = a single line that appears on the previous
Choose hanging indents to indent the whole paragraph
page or column, separated from the rest of the
and the first line indents to indent only the first line of a
paragraph.
paragraph.
To add page numbers in the header/footer ------→ Place
your cursor where you want to put the number → Go to
insert tab → Quick parts → Select Numbering category 3. Mail Merge
→ Select Page in field names → Click Ok
Add the file size/name (including file path) → click on
Quick Parts in the Insert tab → click on Field → select File 3.1. Mail Merge
Size or File name. For file path →, check the box to include
file path. For file size →, choose whether Kilobytes or Create a master document, which is mainly given as a
Megabytes. source file
Include date → click on Date & Time in Insert tab → choose In the master document, click on the Mailings tab
an appropriate format as specified. (If the date/month In the start mail merge section, click on select recipients
format is flipped →, change your region/ language → select use an existing list → choose the source file
settings on your computer to the United Kingdom.) Select records to be used, filter if necessary
Update fields if required (select auto-update while
inserting fields.)

2. House Styles
2.1. House Styles
Insert merge fields where indicated with chevrons, i.e.
Remember to follow all the instructions given to avoid Place automated current date and/or time, as well as your
losing easy marks name, centre number and candidate number where
Type in the name of the style exactly as it is in the paper specified. Ensure the date is in the correct format
Click on the drop-down arrow in the Styles section → specified.
select Create a new style
Always base your styles on the Normal font
­S etting the line spacing → click on format → then
paragraph → select required options
From the same tab, you can change the spacing before
and after the paragraph
Spell-check and proofread the document.
Setting all capital letters → click on format → font → tick Save the master document, and click finish and merge.
Preview results and ensure that they look as required.
While printing:
Check all merge fields are placed
Field codes are visible if necessary. (Go to Advanced
settings so they are displayed when printing. Proof of

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

date inserted may be asked, right-click and toggle field Average of fields in a report =AVG(\[Field_name\])
codes, or just use the shortcut Alt+F9.) Minimum of fields in a report =MIN(\[Field_name\])
Maximum of fields in a report =MAX(\[Field_name\])

) | | Yes | Find values that are Yes/True | | No | Find values

that are No/False | | #01/01/2009# | Find a specific date | |
4. Data Manipulation >01/03/2009 | Find dates after a given date | | <01/03/2009
| Find a date before a given date | | Between 01/03/2009
and 31/03/2009 | Find dates in a given range |
4.1. Data Manipulation (MS Access)
While importing files, make sure you select text file and 5. Presentations
not excel file, as .csv files are plain text.
When they ask for a set number of decimal places in a
field, choose Fixed in Format. 5.1. Presentation Authoring (MS
PowerPoint)
To open a given outline, click the “New slide” arrow and
click “slide from outline...”
Printing presenter notes, click print “Notes pages."
Ensure that the dates displayed in the table are in the
Printing audience notes, click print “Handouts.”
correct format under Table Design view.
When printing evidence of slide transitions, go to slide
sorter and then PrntScr

For all bullets to enter the screen at once →, click on the

Custom Animation under the Animations tab → Then
To form a relationship between two tables, go to the
select all the bullet points and Add Effect in the side pane
Relationships section of the Database Tools tab and
and choose the required style.
choose the required tables.

For the bullets to enter the screen one by one, → Select

The calculations will ONLY work if placed in the report the first bullet point and animate as required from Add
footer. If Σ Total is used, then it appears automatically in Effects. Repeat for the remaining points.
the report footer.

When printing evidence of animations, open the Custom

animations pane and then PrntScr
To show evidence of transitions, take a screenshot of the
slides pane, having a star beside the slides that have
transitions.
It plays continuously to loop a slide show until the Esc key
is pressed. Under the Slide Show tab, click on Set Up Slide
Show under Set Up. It appears in the Show options section
=COUNT(\[Primary_field\])
Count the number of fields in
Always use the primary field
a report
as it is the unique field
Sum of fields in a report =SUM(\[Field_name\])

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Formula Auditing section of the Formulas tab.)

To set a cell as currency →, click on the popup box in the

Number section of the Home tab → select Currency and
pick the required symbol and number of decimal places
as specified on the paper.

of the option box.

To colour a range of cells that contain specific values →,

under the Styles section in the Home tab →, click on the
drop-down menu under Conditional Formatting. Choose
New Rule → Format only cells that contain. → add the rule
according to the instructions on the paper from the
6. Data Analysis Format tab (ego: less than 100, format: green). You can
add more than one rule to a range of cells by repeating
the same steps for the new rule.
6.1. Data Analysis (MS Excel)
Naming a range of cells → select the cells → right click and
select ‘Name a Range’. → type the name in the option box.
Ensure the range is correctly selected.

While printing the spreadsheet:

check the fields required to show
if they want it to show formulae. (To show formulas
instead of values, select Show Formulas under the

When you are using another file as a source file (ego for a
LOOKUP function), make sure it is open until the end, or

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

else the spreadsheet will no longer be able to access that DESCRIPTION FORMULA
data. =IF($B$1:$B$8=A1,”A”,
To make a cell reference absolute, press F4 while IF($B$1:$B$8=A2,”B”,
highlighting it IF($B$1:$B$8=A3,”C”,D)))IF
Nested IF the value in the range equals
DESCRIPTION FORMULA
A1 then write A, if it equals A2
Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide =A1+B1 write B, A3 write C and none
SUM = Adding a range of of them D
=SUM(A1:A4)
numbers =AVERAGEIF($D$4:$D$64,G3,
Average IF – it searches for
AVERAGE - Find the average =AVERAGE(A1:A4) $E$4:$E$64)$D$4:$D$64 is
criteria and makes an
MIN - Find the low value =MIN(A1:A4) the range, G3 is the
average of the range
MAX - Find the highest value =MAX(A1:A4) criteria, $E$4:$E$64 is the
according to the criteria
average range
COUNT - Finding how many
=COUNT(A1:A4) SQRT – Square root of a
numbers are in a range =SQRT(B3)B3 is the number
number
COUNTA - Counting the
=COUNTA(A1:A4)
number of items in a range
INT - Converts to the lowest
=INT(A1) 7. Website Authoring
whole number
=ROUND(A1,2) The 2 is the
ROUND - Rounding numbers
number of decimal places 7.1. HTML
ROUNDUP - Rounding =ROUNDUP(A1,2) The 2 is the
Anchors: help navigate throughout a webpage
numbers up number of decimal places
Highlight the destination of the anchor, and set a
ROUNDDOWN - Rounding =ROUNDDOWN(A1,2) The 2 is bookmark
numbers down the number of decimal places You can use
=VLOOKUP(A1,$B$1:$C$8,2)A tags in your code around this text
1 is the cell to <div id="top"> Destination text </div>
VLOOKUP - Looking up what check$B$1:$C$8 is the array Highlight the word or image that will be the hyperlink,
particular values mean from to look in2 is column 2 click insert a hyperlink, and type the address of the
a table arranged vertically from $B$1:$C$8 meaning website, the bookmark, or the email address provided
return the value in column 2 in in the respective places.
that section. If the link needs to open in a new window, select New
=HLOOKUP(A1,$B$1:$G$2,2) Window from the target frame. This will give you a
A1 is the cell to target setting of "_blank."
HLOOKUP - Looking up what check$B$1:$G$2 is the array
particular values mean from to look in2 is row 2
a table arranged horizontally from $B$1:$G$2 meaning
return the value in row 2 in
that section.
=SUMIF($B$1:$C$8,A1, $D$1
SUMIF – adding up specific :$D$8)Checks if any cells
values in a range in $B$1:$C$8 = A1 and if they
do then it adds them together
=COUNTIF(A2:A4,">4") Checks
COUNTIF - Counts the that cells have a value greater
number of cells in a range than 4=COUNTIF(A2:A4, A1)
that satisfy the given criteria Checks that the cells are
equal to the value in cell A1
=IF($B$1:$B$8=A1,”A”)IF the
IF – Deciding what will go into
value in A1 appears in the
a cell
range of cells then write A
If there are specified dimensions for a table, use the table
properties to set these values.
Check the code to ensure that the table is not set to 100%
width, if there are other values given.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

To hide bullets from your webpage, add hidden after your

7.2. CSS
tag selector.

h2 {font-family: “Times New What is CSS?

Font type
Roman”}
Cascading style sheet
Text size h2 {font-size: 16pt} Used to style webpages
Aligning text h2 {text-align: center} Two types
‘Bold’ text h2 {text-weight: bold} Embedded/inline
‘Underline’ text h2 {text-decoration: underline} External
h2 {font-family: “Times New
Second choice of font Embedded
Roman, Verdana”}
h2 {font-family: “Times New Used to apply style properties within HTML sheet
Adding generic fonts
Roman, serif”}h2 {font-family: Format:
(either serif or sans-serif)
“Calibri, sans-serif”} …style = “attribute: specification”>
Changing colour h2 {color: #000000} Inline CSS for e.g. <table border=”1” style=
Using classes to set styles. “width:200px”>
It can be used by many right {text-align: right} To add several attributes, add a semicolon to separate
selectors them and then use the same format
For e.g. < table style= “width:29%; margin-left:
Comment in HTML - text
auto**;**”>
that is not read by the
computer, only for users For inline CSS, adding -style= “….”- is mandatory.

Comment in CSS - text that External

is not read by the /* Enter comment here */
computer, only for users External CSS sheets are separate sheets that style the
webpage.
Colour codes have three parts: To use, they are required to be attached to the main
HTML file using the tag:
(RED, GREEN, BLUE)
<link rel=“stylesheet” type=”text/css”
Amount of Light (colour) Hex code href=”sourcefile.css”>
Fully on FF The tag is placed in the head tag of the html file.
¾ on C0 Several html sheets can be attached.
½ on 80 Preference is given to the sheet placed last in the
head tag
¼ on 40
Format for external CSS
Off 00 h1 { property: value ;}
for e.g. h1 { color:#000000;}
Examples: ↑ Element source is taken from HTML script linked
Pure red is (FF0000)
Pure green is (00FF00) CSS Tags
Pure blue is (0000FF)
Pure yellow is (FFFF00) Colours
Pure black is (000000)
Pure white is (FFFFFF) Colours can be in hexadecimal
hashtag before the hexadecimal is mandatory
HTML tag e.g. #000000
Opening/closing head tag F full capacity
Page title 0 is the least capacity
<link rel=“stylesheet” Some colours can be written in words. Such as black or
Attaching a CSS file type=“text/css”href=“mystyle.c white.
ss”>
Fonts
Defining anchor tag
Setting default target window Fonts are given priority from first to last in order
Opening of the body/content To add multiple fonts, add commas.
Table tag | border width as 1 Eg. h1 { font-family: Arial, Calibri, sans-serif;}
| alignment centre

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

Tables 11.2 Explain the need to reduce file sizes for storage or
transmission:
Tables have many attributes to help style them Smaller files upload and download faster than larger
Cell padding: creates space between text and cell ones and thus are better for transferring data on the
border internet and between computers and other devices
Cell spacing: creates space between individual cells like printers.
Borders 13 Explain why headers and footers are needed:
Background colour: background tags in the tables only Headers and footers ensure each page has all the
apply to the tables. required information like the page numbers, company
Individual td or th headings can also be specified in CSS logo and name etc. It makes the document more
reliable, professional, and consistent, as the
Table tags format information appears on every page. This saves time
cell padding Table { padding :40px;} and reduces errors as they are only typed once.
cell spacing Table { spacing : 30px;} 14 Explain what is meant by corporate branding/house
Table { border-width:3px;} style:
Table { border-color: #000098;} It refers to a specific style of fonts and formats used in
borders the making of ICT solutions by organisations.
Table { border-style: solid;}
Table { background-color: #009499;} 14 Explain why consistent styles are required:
Consistent styles enable users to associate a
td { font-size: 3;}
particular organisation with a style. They look
Td/th tags td { font-family: Calibri;}
professional.
td { color: #000000;}
15.1 Explain why the automated suggestions given by
table { width:50px;} spell check software do not always give the correct
Dimensions
table { height:60px;} response:
Some words, e.g. proper nouns, are not found in the
body { background-repeat: no-repeat;} dictionary. This makes spell checkers less efficient.
body {background-position: top/left/right/bottom;} Spell checkers do not identify names and places
h1 {text-align: left/right/top/bottom;} 15.1 Explain why validation checks must be appropriate to
the data that is being checked:
An inappropriate check can lead to error messages
8. Editing Images and altered data, as it may accept or reject wrong
data.
8.1. Editing Images 15.2 Describe the importance of accuracy and the
potential consequences of data entry errors:
To save a picture with 8 bits - of colour depth, save it as a Accurate data ensures the results obtained by the
gif processing of data is relevant, which is essential to the
Open it in Paint and save it as usability of the model
To compress the size of a picture, open it in the picture 15.2 Define the term verification:
manager A way of preventing errors when data is copied from
Edit picture one medium to another
Compress pictures 15.2 Describe visual verification:
Choose the most suitable option Visual comparison of data entered with a data source
To change the colour options of a picture, use picture Checking for errors by comparing entered data on the
manager screen with the data in the original document (not the
Edit picture same as proof reading)
Colour 15.2 Describe double data entry:

Enter data twice and compare them either after data has
9. Answers to Theory been entered or during the entry process.

Questions 15.2 Explain the need for validation as well as verification:

Validation only ensures that the data entered is in the
accepted format. Verification is needed to ensure that
9.1. Answers to Theory Questions the data entered is correct. Data entered may be in
the right format but of the wrong value. Or it may be
11.1 Explain why generic file formats are needed: copied correctly but does not match the criteria.
They can be opened by any software to access the 17.1 Explain why it is necessary to use page, section and
data on them. column breaks, to adjust pagination and to avoid widows

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

and orphans? Charts: A graphical representation of (usually

Page breaks and column breaks help remove widows tabulated) data
and orphans by forcing text onto the next page/ 20.1 Explain the importance of accurate data entry in
column so it is all together. spreadsheets
It does not disrupt the reader by breaking the flow. Ensures the results obtained by the processing of data
17.3 Explain why mail-merged documents are created is relevant, which is essential.
Mail merged documents save time typing out 20.1 Define the terms formula, function, absolute
individual letters, as the computer can personalize reference, relative reference, ranges, named cell, named
them. Typing errors are also reduced since the master range, and nested formulae/functions.
document is only typed once. They can also be Formula: does the user define mathematical
emailed using the address in the source file. operators to perform a function
18.1 Define the terms flat-file database and relational Function: predefined logical and mathematical
database. operations use can be used in a spreadsheet
Flat-files databases are tables that have data sorted in Absolute reference: is made when the cell referenced
rows and columns. stays constant, but the cell referred to in changes.
Relational databases are several tables linked Relative reference is made when the cell reference is
together, preventing unnecessary repetition of data. supposed to change when the cell it refers to changes.
18.1 Explain that other field types, such as placeholders It aids more efficient designing of models.
for media, including images, sound bites and video clips Ranges: A group of cells in a table
are used in commercial databases Named cell: A cell in a table that is given a name (like
They are not studied in depth in this syllabus. They are ‘profit margin’) and can be referred to using that name
used in web applications where a back-end database in functions
holds the media to be displayed in another application, Nested formulae/functions: A formula/function used
such as a webpage. inside a formula/function as an argument
18.1 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using 20.1 Explain the difference between a formula and a
relational tables rather than a flat-file database function
The user types in formulas. They include simple
Relational Database Flat file Database mathematical operators like +, -, *, or /, or can be as
Better security Poor at complex queries complex as the user wants. A function is a
Cater for future requirements Poor at limiting access predesigned code that calculates specific values, e.g.
MAX, VLOOKUP. While functions can be used inside
Harder to update, so it is
Data is only stored once formulas, formulas cannot be used inside functions.
inherently inefficient
20.1 Explain the function of absolute and relative
Requires more planning Potential duplication referencing.
Easy to design Absolute referencing is used when the cell referred
Non-unique records needs to stay the same, even when the formula/
It is harder to change the data function is copied.
format. When a formula/ function is copied and relative
referencing is used, the cell refers changes with the
18.1 Define and understand the terms primary and foreign cell in which the function is.
keys and their role in a relational database. 20.2 Define the terms testing, test data, expected
outcome, actual outcome, normal data, abnormal data,
Primary key: The key field of a table which is unique and extreme data, what if
identifies each record Testing: Checking that the designed model shows or
Foreign key: The field linked to the primary field of the previews the the expected outcome when data is
table linked to a relationship entered
Test data: The input data used for testing a model
20.1 Define the terms cells, rows, columns, sheets, tabs, Expected outcome: the output a model is supposed to
pages, charts give with the test data
Cell: A space for data to be entered into a table, a box Actual outcome: the output the model gives when
formed by the intersection of columns and rows. tested in real time
Rows: Horizontal boxes that divide the table Normal data: data within the given range ego: 50,
Columns: Vertical boxes that divide the table Range: 0-100
Sheets: A table of data Abnormal data: data outside the given range ego: 120,
Pages: Divide a piece of data into sections range: 0-100
Tabs: A module of a database program that holds the Extreme data: data that is the limit of the range ego: 0
tables on the computer or 100, range: 0-100

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE ICT

What if: changing values in cells to see how the CSS files have a “.css” extension
outcome of formulas change 21.3 Explain the hierarchy of multiple attached
20.2 Explain the need to test a model before it is used stylesheets and in-line styles within a web page
Reduces the number of possible errors when using Internal CSS have more preference over Inline CSS.
real data Inline CSS overrides externally attached stylesheets.
21.1 Identify and describe the three web development If several external stylesheets are attached to one
layers web page, the stylesheet attached last (at the bottom
Content layer: Holds the content of the webpage of that part of the code) is given preference (over the
structure. other ones). Priority increases as you go down a list.
Behaviour layer: scripting language of a web page or 21.3 Explain why relative file paths must be used for
an individual element the attached stylesheets
Presentation layer: responsible for the formatting of a They should be attached using relative file paths, as
webpage(s) or elements (using a stylesheet). they are stored along with the webpage since they are
21.1 Understand the function of: stored in the same folder.
Content layer: enter the content of a web page 21.4 Explain how to upload and publish the content of a
structure website using FTP
Behaviour layer: enter scripting language to a web
page or an individual element Used to upload website files to the web hosting space. To
Presentation layer: format whole web page(s) or upload these files successfully, the user needs:
individual elements FTP client software
21.2 Explain why tables are used to structure elements All files in one folder
within a web page Host Name/URL/IP address for FTP
Host port to be used for upload
Tables make the basic structure of a webpage and Username and password
organise page layout.
21.4 Create a test plan to test a website including web
21.2 Define and understand the terms relative file path page elements are visible, navigation within/from a web
and absolute file path page
Relative file path: A path referring to a file in the same Open the webpage in different browsers to check that
directory relative to the page the reference is made in. all elements appear as they should.
Absolute file path: The full path of a file which is not Click all hyperlinks to ensure that they direct users to
relative to anything. the correct pages, using functional testing. Check that
21.2 Explain why absolute file paths must not be used for both internal and external links are functional. Check
hyperlinks to locally saved web pages/ objects that fonts and background colours are appropriate to
Absolute paths always include the domain name of the the purpose of the website and its users (audience)
website Perform user testing on a group from the target
These should not be used to refer to locally saved web audience, gain feedback from their usage, and use it
pages as the computer the webpage is stored on (the to improve the website before publishing it
server) is not the same as where the webpage was 21.4 Justify the choice of test plan
developed, and an absolute file path would point to the The test plan used to test a webpage must be justified
wrong address. based on the tested elements. e.g. If hyperlinks are
21.3 Explain what is meant by the term cascading being tested, it checks if all the hyperlinks are
stylesheets redirecting the user to the correct webpage/ section of
CSS (cascading stylesheet) is a text-based language the webpage.
which is attached to web pages to set their format.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

1. Number
Natural numbers:
used for counting purposes
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded
all possible rational &irrational numbers
Integer: a whole number ‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’
Prime numbers:
divisible only by itself and one
1 is not a prime number
Rational numbers: can be written as a fraction
Irrational numbers: cannot be written as a fraction e.g. π
Cube numbers: made from multiplying a rational number
ξ = {a, b, c, d, e} A’ is shaded
to itself thrice.
b∈X
Reciprocals: A number made by raising a rational number
to -1, or 1 over that number
of elements in A

1.2. HCF and LCM ∈ = …is an element of…

\n otin = …is not an element of…
Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple: A′ = compliment of set A
Ø or = empty set
ξ = Universal set
A ∪ B = union of A and B
A ∩ B = intersection of A and B
A ⊆ B = A is a subset of B
HCF = product of common factors of x and y
A ⊂ B = A is a proper subset of B
LCM = product of all items in Venn diagram
A⊄B = A is not a subset of B

1.4. Indices
Standard form:

10 4 = 10000
10 3 = 1000
10 2 = 100
Prime Factorization: finding which prime numbers 10 1 = 10
multiply together to make the original number 10 0 = 1
10 −1 = 0.1
1.3. Sets 10 −2 = 0.01
10 −3 = 0.001
Definition of sets e.g. 10 −4 = 0.0001
A = { x : x is a natural number} 10 −5 = 0.00001
B = {( x , y): y = mx + c } Limits of accuracy:
C = { x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
D = { a, b, c , … } The degree of rounding of a number
E.g. 2.1 to 1 d.p 2.05 ≤ x < 2.15
Set representations: Finding limits when adding/multiplying: add/multiply
respective limits of values
Finding maximum value possible when
dividing/subtracting: max value divided by/minus min
value
Finding minimum value possible when
A∩B is shaded A∪B ‎is shaded dividing/subtracting: min value divided by/minus max
value
‎⊂‎‘is a subset of’

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Units of speed: km/hr or m/s

1.5. Ratio & Proportion
Units of distance: km or m
Ratio: used to describe a fraction Units of time: hr or sec
e.g. 3 : 1
5
Foreign exchange: money changed from one currency to km/hr × = m/sec
18
​

another using proportion

E.g. Convert $22.50 to Dinars 18
m/sec × = km/hr
$1 : 0.30KD 5
​

$22.50 : 6.75KD
Map scales: using proportion to work out map scales
1km = 1000m
2. Algebra & Graphs
1m = 100cm
1cm = 10mm 2.1. Factorisation
Direct variation: y is proportional to x
Common factors:
y∝x
3x 2 + 6x
y = kx
3x(x + 2)
Inverse variation: y is inversely proportional to x
Difference of two squares:
1
y∝
x 25 − x 2
​

k
y= ​
(5 + x)(5 − x)
x
Group factorization:
1.6. Percentages
4d + ac + ad + 4c
Percentage:
Convenient way of expressing fractions 4 (d + c ) + a(c + d)
Percent means per 100
(4 + a)(c + d)
Percentage increase or decrease:
Trinomial:
Actual Change
P ercentage increase = × 100
Original Amount x 2 + 14x + 24
​

Simple interest:
x 2 + 12x + 2x + 24
PRT
I= x (x + 12 ) + 2 (x + 12 )
100
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and (x + 2)(x + 12)

T = T ime
2.2. Quadratic Factorisation
Compound interest:
n General equation:
A = P (1 + )
R
100 ax 2 + bx + c = 0
​

Where, P= P rincipal, R = Rate Of I nterest, and Solve quadratics by:

T = T ime Trinomial factorization
Quadratic formula
1.7. Speed, Distance & Time −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Distance
Speed =
Time When question says, “give your answer to two decimal
​

Total Distance places”, use formula!

Average Speed = Derivation of the Quadratic Formula is the same as saying
Total Time
​

“Make x the subject in ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ”

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 - Quadratic Formula
e.g. x 2 − x − 6 = 0
Factorize a out
Where a = 1 , b = −1 , c = −6
Plug the numbers in the Quadratic Formula:
a (x 2 + x) + c = 0
b
​

a −b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Complete the Square

2 Therefore:
a ((x + ) − 2) + c = 0
b b2
2a 4a (−1 )2 − 4 (1 ) (−6 )
​ ​

− (−1 ) ± ​

x=
2 (1 )
​

b 2 b2
a (x + ) − +c=0
2a 4a
​ ​

x1 = 3
​

2
b2 − 4ac
a (x + ) =
b x 2 = −2
​

2a 4a
​ ​

- Complete the Square

2
b2 − 4ac e.g. x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
(x + ) =
b
2a 4a2 (WARNING! Coefficient of x 2 Must be 1 for this to work)
​ ​

b b2 − 4ac x 2 + 10x + 5 = 0
x+ =±
2a 4a2
​ ​ ​

(x + 5 )2 − 5 2 + 5 = 0
b ± b2 − 4ac 2
x+ =
​

2a
​

4a2 ​
​

(x + 5 ) − 20 = 0

Note: 4a2 is a square number (x + 5 )2 = 20

b ± b2 − 4ac x + 5 = ± 20
x+ =
​
​

2a 2a
​ ​

x = −5 ± 20 ​

−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
​

2a
​

Answer is:

Standardized form: x 1 = −5 +
​ 20 , x 2 = −5 −
​ ​ 20 ​

y = ax2 +bx + c
Complete Square form: 2.3. Reciprocal Graphs (Hyperbola)
y = (x + a)2 +b (Where axis of symmetry is x =
−a) Standardized Form:
To find turning point of quadratic equation, complete y = ax ​

the square, then the turning point is: (−a, b)

Ways to solve Quadratic equation: If a is Positive: If a is Negative:
Graphing Method The Line will be in the The Line will be in the
Factorizing 1st &3rd Quadrant 2nd&4th Quadrant
Quadratic Formula
Complete the Square
2.4. Cubic Equation
- Graphing Method – Graph the equation,
see where the it touches the x-axis Standardized Form:
- Factorizing y =ax3 +bx2 +cx + d
e.g. x 2 −x−6=0 Properties:
Highest Exponent of x is 3
x2 − x − 6 = 0 Has a maximum of 2 turning points

(x − 3 ) (x + 2 ) = 0 Turning points are points after which a graph changes its

gradient’s sign, therefore changing direction between up or
x1 = 3 ​

down

x 2 = −2 ​

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Using differentiation
dy
dx gives you the gradient of the curve at any point in
​

terms of x
dy
When y = xn , dx ​
= nx n−1
Stationary/ turning point: dy
dx ​ =0
st ′
1 Derivative = dy
dx = f ( x ) ​

d2 y ′′
2nd Derivative = dx2 = f (x ) ​

To determine if stationary point is maximum or

minimum:
2.5. Exponential Graphs
Use 2nd derivative
d2 y
Maximum point: dx2 ​ <0
d2 y
Minimum point: dx 2 ​ >0
Use gradients around the point
Input x values slightly above and below
stationary point and calculate gradient

2.7. Simultaneous Equations

Can be solved either by substitution or elimination
Generally solved by substitution as follows:
Step 1: obtain an equation in one unknown and solve
this equation
Step 2: substitute the results from step 1 into linear
equation to find the other unknown
The points of intersection of two graphs are given by the
solution of their simultaneous equations

2.8. Inequalities
Standardized form:
y = a (b )x Solve like equations
Properties: Multiplying or dividing by negative ⇒ switch sign
a is the y-intercept y
Asymptotes are lines that a curve approaches, but −3 ≥ −7
​

never touches because the curve continues to infinity. y ≤ −7 × −3

In this case, The asymptotes are y = 0 and x = 4
b is the rate of growth y ≤ 21
When 0 < b < 1 , the graph will go downwards from When two inequalities present, split into two
left to right
x < 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
2.6. Gradient of a Curve
x < 3x − 1 3x − 1 < 2x + 7
1
By drawing tangents x> 2
​
x<8
In a straight line, gradient is constant
Curves have varying gradients throughout the graph. 1
To find the gradient at a point:
<x<8
2
​

1. Draw the graph

2. Draw a tangent at the point in the graph, ensuring it 2.9. Linear Programming
only touches the graph at that point (Use a ruler)
3. Find the gradient of the tangent For strict inequalities (<, >) use broken line
For non-strict inequalities (≤, ≥) use solid line
Steps to solve:
Interpret y = mx + c
Draw straight line graphs
Shade

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Solve From O to A: Uniform increase in speed

From A to B: Constant speed (acceleration = 0)
From B to C: Uniform deceleration / retardation

Area under a graph = distance travelled.

Gradient = acceleration.
If the acceleration is negative, it is called deceleration or
retardation. (moving body is slowing down.)
2.10. Sequences
Linear sequences: Find common difference e.g. 3, then 2.13. Functions
multiply by n and work out what needs to be added
Quadratic sequences: Function notation:
Format: an2 + bn + c f : x → 2x − 1
Function f such that x maps onto 2x − 1
Composite function: Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) ,
the composite function of f and g is the function which
maps x onto f (g (x ))
Work out the values and then place into formula to f (2 )
work out nth term formula Substitute x = 2 and solve for f (x )
Geometric progression: sequence where term has been
fg(x)
multiplied by a constant to form next term
Substitute x = g (x )
−1
nth term of G.P . = ar(n−1) f (x)
Let y = f(x) and make x the subject
a = 1st term r = common ratio

2.11. Distance-Time Graphs

3. Geometry
3.1. Similarity
Similarity can be worked out by the AAA (Angle – Angle –
Angle) rule.
AAA (Angle – Angle – Angle) rule: All the corresponding
From O to A: Uniform speed angles of the triangles must be equal.
From B to C: Uniform speed (return journey)
From A to B: Stationery (speed = 0)

3.2. Congruence
Gradient = speed
SSS (Side – Side – Side) rule: All the three sides of the
triangles must be equal
2.12. Speed-Time Graphs

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Rectangle:

diagonals bisect each other

RHS (Right angle – Hypotenuse – Side) rule : Parallelogram:

There must two right-angled triangles Opposite sides parallel/equal

The length of the hypotenuses must be the same
One of the corresponding sides of each triangle must be opposite angles equal
the same
diagonals bisect each other
SAS (Side – Angle – Side) rule: Rhombus:
There must be an angle and a side present
A parallelogram with all sides
The angle of the adjacent sides must be equal
equal
The two sides of the triangle must be equal

opposite angles equal

diagonals bisect each other

Trapezium:

ASA (Angle – Side – Angle) rule: The sides adjacent to the

equal angles must be of the same length. One pair of sides parallel

Kite:

Two pairs of adjacent sides

equal

diagonals are perpendicular

3.3. Triangles to each other

3.5. Construction
Constructing triangles:

3.4. Quadrilaterals
Rectangle:
Opposite sides parallel/equal
all angles 90°

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

3.6. Symmetry
Line of symmetry: Divides a two-dimensional shape into
two congruent (identical) shapes
Plane of symmetry: Divides a three-dimensional shape
into two congruent solid shapes

The number of times shape fits its outline during a

complete revolution is called the order of rotational Corresponding angles are equal
symmetry

Number of Lines of Rotational Symmetry

Shape
Symmetry Order
Square 4 4
Rectangle 2 2
Parallelogram 0 2
Alternate angles
Rhombus 2 2
Trapezium 0 1
Kite 1 1
Equilateral
3 3
triangle
Regular
6 6
hexagon

Properties of circles:
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre
The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through
the centre
Tangents from an external point are equal in length

Co-interior angles add up to 180°

3.7. Polygons
Sum of angles at a point = 360 ∘
Angles on a straight line = 180 ∘
Sum of angles in a triangle = 180 ∘
For regular polygon
∘
External angles = 360n ​

∘
Internal angles = 180 ∘ − 360
n ​

For irregular polygon:

Sum of exterior angles = 360 ∘
Sum of interior angles= 180(n − 2)
Vertically opposite angles are equal

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

1
Trapezium= 2 ​ (a + b) h
Circle= πr 2
Sector= πr 2 × θ
360 ​

4.2. Volume and Surface Area

Cuboid
Surface Area = 2(lw + hw + hl)
Volume = hlw
Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2πrh
Volume = πr 2 h
Cone
Curved surface area = πrl
Exterior angle=sum of interior opposite ∠ Volume = 13 (πr 2 h)
​

Sphere
Surface Area = 4πr 2
Volume = 43 πr 3
​

Hemisphere
Surface area = 3πr 2
Volume = 23 πr 3
​

Kite
pq
Surface area = 2 ​

4.3. Units
3.8. Circle Theorem
Volume:

Angle at center = twice

Angle subtended by same arc at
angle on circumference
circumference are equal

Angles in semicircle are

90° Opposite angles in a cyclic
quadrilateral = 180°
Mass:

Tangents from one point

are equal. ‎∠‎between
tangent and radius is 90° Alternate segment theorem

4. Mensuration
4.1. Area
Parallelogram = b × h or AB sin θ
Triangle= 12 b × h
​

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Capacity:

f(x) = 1‎ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓( 𝑥) = 𝑥2

Connecting volume and capacity: f(x) = x3‎ f(x) = 1/x f(x) = 1/x2
1ml = 1cm3
1kl = 1m3
Mass
Density = Volume ​
6. Trigonometry

5. Coordinate Geometry 6.1. Bearings

The bearing of a point B from another point A is:
5.1. Graphs An angle measured from the north at A.
In a clockwise direction.
Gradient of a Straight Line: Written as three-figure number (i.e. from 000° to 360°)
e.g. The bearing of B from A is 050°
y2 − y1
Gradient =
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

​ ​

Equation of Line:

y = mx + c
Find the gradient, m 6.2. Pythagoras Theorem
Find the y -intercept, c
To find hypotenuse
a2 + b2 = c 2

Midpoint of Graph:

x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
( , )
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2
​ ​

Length between two points:

2 2
(x 2 − x 1 ) + (y2 − y1 )
​ ​ ​ ​
​

To find one of the shorter sides

a2 = c 2 − b2
5.2. Sketching Graphs b2 = c 2 − a2
Angle of elevation:
Angle above the horizontal line

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Angle of depression:
Angle below the horizontal line.

∘
cos (x ) = cos (360 − x)

1
Area of a triangle: 2 ab sin c ​

6.3. Ratios
Right angled triangles:
opposite
sin x = hypotenuse → SOH
​

adjacent
cos x = hypotenuse → CAH ​

tan x = opposite
adjacent → TOA
​

Sine and cosine shifted by 90°

Sine has x-intercepts at multiples 180°, and cosine at (90°
+ multiples of 180°)
∘
tan (x) = tan (180 + x)

6.4. Graphs of Simple Trigonometric

Functions
∘ Goes to infinity at 90°, 270°, 450°, …
sin (x) = sin (180 − x) Has x-intercepts at multiples of 180°

6.5. Sine & Cosine Rules

Sine rule:

A B C
= =
sin a sin b sin c
​ ​ ​

Cosine rule
To find the angle given 3 sides

b2 + c 2 − a2
cos a =
2bc
​

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

To find side given angle and two sides Translation (T):

a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos a

7. Vectors & Transformations

7.1. Vectors
When describing a translation, it is necessary to give
Vector quantity has both magnitude and direction the translation vector
E.g. Vectors a and b represented by the line segments, Enlargement (E):
can be added using ‘parallelogram rule’ or ‘nose-to-tail To describe an enlargement, state the scale factor, K
and the centre of enlargement

length of image
Scale factor =
length of object
​

Area of image = K 2 × area of object

If K > 0, both object and image lie on same side of the
centre of enlargement
method’ If K < 0, object and image lie on opposite side of the centre
Multiplication by a scalar: of enlargement
Scalar quantity: has a magnitude but no direction
The negative sign reverses the direction of the vector
Column vector:
8. Probability
Probability is the study of chance, or the likelihood of an
event happening

number of favourable outcomes

P (event) =
total number of outcomes
​

If probability = 0, event is impossible

If probability =1, event is certain to happen
Top number = horizontal component All probabilities lie between 0 and 1
Bottom number = vertical component

Parallel vectors: 8.2. Events

Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction
In general, the vector k ( ab ) is parallel to ( ab )
​ ​
Exclusive events:
Modulus of a vector:
Two events are exclusive if they cannot occur at the same
In general, if x = (m
n ) , ∣x ∣ =
​ (m2 + n2 ​

time

7.2. Transformation
Reflection (M):
When describing a reflection, the position of the
mirror line is essential
Rotation (R):
The centre, angle and direction of rotation are needed
to describe a rotation
A clockwise rotation is negative, and an anticlockwise
rotation is positive

The OR Rule:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

For exclusive events A and B Take the required number from the table and divide
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) by the sum of all values in the row/column of the
condition provided.
Independent events: Remember: P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the same
Two events are independent if occurrence of one is
unaffected by occurrence of other
The AND Rule:
9. Statistics
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
9.1. Histograms
8.3. Conditional Probability
Probability of an event (A), given that another (B) has
already occurred

Symbol : P (A∣B)

Histogram: Displays frequency of continuous or grouped

discrete data in the form of bars
Bars are joined together and may be of varying width
Frequency of the data is represented by the area of the
bar and not the height
When class intervals are different, area of the bar
represents the frequency, not the height
Frequency density plotted on y-axis, not frequency
Class width = Interval
Frequency density = Height

F requency = Class width × F requency density

9.2. Averages
Calculate using Venn diagram:

Construct the Venn diagram, using sample space of both Mean

events Sum of values
P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)
number of values
​

Calculate using tree diagrams: Median:

The middle value - when the data has been written in
ascending or descending order
5+1
Odd no. of values 2 = 3rd value
​

Even no. of values 6+1

2 = 3.5th value
​

(add two values divide by 2)

Mode:
Construct tree diagram. Most frequently occurring value
Write the outcomes of the first event Range:
Connect both the second and first events outcome Difference between highest and lowest values
Write probability on top of each event’s line Estimated mean of grouped data:
Multiply probabilities on the lines to the required outcome Work out midpoints of each group and multiply by
Note: The probabilities reduce with each step if objects frequency
are replaced Divide by number of values

Calculate using two-way tables:

Column and row headers are the sample space of the 9.3. Cumulative Frequency
two events
Fill in each cell with the correct number of outcomes

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Cumulative frequency is the total frequency up to a given Number of an item ∘

θ= × 360
point Total number of items
​

Inter-quartile range = upper quartile −

lower quartile

9.4. Box-and-whisker plots

Construction
Find median and two quartiles Sum of angles in a pie chart is 360
∘

Draw three lines of equal width along these values

Complete the boxes
Draw ‘whiskers’ extending from the box to the
9.6. Stem and Leaf diagrams
maximum and minimum values.
Stem-and-Leaf diagram is a quick way of summarizing a
Draw two more lines at the ends
range of data.
There is a column known as the stem, contains which
contains unique elements of data formed by removing
last digits of the data.
Keys are used in this diagram

Interpretation:
Median, quartiles and extreme values can be found by
reading on the scale of y-axis
Short boxes mean low IQR and vice versa (2), (3)
Long whiskers mean a lot of extreme values and vice
versa (1) 9.7. Pictograms
Difference in position of boxes represents if data in
one set is overall higher or lower than another data Data is represented in pictures
set. (3) and (4) A key is given to represent the value of a picture.
Variation in lengths of different sections and position
of median show how evenly the data is spread,
compared to other data sets (1) E.g. = 5 people

9.5. Pie Charts Favorite Fast Food of 100 Children

Sectors represent data, and these sectors form a circle.

9.8. Scatter Diagrams
Angle of a sector:
b f

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Displays the correlation between two sets of data

May have positive, negative or no correlation

Line of best fit drawn through points that has an equal

number of points on each side to show the trend

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
MATHEMATICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE MODEL ANSWERS SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Part (2)

1. Numbers
1.1. Integers, HCF/LCM, Prime numbers,
Sig Figs, Dec Places
Question 1:
Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 36 and 48. (2
marks)
Solution:
We can do this by writing out all of the multiples of the two
numbers. The multiples of 36 are:
1.3. Square and Cube Numbers
36, 72, 108, 144, 180, …
Question 2:
The multiples of 48 are 3
Simplify (32x 10 ) 5 (2 marks)
​

48, 96, 144, 192, … Solution:

Apply the power to everything inside the brackets¸ and use
We can see that the lowest common multiple is: x y
the general rule that (a ) = axy

144 3
32 5 × x (10× 5 )
​
3
​

1
1.2. Sets and Venn Diagram Note that 32 = 2 5 hence 32 5 = 2 ​

3
= (32 5 ) × x 6
1
Question 2:
​

1. ε = {x: 2 ≤ x ≤ 16, x is an integer} = 23 x6

2. M = {even numbers}
3. P = {prime numbers} = 8x6
4. i) Find n (M ) . (1 Mark)
5. ii) Write down the set ( P ∪ M)′. (1 mark) 1.4. Conversion - Percentages, Fractions
6. On the Venn diagram, shade A ∩ B′. (1 mark)
& Decimals
Solution: Question 4:
Part (1)(i) Write the recurring decimal 0.32 ̇ (0.3222...) as a fraction. (2
n (M ) is the number of elements in set M. M is all the even marks)
numbers between 2 and 16 inclusive which is Solution:
We need to get rid of the recurring decimal by doing the
n (M ) = 8 following

Part (1)(ii) 100 × 0.3 2̇ = 32.2̇

′
(P ∪ M ) are the elements not in the union of sets P and M.
10 × 0.3 2̇ = 3.2̇
(P ∪ M ) = (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16)
100 × 0.3 2̇ − 10 × 0.3 2̇ = 90 × 0.32̇
′
(P ∪ M ) = (9, 15) = 32.2̇ − 3.2̇
→ 90 × 0.3 2̇ = 29
Now divide by 90

29
0.3 2̇ =
90
​

1.5. Order by Size

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Question 5: 3 16
22 ×
Write the following in order of size, smallest first: π, 3.14, 7 , 2 3
​ ​

3.142, 3 (2 marks)
We now can multiply the numerators and denominators.
Solution:
The order of size can be found by writing all of these numbers 3 × 16 48
out to the same number of decimal places, and then
= =8
2×3 6
​ ​

comparing. In order to do this, put each of the values into the 1 3

same format (decimals) using the ‘S ⇔D’ button (located Hence 1 2 ​ ÷ 16 =
​ 8.
above ‘DEL’) on your calculator.
1.8. Estimation
π = 3.14159 (5.d.p)
Question 8:
3.14 = 3.14000 (5.d.p) By writing each number correct to 1 significant figure,
22 estimate the value of
= 3.14286 (5.d.p)
7
​

3 ⋅ 9 × 29 ⋅ 3
​

3.142 = 3.14200 (5.d.p) 8⋅9 − 2⋅7

​

3 = 3.00000 (5.d.p) Show all your working. (2 marks)

Solution:
Therefore, the order we get (smallest to largest) is: Write all numbers correct to one significant figure:
3 < 3.14 < π < 3.142 < 22
7 ​

4 × 30 ​

1.6. Standard Form 9−3

​

Do the calculations.
Question 6:
Write 2.8 × 10 2 as an ordinary number. (1 mark) 2 × 30 60
=
Solution: 6 6
​ ​

We can write 2.8 x 102 as an ordinary number like this: 2.8 x We get the final answer:
102 simply means 2.8 x 100
10
2.8 × 100 = 280
1.9. Bounds
1.7. Operations of Fractions & Decimals
Question 9:
Question 7: An equilateral triangle has sides of length 16.1 cm, correct to
Show that the nearest millimetre. Find the lower and upper bounds of
the perimeter of the triangle. (2 marks)
1 3 Solution:
1 ÷ =8
2 16
​ ​

An equilateral triangle has all sides and angles equal. We

Do not use a calculator and show all the steps of your know that each side is 16.1cm to the nearest mm. This
working. (2 marks) means that, each side could be between 16.15cm and
Solution:
This question is most simply done by converting everything to
proper fractions. We want to change 1 12 into a proper ​

fraction, which can be done as shown.

16.05cm. We can therefore calculate:
1 1 2 1 3 The minimum perimeter/lower bound is:
1 → 1+ → + →
2 2 2 2 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

16.05 + 16.05 + 16.05 = 48.15cm

Our problem then becomes
And the maximum perimeter/upper bound is:
3 3
÷
2 16 16.15 + 16.15 + 16.15 = 48.45cm
​ ​

We can use ‘Keep-Change-Flip’ to change this to a

multiplication problem. We keep 32 , change ÷ into × , and flip
​
1.10. Ratios
3 16
16 to 3 .
​ ​

Question 10:
3 16

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

The scale on a map is 1: 20 000. 161%

a) Calculate the actual distance between two points which are
2.7 cm apart on the map. Give your answer in kilometres. (2 1.12. Using a Calculator
marks)
b) A field has an area of 64 400 m2 . Calculate the area of the Question 12:
2
field on the map in cm (2 marks) Use your calculator to find the value of
Solution:
Part (a): (cos 30 ∘ )2 − (sin 30 ∘ )2
Multiply the distance on the map by the scale factor to find 2(sin 120 ∘ )(cos 120 ∘ )
​

the real distance in centimetres.

(2 marks)
distance = 2.7cm × 20 000 Solution:
By inputting the values into your calculator, you get:
distance = 54 000 cm
2 2
(cos(30)) − (sin (30 ))
Divide the distance by 100 to get the distance in meters. (1m
2(sin(120)(cos (120 ))
​

= 100cm)
3 1
− 0.5 − 3
distance = 540 m = 4 4
= =
​ ​ ​

3 −1 − 3 3
​ ​ ​

2 × 2
​

​ × 2 ​

2
​

Divide the real distance in meters by 1000 to get the distance

in kilometers (1km = 1000m) So, the answer is:

distance = 0.54 km − 3
=
​

3
​

Part (b):
Multiply the area by 10 000 to get the area in square
1.13. Time
centimeters.
(1m2 = 100cm x 100cm= 10 000 cm2) Question 13:
A train leaves Zurich at 22 40 and arrives in Vienna at 07 32
area = 644 000 000 cm 2 the next day. Work out the time taken. (1 mark)
Solution:
Divide by the scale factor 20 0002to get the area on the map. We can count the time it takes to get us to the Vienna. Add 20
(Note: Area scale factor is the square of the length scale minutes to take it to the next hour:
factor)
22 : 40 + 20m = 23 : 00
644 000 000 cm 2
area on map = 2 Add 1 hour to take it to the next day (24:00 is equivalent to
​

(20 000)
midnight, or 00:00)
area on map = 1.61 cm 2
23 : 00 + 1hr = 24 : 00 (= 00 : 00 )
1.11. Percentages Now add 7 hours and 32 minutes to get to the desired time

Question 11: 00 : 00 + 7hr 32m = 07 : 32

In 1970 the population of China was 8.2 x 10 8 . In 2007 the
population of China was 1.322 x 10 9 . Calculate the population The time taken is all the hours and minutes added together
in 2007 as a percentage of the population in 1970. (2 marks) like this
Solution:
The population in 2007 as a percentage of the population in
20m + 1hr + 7hr 32m
1970 can be calculated by: Total time = (8hr 52m)
P opulation in 2007
× 100, 1.14. Currency Conversions
P opulation in 1970
​

Substituting in the values gives: Question 14:

1.322 × 10 9 1. In 2007, a tourist changed 4000 Chinese Yuan into

× 100 = 161.2̇ 195 1̇
8.2 × 10 8 pounds (£) when the exchange rate was £1 = 15.2978
​

Chinese Yuan. Calculate the amount he received,

The answer after rounding is:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places. (2

marks) Question 16:
2. In 2006, the exchange rate was £1 = 15.9128 Chinese Zainab borrows $198 from a bank to pay for a new bed. The
Yuan. Calculate the percentage decrease in the bank charges compound interest at 1.9 % per month.
number of Chinese Yuan for each £1 from 2006 to Calculate how much interest she owes at the end of 3
2007. (2 marks) months. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places. (3
marks)
Solution: Solution:
Part (1): To calculate how much interest she owes on $198 at the end
In order to change from Chinese Yuan into pounds, we can do of the 3 months we first must calculate the total amount after
this: interest at the end of the 3 months. This is done as follows:

1 C hinese Y uan = £0.06537 r 3

198 × (1 + )
100
​

4000 C hinese Y uan = £0.06537 × 4000

where r is the interest rate. As we know that the interest rate
4000 C hinese Y uan = £261.4755 is 1.9%,
1.9 3
r =(1 + 100 ) = 1.019
But we need this to the nearest penny
​

and hence the total amount after interest is:

4000 Chinese Yuan = £261.4 198 × 1.019 3 = 209.50$
Hence Zainab owes the bank
Part (b):
To calculate the percentage decrease we need to do the $209.5 − $198 = $11.5
following:
So, the answer is:
change in amount of chinese yuan for each £1
× 100 $11.5
amount of chinese yuan for each £1 in 2006
​

15.9128 − 15.2978
15.9128
× 100 = 3.8648
​

2. Algebra and graphs

Hence the percentage decrease is 3.865%
2.1. Using Algebra to Solve Problems
1.15. Finance Problems
Question 17:
Question 15: Simplify 16 − 4 (3x − 2 )2 . (3 marks)
Emily invests x at a rate of 3% per year simple interest. After Solution:
5 years she has 20.10$ interest. Find the value of x. (3 marks) Simplifying the equation gives:
Solution:
The equation for simple interest is
16 − 4 (3x − 2 )2 = 16 − 4 (9x 2 − 12x + 4 )

= 16 − 36x 2 + 48x − 16
x + i = x (1 + t)
R
100
​

= −36x 2 + 48x
Where:
= 12x(4 − 3x)
x = Principal investment value
So, the answer is:
i = Interest gained
R = Interest rate (%) 12x(4 − 3x)
t = Investment time

3×5 2.2. Factorisation (Linear)

x + 20.1 = x (1 + )
100
​

Question 18:
20.1 Factorise completely.
1+ = 1 + 0.06
a) 2a + 4 + ap + 2p (2 marks)
​

x
20.1 b) 162 – 8t2 (2 marks)
x= Solution:
0.06
​

Part (a):
x = 134
(a + 2 ) (p + 2 )

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

We can check this by expanding it back out: Solve the simultaneous equations. (3 marks)

ap + 2p + 2a + 4 0.4x – 5y = 27
Part (b): 2x + 0.2y = 9
We can start off by factorising out the common factor of 2
Solution:
2 (81 − 4t2 ) Rearrange one of the equations to get just x or just y on one
side:
Then we can see that this is the difference of two squares
0.4x = 27 + 5y
= 2 (9 2 − (2t) )
2

Substitute this into the second equation:

= 2 (9 + 2t ) (9 − 2t )
2 (27 + 5y) + 0.2y = 9
2.3. Indices Simplify:

Question 20: 135 + 25.2y = 9

3 1 − 52
Simplify 58 x 2 ​

÷ 2x (2 marks)
​

Solve:
​ ​

Solution:
To simplify the equation, we use the fact that 25.2y = −126y = −5
x a ÷ x b = x a−b Substitute your answer into one of the equations:

Hence: 2x − 1 = 9
5 32 1 −5 5 1 5
x ÷ x 2 = ( ÷ ) x 2 − 2 = x4 Solve for x:
3 −5
​ ​ ​ ​

8 2 8 2 4
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2x = 10x = 5
So, the answer is:
1.25 x4 = 1 14 x4 ​
So the answer is:

x = 5, y = −5
2.4. Linear equations
Question 21: 2.6. Linear inequalities
Solve the equation. (2 marks)
Question 23:
5 – 2x = 3x – 19 Solve the inequality. (2 marks)

Solution: 3x − 1 ≤ 11x + 2

5 − 2x = 3x − 19 Solution:
To solve the inequality 3x − 1 ≤ 11x + 2 we must
Add 2x to both sides of the equality: rearrange for x .

5 = 5x − 19 3x − 1 ≤ 11x + 2
Add 19 to both sides: Hence we get

5x = 24 3
x≥−
8
​

Divide both sides by 5:

24 2.7. Quadratic Equations

x=
5
​

Question 24:
x = 4.8 y = x 2 + 7x – 5 can be written in the form
y = (x + a)2 + b.
2.5. Simultaneous Linear Equations Find the value of a and the value of b. (3 marks)
Solution:
Question 22: 2
If we expand (x + a) and collect terms we get

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

y = (x + a)2 + b The difference between the terms is 3. The sequence can

then be written as
= x 2 + 2ax + a2 + b
3n + a
If we now compare coefficients of the powers of x we have
Where a is some real number and n is the term. The first
CF x1 : 2a = 7 term is then

→ a = 72 or 3.5
​
3 + a = 16
CFx 0 (units) : a2 + b = −5 → a = 13
49 Hence
→ + b = −5
4
​

nth term = 3n + 13
20 49
→b=− −
4 4 Part (b):
​ ​

Each term is a power of 3 so our sequence has the form

b = − 69
4 or -17.25
​

3 f (n)
2.8. Graphical inequalities
If we substitute in some values, we can see that

1 = 3 f (1)

→ f (1 ) = 0

3 = 3 f (2)
Question 25: → f (2 ) = 1
Find four inequalities that define the region, R, on the grid. (4
marks) Hence
Solution:
The lines on the grid that border R are f (n) = n − 1

y=4 Final answer

y=3 nth term = 3 n−1

x=2 2.10. Direct/Inverse proportionality

y=x Question 27:
R is above 3 and below 4, to the right of 2 and to the left of the t varies inversely as the square root of u. t = 3 when u = 4.
diagonal line. Note that solid lines mean we include them in Find t when u = 49. (3 marks)
the inequality. This is written as Solution:
We are told that t varies inversely with the square root of u .
y<4 Written mathematically, this says:

y≥3 1
t∝ ​

u ​

x≥2
By adding a constant of multiplication, we can make this a
y>x proper equation:

k
2.9. Sequences and nth term t= ​

u ​

Question 26: We are given values for t and u, so we can rearrange and
Find the nth term of each of these sequences. solve for k.
a) 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, ... (2 marks)
b) 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, ... (2 marks) k
t=
Solution:
​

u ​

Part (a):

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Multiply both sides by u 2.12. Constructing Graphs & Solving

t u=k ​
Equations Graphically
Plugging in values Question 29:

3 4 = k = 3 (2 ) = 6k = 6 1
f(x) = x − , x=
0
​

2x 2
​

Hence our equation becomes

a) Complete the table of values. (2 marks)
6
t= ​

u ​

We are asked to find t when u = 49. b) On the grid, draw the graph of y = f (x ) for –3 ≤ x ≤ –
0.3 and 0.3 ≤ x ≤ 2. (1 mark)
6 6
t= = c) Use your graph to solve the equation f (x ) = 1 (1 mark)
49 7
​ ​

d) There is only one negative integer value, k, for which f(x) =

k has only one solution for all real x. Write down this value of
2.11. Kinematics, Distance-Time & k. (1 mark)
e) The equation 2x − 2x1 2 − 2 = 0 can be solved using the
Speed-Time Graphs ​

graph of y = f(x) and a straight-line graph.

Question 28: I. Find the equation of this straight line (1 mark)
A car of length 4.3 m is travelling at 105 km/h. It passes over II. On the grid, draw this straight line and solve the equation
1
a bridge of length 36m. Calculate the time, in seconds, it 2x − 2x2 ​ − 2 = 0. (3 marks)
takes to pass over the bridge completely. (3 marks) Solution:
Solution: Part (a):
The car is on the bridge when its front is on the bridge and We use calculator to find the values of f (x ) for x=-1 and x=1.
exits when its rear leaves. The total distance to travel is
therefore f (−1 ) = −1.5, f (1 ) = 0.5
Part (b):
36 + 4.3 = 40.3m

Converting the speed into m/s, first we multiply by 1000 to get

the units in m/hr

Speed = 105 kmh −1 × 1000

Speed = 105000mh −1
Part (c):
Next, we have to turn it into m/s We plot the line y=1 and find the x-coordinate of the point of
intersection.
Speed = 105000mh −1 ÷ (60 2 )
105000
Speed = ms−1
3600
​

From the graph, we can see that the x-coordinate of the point
175 is
Speed = ms−1
6
​

x = 1.3
Using the speed distance time relation
Part (d):
distance From the graph, we can clearly see that k = −1 , since for -2
speed =
time
​

and any other negative integer, there are two solutions to

175 40.3m f(x)=k.
ms−1 =
6 time
​ ​

k = −1
Rearrange for time
Part (e)(i):
6 Subtract (x-2) from both sides of the equation.
time = 40.3 ×
175
​

1
= 1.38 s (2dp) x− =2−x
2x 2
​

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

We can see that the right side of the equation is our original f (x ) = 5x + 7 g (x ) = 4
x−3 ​

function.
Therefore, the left-hand side must be the straight line we are a) Find
looking for.
i. fg(1) (2 Marks)
ii. gf(1) (2 Marks)
y=2−x
iii. g -1(x) (2 Marks)
Part (e)(ii): iv. ff-1(2) (2 Marks)
We plot a line y = 2 − x and find the x-coordinate of the b) f(x) = g(x)
point of intersection with the original graph to solve 2x − 2
i. Show that 5x − 8x − 25 = 0 (3 Marks)
1
2x2 − 2 = 0
​

ii. Solve 5x 2 − 8x − 25 = 0 . Show all your working and give

your answers correct to 2 decimal places. (4 Marks)
Solution:
Part (a)(i):
We apply f(x) to g(x) like so

fg (x ) = 5g (x ) + 7
From the graph, we can see that the x-coordinate of the point,
20
and hence the solution to the equation = +7
x−3
​

2x − 2x12 − 2 = 0 is
​

20
x = 1.15 fg (1 ) = +7
1−3
​

2.13. Tangents & Gradients = −10 + 7

= −3
Part (a)(ii):
We apply the function g to the output of function f giving:

Question 30: 4
gf (x ) =
a) Work out the gradient of the line L (2 marks) f (x ) − 3
​

b) Write down the equation of the line parallel to the line L

4
that passes through the point (0, 6). (2 marks) =
5x + 7 − 3
​

Solution:
Part (a): 4
Gradient found by using =
5x + 4
​

y2 − y1 Part (a)(iii):
m=
​ ​

x2 − x1 Let y = g(x). If we rearrange for x = f(y) then that

​

​ ​

function of y will be g −1 (y).

Choose the points (1, 1) and (0, -1)
4
1 − (−1) y=
m= x−3
​

1−0
​

Multiply both sides by x − 3

=2
Part (b): y (x − 3 ) = 4
Parallel means the same gradient, so 2. This gives us the
Divide both sides by y
equation
4
y = 2x + c x−3= ​

y
c is the y-intercept which is given as 6 Add 3 to both sides

y = 2x + 6 4
x= + 3 = g −1 (y)
​

y
2.14. Functions 4
→ g −1 (x) = +3
x
​

Question 31:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Part (a)(iv): has a line of symmetry down its centre. This works for E, B
Inverse function applied to the function reverses its effect, so and A, so these 3 letters are the answer
Part (b):
f −1 f (2 ) = 2 Rotational symmetry is found by rotating the letter (from the
word ‘ZEBRA’) around an imaginary point, which we place on
Part (b)(i):
one of the corners ‘Order 2’ means that you could rotate the
We have
letter around the imaginary point and it would look the same
4 in 2 different positions (see diagram below)
5x + 7 =
x−3
​

Multiply both sides by x − 3

(5x + 7) (x − 3 ) = 4

Expand

5x 2 + 7x − 15x − 21 = 4 The only letter in ‘ZEBRA’ for which we can do this is Z – so the
answer is Z
Rearrange and simplify forming a quadratic equation that
equals zero:
3.2. Construction
2
5x −8x − 25 = 0
Question 33:
Part (b)(ii): This diagram shows triangle ABC
We use the quadratic formula, given as
−b± b2 −4ac
x= 2a
​

​ (where ax 2 + bx + c = 0 )
Substitute for
a = 5, b = −8, c = −25
hence:
a) Using a straight edge and compasses only, construct the
8± 64 + 20 × 25 bisector of angle ABC. (2 marks)
x=
​

10
​

b) Rotational symmetry of order 2 (1 mark)

Solution:
8 ± 2 141
=
​

10
​

x = 3.17 (2.d.p.) or x = −1.57 (2.d.p.)

3. Geometry Part (a):

The bisector of angle ABC is drawn in blue. Construction lines
are orange and green. You need to use a compass to do this
3.1. Properties of Shapes construction and ensure that construction lines are clearly
shown.
Question 32: Part (b):
Using a rule measure carefully 3cm from line AC to construct
ZEBRA a parallel line inside the triangle as shown.
Write down the letters in the word above that have,
a) Exactly one line of symmetry (1 mark)
b) Rotational symmetry of order 2 (1 mark)
Solution:
Part (a):
We can find out which letters in ‘ZEBRA’ have exactly 1 line of
symmetry like this: Imagine placing a mirror through the 3.3. Similarity
centre of each letter at loads of different angles – a line of
symmetry is where that mirror would show us the letter we
expect to see
For example, if we placed a mirror vertically down the centre
Question 34:
of ‘A’, between the paper and the mirror we would see ‘A’, so it
Triangles CBA and CED are similar. AB is parallel to DE. AB =
9 cm, BE = 4.8 cm, EC = 6 cm and ED = k cm.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

a) Work out the value of k. (2 marks) This diagram shows triangle ABC

b) The diagram shows two mathematically similar vases.

Vase A has height 20 cm and volume 1500 cm3 . Vase B has
volume 2592 cm3 . Calculate h, the height of vase B. (3
marks)
Solution:
Part (a):
If we imagine that triangle ABC was shortened to create
triangle CED then the factor by which CB was shortened to
create CE is the same factor that shortened AB to make DE.

CB = 10.8 a) The order of rotational symmetry (1 mark)

b) The number of lines of symmetry (1 mark)
CE = 6 Solution:
Part (a):
Thus, the scale factor is The order of rotational symmetry of a shape is the number of
CE 5 times it can be rotated around a full circle and still look the
= same. Hence by inspection we can see that:
CB 9
​ ​

Apply this factor to AB

5
DE = × AB
9
​

5
→k=9×
9 The order of rotational symmetry = 6
​

Part (b):
=5
A line of symmetry is an imaginary line where you can fold
Part (b): the image and have both halves match exactly. Hence by
The volume scale factor is inspection we can see that there are no lines of symmetry as
the image will differ if folded over any imaginary line. 6 such
2592
= 1.728
1500
​

This is the volume scale factor is the cube of the length

(height) scale factor. The height scale factor is therefore

examples are shown below:

The number of lines of symmetry = 0
And hence

hB =
6
× hA 3.5. Angles (Circles, Quadrilaterals,
5
​ ​ ​

Polygons & Triangles)

= 24
Question 36:
3.4. Symmetry (in circles)
Question 35:
a)
In the diagram, D is on AC so that angle ADB = angle ABC .
i. Show that angle ABD is equal to angle ACB. (2 marks)
ii. Complete the statement. Triangles ABD and ACB are … (1
mark)
iii. AB = 12 cm, BC = 11 cm and AC = 16 cm. Calculate the
length of BD. (2 marks)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Therefore

u ∘ = 38 ∘
Part (b)(ii):
As the length of BC and CD are equal, so the angles BAC and
b) A, B, C, D and E lie on the circle.
CAD are also equal.
Angle AED = 102° and angle BAC = 38°. BC = CD. Find the
Hence:
value of
i. u, (1 mark) v∘ = 38 ∘
ii. v, (1 mark)
iii. w, (1 mark) Part (b)(iii):
iv. x, (1 mark) Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180°.
In this case, the opposite angles are AED and ABD.

180 ∘ = AED + ABD

180 ∘ = 102 ∘ + w ∘
Subtract 102° from both sides of the equation.
c) In the diagram, P, Q and R
w = 78 ∘
lie on the circle, centre O. PQ is parallel to OR. Angle QPO =
m° and angle QRO = 2m°. Find the value of m. (5 marks) Part (b)(iv):
Solution: The interior angles of any triangle ABC sum to 180°.
Part (a)(i): The triangle BCD is an isosceles triangle, therefore angles
The sum of the interior angles of the two triangles (ABD and DBC and BDC have the same size 38°.
ACB) must equal each other (and 180°).
180 ∘ = ABC + BC A + C AB
ABD + ADB + DAB = ABC + ACB + C AB
180 ∘ = (w ∘ + u ∘ ) + x ∘ + 38 ∘
The angles CAB and DAB are actually one and the same as D
line on AC. 180 ∘ = (38 ∘ + ∘ 78 ∘ ) + x ∘ + 38 ∘
ABD + ADB = ABC + ACB Subtract 154° from both sides of the equation gives:

Angles ADB = angle ABC. x∘ = 26 ∘

Therefore: ABD = ACB
Part (a)(ii): Part (c):
As the angles in these two triangles are the same, the The sum of all interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
triangles ABD and ACB are similar.
360 ∘ = PQR + QRO + ROP + OPQ
…similar
Part (a)(iii):
The angles are similar, therefore the following ratios equal.

BD BC
=
AB AC
​ ​

Using the lengths given.

BD 11 cm Two of these angles are known. POQ = m∘ and QRO =

= 2m∘
12 cm 16 cm
​ ​

All length OP, OQ and OR must be equal as they are all radii of
Multiply both sides by 12cm. the circle. This means that angles POQ and QOR are
11 equilateral triangles.
BD = × 12cm Therefore, we know that the angle OPQ and OQP are the
16
​

same and also OQR is the same as ORQ.

BD = 8.25cm By summing OQP and OQR, we get the size of angle PQR.

Part (b)(i): PQR = OQP + OQR = OPQ + ORQ

The angle BDC is subtended by the same points (B and C) as
the angle BAC, so they must be the same size. (Angles in the PQR = m∘ + 2m∘ = 3m∘
same segment are equal)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

As the lines PQ and OR are parallel, the sum of angles at P For the upper bound on height, we need the area to be as
and O must be the same as the sum of angles at Q and R. large as possible and the base to be as short as possible, i.e.,

ROP + OPQ = PQR + QRO A = 42.5

ROP + m∘ = 3m∘ + 2m∘ b = 8.5

Subtract m° from both sides to get the value of ROP. Hence

ROP = 4m∘ 1
42.5 = × 8.5 × h
2
​

Now we know all four angles of the original equation.

h = 10
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
360 = 3m + 2m + 4m + m
4.2. Circle Problems (Area,
360 ∘ = 10m∘
Circumference, Arcs)
Divide both sides by 10 to work out the value of m.

m = 36 ∘

3.6. Loci
Question 39:
The diagram shows a sector of a circle of radius 12 cm with
an angle of 135°. Calculate the perimeter of the sector. (3
marks)
Solution:
Question 37:
Here we can use fractions to calculate the perimeter of the
The diagram shows a rectangular garden divided into sector.
different areas. FG is the perpendicular bisector of BC. The
We know that a circle has a total angle of 360 ∘ , and here we
arc HJ has centre D and radius 20 m. CE is the bisector of
are looking at a sector of angle 135 ∘ . Hence the fraction of
angle DCB. Write down two more statements using loci to
the circle we are looking at is
describe the shaded region inside the garden. (2 marks)
Solution: 135 3
The shaded region is =
360 8
​ ​

nearer to C than to B Now we want the perimeter of the total circle – this is an
more than 20m from D equation you should have memorised.
closer to CD than CB
perimeter = circumference = 2πr

4. Mensuration Now we only want the fraction we found of this total result, so
we can multiply the two.

4.1. 2D Shapes: Perimeters & Areas 3 3

arc perimeter = × 2πr = πr
8 4
​ ​

Question 38: We are given r = 12cm. We need to remember that the

The base of a triangle is 9 cm correct to the nearest cm. The
perimeter of this shape also includes two radii, (I.e. Arc length
area of this triangle is 40 cm2 correct to the nearest 5 cm2. plus two straight sections (radii). Hence our total perimeter
Calculate the upper bound for the perpendicular height of this becomes:
triangle. (3 marks)
Solution: 3 3
total perimeter = πr + r + r = πr + 2r
The area of a triangle is 4 4
​ ​

1 3
A= × base × height total perimeter = π (12 ) +2 (12 ) = 52.3cm
4
​

2
​

Here we have 4.3. 3D Shapes: Volumes & Surface

∼ 40 =
1
×∼9×h
Areas
2
​

Question 39:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

(y2 − y1 )2 + (x 2 − x 1 )2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Here, that is
The diagram shows a solid hemisphere.
The total surface area of this hemisphere is 243 π. The
volume of the hemisphere is k π. Find the value of k. (13 + 5 )2 + (4 + 2 )2 ​

2
[The surface area, A, of a sphere with radius r is A = 4πr .]
= 324 + 36
[The volume, V, of a sphere with radius r is V = 43 πr 3 .] (4
​

marks) = 18.97
Solution:
The surface area of a hemisphere (blue) is half that of a Part (b):
sphere plus the area of the circle (red): The gradient of the line can be found as

1 y2 − y1
× 4πr 2 + πr 2 = 3πr 2 m=
​ ​

x2 − x1
​

2
​

​ ​

13 + 5
=
4+2
​

=3
Equate this to the surface area of this hemisphere to find the
radius, r: Using the straight-line equation

3πr 2 = 243π y − y1 = m(x − x 1 )

​ ​

r 2 = 81 With our gradient and the point B we get

r=9 y − 13 = 3 (x − 4 )

The volume of a hemisphere is half that of a sphere: → y = 3x − 12 + 13

1 4 2 → y = 3x + 1
V hemisphere = × πr 3 = πr 3
2 3 3
​ ​ ​ ​

Part (c):
Equate this to the volume of this hemisphere: Parallel means it has the same gradient. This new line, using
the same straight-line equation as before, is
2 3
πr = kπ
3 y + 5 = 3 (x − 0 )
​

Cancel out the π and substitute r = 9:

→ y = 3x − 5
2
×9 3 = k Part (d):
3
​

Perpendicular bisector means that it has a perpendicular

k = 486 gradient to line AB and it cuts through the midpoint. The
perpendicular gradient is
4.4. Co-ordinate Geometry −1 ÷ 3
Question 39: 1
=−
Equations of a Line (gradients, mid-points, perpendicular & 3
​

parallel lines) A line joins the points A (–2, –5) and B (4, 13).
The midpoint is
a) Calculate the length AB (3 marks)
b) Find the equation of the line through A and B. Give your 4 − 2 13 − 5
answer in the form y = mx + c. (3 marks) M =( , )
2 2
​ ​

c) Another line is parallel to AB and passes through the point

(0, –5). Write down the equation of this line. (2 marks) = (1, 4)
d) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AB. (5
marks) The perpendicular bisector then has the equation
Solution:
1
Part (a): y−4 = − (x − 1 )
3
​

Length of a line is given by

→ 3y − 12 = −x + 1

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

→ x + 3y − 13 = 0 6
sin D =
( sin830 )
​

5. Trigonometry
D = sin−1 ( ) D = 22.0 ∘
6
( sin830 )
​

5.1. Bearings
All angles within a triangle add up to 180°, so
Question 38:
BC D = 180 − 30 − 22BC D = 128 ∘
A helicopter flies from its base B to deliver supplies to two oil
rigs at C and D. C is 6 km due east of B and the distance from Bearing from C to D = 360 − 90 − 128 = 142 ∘
C to D is 8 km. D is on a bearing of 120° from B.

5.2. 2D Pythagoras & Trigonometry (SOH

CAH TOA)
Question 39:
This diagram shows triangle ABC

Find the bearing of D from C . (5 marks)

Solution:
To find the bearing of D from C we’ll need to find the size of
the angle BCD, and then take that angle, and 90∘ , away from
360∘ . This is going to require us to use the ‘Sine Rule’ to find
out the angles inside the triangle. The ‘Sine Rule’ can be used
to find either the length of a side of a triangle, or an angle in a a) Andrei stands on level horizontal ground, 294 m from the
triangle – it goes like this: foot of a vertical tower which is 55 m high.
i. Calculate the angle of elevation of the top of the tower. (2
a b c
= = marks)
sin A sin B sin C
​ ​ ​

ii. Andrei walks a distance x metres directly towards the

Angle DCB = 120∘ − 90 ∘ = 30 ∘ tower. The angle of elevation of the top of the tower is now
24.8°. Calculate the value of x. (4 marks)
Solution:
Part (a)(i):
The angle of elevation can be calculated using trigonometry.

55
tan (angle ) =
294
​

Take tan-1 of both sides of the equation to calculate the angle

of elevation.

55
angle = arctan( )
294
​

angle = 10.6 ∘
So, applying the Sine rule:
Part (a)(ii):
8 6 We use the same formula as before, but now we subtract x
=
sin 30 sinD
​ ​

from Anderi’s original distance from the tower (294m).

8
sin D ( )=6 tan (24.8 ∘ ) =
55
sin 30
​

294 − x
​

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Invert both fractions. Question 41:

1 294 − x
∘
=
tan (24.8 ) 55
​ ​

Multiply both sides by 55m.

55m
= 294 − x
tan (24.8 ∘ )
​

Subtract 294m from both sides of the equation.

The diagram shows a cuboid. HD = 3 cm, EH = 5 cm and EF =
55 7 cm. Calculate
x = 294m −
tan (24.8 ∘ ) a) the length CE, (4 marks)
​

b) the angle between CE and the base CDHG. (3 marks)

Use a calculator to work out the value of x.
Solution:
x = 175m Part (a):
First consider triangle CHD

5.3. Sine & Cosine Rule

Question 40:
a) Calculate the area of triangle ABC . (2 marks)
b) Calculate the length of AC . (4 marks)
Solution:
Part (a):
Area of a triangle is Calculate CH using Pythagoras’
1 C H 2 = 33 + 72
A= ab sin C
2
​

1 = 58
A= × 7 × 10 × sin 35
2
​

CH = 58 ​

A = (3sf )
Now consider triangle CHE
Part (b):
Using the cosine rule

c 2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C

c 2 = 100 + 49 − 140 cos 35

c 2 = 34.3

c= 34.3 ​

c = (3sf )
Find CE using Pythagoras’
5.4. 3D Pythagoras & Trigonometry C E 2 = 58 + 5 2

= 83

CE = 83 ​

= 9.11
Part (b):

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Considering triangle CHE again 1

q = c + CB
2
​ ​

1
= c + (− c + a + b )
2
​

1
= (a + b + c)
2
​

Part (c):

PQ = − p + q ​ ​ ​

2
p = a +
b
We now need to calculate angle θ . To do this we can use the 3
​ ​

tan relation 2 1
→ PQ = − a − b + ( a + b + c )
opp 3 2
​ ​ ​

tan θ =
adj 1 1 1
​

=− a− b+ c
2 6 2
​ ​ ​

Using our values

tan θ =
5 6.2. Transformations (Reflection,
58
​

Enlargement, Rotation, Translation)

5
θ = tan−1
58
​

= 33.3 ∘

6. Matrices and
Question 43:
Transformations a) Draw the image of
i. shape A after a translation by (−1 3 ), (2 marks)
​

ii. shape A after a rotation through 180° about the point (0, 0),
6.1. Vectors
(2 marks)
iii. shape A after the transformation represented by the
matrix (1 0 0 −1 ) (3 Marks)
​ ​ ​

b) Describe fully the single transformation that maps shape A

Question 42: onto shape B. (3 marks)
c) Find the matrix which represents the transformation that
In the diagram, O is the origin, OA = a, OC = c and AB = b.
maps shape A onto shape C (2 marks)
P is on the line AB so that AP : PB = 2 : 1. Q is the midpoint of
Solution:
BC . Find, in terms of a, b and c, in its simplest form
Part (a)(i)
a) CB , (1 mark) This transformation represents a shift by 1 unit in the
b) the position vector of Q, (2 marks) negative x- direction and by 3 units in the positive y-direction.
c) PQ . (2 marks)
Solution:

The vertices of the new shape are:

Part (a): (1,4), (1,5), (2,5) and (4,4).
Part (a)(ii):
CB = a + b + c We rotate the shape by 180°. This is essentially the same as
reflecting the shape in line y=-x.
Part (b):

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

probability that the cricket team wins at least one match. (3

The vertices of the rotated shape are: marks)

(-2,-1), (-5,-1), (-2,-2) and (-3,-2). Solution:
Part (a)(iii): The branches that result in at least one win for the cricket
This matrix transformation represents a reflection in the x-
axis.
The x coordinate does not change, but the y coordinate flips
sign.

(1 00 −1 ) ( x y ) = (x − y )
team are circled below:
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

The end probability of each branch is the two probabilities

multiplied, for example the top branch is

1 3 1
× =
3 4 4
​ ​ ​

The vertices of the new shape are: We need to add these probabilities together like so
(2,-1), (5,-1), (2,-2) and (3,-2). 1 3 1 1 2 3
Part (b): × + × + ×
3 4 3 4 3 4
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

When we join the corresponding vertices of shapes A and B,

the lines cross at point (1,0). The distance from (1,0) to a 1 1 1
= + +
4 12 2
​ ​ ​

vertex of shape B is three times as long as the distance from

(1,0) to a corresponding vertex of shape A. This suggests that 3 1 6
the scale factor of the enlargement is -3 (minus sign as the = + +
12 12 12
​ ​ ​

lines point in the opposite direction from (1,0)).

10
=
12
​

5
=
6
​

The transformation is an enlargement with centre (1,0) and

the scale factor -3. 8. Statistics
Part (c):
The transformation that maps shape A onto shape C is a
rotation by 90° in anticlockwise direction.
8.1. Histograms, Bar Charts, Pictograms,
A general matrix for rotation looks like Scatter Diagrams & Frequency
(cos x − sin x sin x cos x ) where x is an angle of
​

Distributions
anticlockwise rotation.
This matrix becomes (0 −1 1 0 ) for x = 90
​

Question 46:
Deborah records the number of minutes late, t, for trains

7. Probability arriving at a station. The histogram shows this information.

7.1. Probability
Question 45:
The probability of a cricket team winning or losing in their first
two matches is shown in the tree diagram. Find the (a) Find the number of trains that Deborah recorded (2
marks)
(b) Calculate the percentage of the trains recorded that
arrived more than 10 minutes late. (2 marks)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Solution: Question 48:

Part (a): The table shows the times, t minutes, taken by 200 students
We need to add the areas of the rectangles together to complete an IGCSE paper.

12 × 2.5 + 26 × 2.5 + 15 × 5 + 10 × 5 + 2 × 10

= 240 a) By using mid-interval values, calculate an estimate of the

mean time. (3 marks)
Part (b): b) On the grid, draw a histogram to show the information in
Number of trains that arrived more than 10 minutes late is the table. (4 marks)
the area of the last 2 bars Solution:
Part (a):
5 × 10 + 10 × 2 The mean value is estimated by assuming that the time taken
to complete an IGCSE paper for all students within a given
= 70
group was equal to the mid-value of that group
This, as a percentage of the total, is (i.e. 50min, 65min, 72.5min, 82.5min).
We sum the products of the mid-value and the frequency of
70 given group and then divide by the total number of students
× 100%
240
​

to get the mean estimate. The mean is therefore:

= 29.2% 50min × 10 + 65min × 50 + 72.5min × 80 +
mean =
200 students
8.2. Mean/Median/Mode/Range
mean = 72.5 min
Question 47:
Part (b):
Shahruk plays four games of golf. His four scores have a To get the right histogram, each bar needs to have an area
mean of 75, a mode of 78 and a median of 77. Work out his
equal to the frequency of the given group.
four scores. (3 marks)
Solution: The width of the first group is 20 and the frequency is 10,
The mean is the sum of the four scores divided by 4 so the height of the bar is
10/20**=0.5** (red)
s1 + s2 + s3 + s4
= 75 The width of the second group is 10 and the frequency is
​ ​ ​

4
​

50, so the height of the bar is

The mode is the number that occurs most frequently, i.e. 2 or 50/10**=5.0**. (blue)
more of his scores must be 78. Let The width of the third group is 5 and the frequency is 80,
so the height of the bar is
s3 = s4 = 78
​ ​

80/5**=16**. (green)
The width of the forth group is 15 and the frequency is 60,
Where we have and even number of items, the median is the
so the height of the bar is
mean of the middle 2 numbers when put in rank order. Let
60/15**=4.0**. (orange)
the middle two scores be s2 and s3 . Thus, we have

s2 + 78
= 77
​

2
​

→ s2 = 76 ​

We can now figure out s1 from the mean

s1 + 76 + 78 + 78 = 4 × 75
​

→ s1 = 68 ​
8.4. Cumulative Frequency & Frequency
Density Diagrams
Final answer is
Question 49:
68, 76, 78, 78
The cumulative frequency diagram shows information about
the trunk diameter, in metres, of 120 trees. Find:
8.3. Grouped Data – Mean/Modal Class a) the inter-quartile range, (2 marks)
b) the 95th percentile, (2 marks)
& Drawing Histograms
c) the number of trees with a trunk diameter greater than 3
metres. (2 marks)

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE MATHEMATICS

Solution: 120 − 102

Part (a):
Subtract the lower quartile from the upper quartile (as seen = 18

8.5. Correlation
Question 50:
A company sends out ten different questionnaires to its
customers. The table shows the number sent and replies
received for each questionnaire.

on graph below)
a) Complete the scatter diagram for these results. The first
2.5 − 1
two points have been plotted for you. (2 marks)
= 1.5 b) Describe the correlation between the two sets of data. (1
mark)
Part (b): c) Draw the line of best fit. (1 mark)
95% of 120 is Solution:

0.95 × 120
= 114
Read this across and read off corresponding x value

Part (a):
Part (b):
It is positive correlation.
This is because as the number of questionnaires sent out
increases, the number of replies also increases.
Part (c):
The line of best fit is drawn in blue
Part (c):
Read off y-value for 3 metres and subtract this from total

number of trees (120).

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Overpopulation Under population

1. Theme 1: Population and Soil erosion,

deforestation.
Few people pay
taxes.
Settlement Resources are not
Lack of resources \n exploited fully,
Inflation reducing the
1.1. Population Dynamics potential
More air and water, Lack of services due
The world population is increasing day by day.
noise pollution, and to low demand,
An area can be either:
shortage of housing. particularly in rural
1. Overpopulation occurs when more people live in an Traffic congestions. areas and innovation
area than there are resources available.
2. Underpopulation occurs when fewer people live in the There are two ways in which a population can change:
area than there are resources available.
Migration: the action of moving from one place to
3. Optimum population: This occurs when there is a
another.
balance between the number of people and the
Natural population change: deducting death rate from
resources available.
birth rate.
Keywords:

Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for

1.2. Migration
every 1000 people
Keywords:
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
people
another
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death rate
Immigrants: People who arrive in a country to live
there permanently
Overpopulation Under population
Emigrants: People who leave the country to live in
High birthrate and Low birthrate and
Causes/reasons. another country permanently
low death rate high death rate
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus the
High fertility rate Low fertility rate number of emigrants
Increased family Types of migration:
Lack of family
planning and access Internal migration: When people move from one place
planning
to contraception. to another within the country.
Low level of High level of International migration: When people move from one
education for education for women country to another; involving the crossing a country’s
women, hence to have careers and border.
married early. marry late. Temporary migration: When people stay in an area for
a limited time.
High infant mortality Low infant mortality
Permanent migration: When people move and never
Limited religious
return home.
Religious beliefs beliefs relating to a Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are
number of children forced to move.
Greater life Voluntary migration: When people choose to move.
Low life expectancy.
expectancy Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their
More ageing home and their country due to a natural disaster, war,
Lack of water,
population, hence religious or political persecution
Impacts sanitization, housing,
more people in Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge (residency)
and food.
retirement age. in a foreign country because their life is in danger in
High crime rate and their home country.
Low crime rate Reasons for population migration:
poverty.
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from
Unemployment Shortage of workers
their home country.
There is no pressure Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their
Increased pressure
on health and destination.
on health, education,
education; hence,
water, and
costs increase as the Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors
sanitization.
population ages.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors Positive Negative

Unemployment More job opportunities Culture shocks, racism and
More job opportunities
War Better salary discrimination.
good health and education Better salary & access to a Difficulty in finding houses to
Pollution and congestion wider variety of good stay
services
Bad weather Peaceful and safe Better access to education &
Language barriers
Friends and family may healthcare
High crime rates Different cultures may be
already live there. Safer & peaceful
Poor education and difficult to integrate.
Citizenship Separated from friends and
healthcare Higher pay
Poor housing A higher standard of living family.

Famine Closer to relatives A higher standard of living Higher cost of living.

Drought Freedom of speech Send remittances to family Not used to weather

back home. conditions.
Inaccessibility Better lifestyle
Better quality of life Visa and weather conditions
Pollution Fewer hazards

Impacts of Migration on Country of Origin: 1.3. Population Structure

Advantages Disadvantages Keywords:
Less pressure on healthcare Labour force reduced. Ageing population: Old dependents (people above 60
years old)
Brain drains more
skilful/educated labour leave Dependent population: People who don’t work; are
Decline in birth rate. retired and have young children.
the country - fewer
innovations. Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age and
Migrants bring back new sex structure of the country; the distribution of age, sex, and
Division of families
skills. population of different countries is known as population
Money is sent back Left with elderly population - structure and is represented on a population pyramid.
(remittances) less income.
more job opportunities hence
the unemployment rate Tax increase
decrease
Decrease traffic congestion More ageing population
and pollution. (retirement age)
Increased quality of education Depopulation in rural areas
and healthcare affects agriculture.

Country of Destination
Advantages Disadvantages
Overcomes labour shortage. Competition for jobs
More pressure on healthcare, Implication of Dependents:
Dirty unskilled jobs done.
education and public services Too few Too Many
Brings expertise to the Taxes for public
Traffic congestion
country. Closure of child- schools from the
Young
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for related services; fewer government and more
dependents:
innovations. immigrants jobs. child-related services
Cultural diversity and Discrimination and racial are needed.
enrichment problems Fewer consumers and
More people in the
Will work long hours for a low taxpayers in the future
Increased pollution working population in
salary. and fewer people to
future hence
take over the working
Boosts local economy. unemployment.
population.

Impacts on Migrants Themselves An increase in the age Increased dependency

of the population ratio

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Too few Too Many Sparse Population Dense Population

Pressure on Locations with frequent No or few natural
Less labour in future healthcare and natural disasters disasters.
education Good water supply i.e.
No water supplies.
The strain on pension More pensions to be a river.
Old
systems; decrease in paid, increased Economic No economic Many jobs
dependents:
retirement age. retirement age. factors opportunities opportunities
Population structure More pressure on No infrastructure Good infrastructures
changes. public transportation
Many transport routes
Expensive medical and pressure on No transport routes.
to travel easily.
health care. healthcare
Bad communication Good communication
Not enough labour
Loneliness Social
force High crime rates Low crime rates
factors
Difficult to evacuate
Increased residential Cultural and religious
old dependents during No Cultural and
costs. beliefs of having big
natural disasters. religious beliefs.
family.
Political Government Reliable and stable
Different Types of Population Pyramids
factors corruption government
Poor public services
such as healthcare and Good public services
education
Civil war No threats or wars.
Low birth rate and high High birth rate and low
death rate. death rate.

1.5. Settlements (Rural & Urban) and

Service Provision
Settlement Patterns

\n \n
1.4. Population Density & Distribution
Keywords:
Population density: number of people per unit of area
(typically per kilometre square)
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
density An isolated, Buildings are
Densely populated: an area with high population building or a group strung along a line Buildings are
density of two or three of communication, grouped, initially for
Factors influencing: buildings, for example, a main defence or a
separated from the road, a river valley, common resource.
Sparse Population Dense Population next by 2 or 3 km. or a canal
Harsh areas;
Physical Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement
mountainous or Flat relief
Factors is located – the actual piece of land
uneven relief
Extreme/harsh Situation: describes settlement about other settlements
Favourable climates and physical features around it – this determines whether
climates and bad
and good weather the situation will grow into a large city or remain a small
weather
town or village
Availability of natural
Factors influencing settlements:
High risk of flooding resources for industry
Wet point site: this has a good water supply
and manufacturing.
Drypoint site: this has less risk of flooding
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay, etc. areas usually is agriculture & low-order services.
Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with This is because rural areas have fewer people,
steep-sided and commanding views poorer transport, poorer communication, less
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking technology, & the land is better used for other
Food supplies: land suitable for farming purposes.
Nodal points: where routes converge Urban Areas: tend to have many more functions
Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge ranging from shopping to educational, transport,
Aspect: settlements often on the sunny side of a valley administrative, and residential functions; and more
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain middle and high-order services.
Climate: A good climate attracts more people. Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban
Fertile land: brings in more farmers. area into the rural-urban fringe; provides mainly
Location: access to trades and raw materials. middle–order services

Hierarchy of Settlements 1.6. Urban Settlements

A hierarchy is when settlements are ordered and classified
Urban Settlements tend to have several land uses
based on:
The Central Business District (CBD):
Population size. Centre point of the city and has the highest land prices
Several services were provided. The most accessible point in the city
Number of settlements. \n High-rise buildings and skyscrapers
Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services, and
other professional services
Land uses:
Leisure and recreation - may include open land
Residential - High/multi-storey buildings.
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and
airports
Business and commerce - offices, shops, and banks
Industry - factories, warehouses, and small production
centres
The CBD is in the centre because it is:
A central location for roads/railways to converge
The most accessible location for workers
Accessible to most people for shops and businesses
Determining the order of importance: Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack of
The population size space
The range and number of services Old inner-city area:
The sphere of influence Typically found next to CBD
Sphere of Influence: an area served by a settlement It has mainly terraced houses in a grid-like pattern
Services: Facilities that are offered to people, e.g. Suburbia:
supermarkets. Services have a threshold population, Urban sprawl and owning cars led to the construction
which helps explain why bigger settlements have more of well-planned and spacious houses
services. Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden
Range: The distance that people are prepared to travel to Typically, detached or semi-detached
use a service. Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people Land prices are cheaper than in CBD and inner city
required for a service to be offered and remain open. Demand can make some areas expensive
High-Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people Outer-city estate:
buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive, Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing
and people will normally compare quality and price People relocated here when the inner city was being
before purchasing e.g. a car redeveloped
Low-Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people Rural-urban fringe:
buy every day. They don't usually cost much money, This is found at the edge of a town or city
and people would not normally travel far to buy them A mixture of land uses, e.g. housing, golf courses,
e.g. bread and milk allotments, businesses, parks and airports.
Functions of settlements:
Rural Areas: have a lot fewer functions than urban Industrial Areas
areas. The primary purpose of settlements in rural

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Factories were built: Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space Poor transport/comms.
Next to canals and railways to transport materials
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
Urban Wedges: urban growth is allowed to take place in
disposal
wedges, ensuring some green areas are protected
Next to land where lots of workers could live
throughout the city
Urban Growth in Urban Areas Housing density: increasing housing density means less
land will be destroyed
Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation due to building
in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation Squatter Settlement

Problems of urban growth in urban areas: A squatter settlement is a rural residential area which has
For People For Environment developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Overcrowded Loss of vegetation the land.
Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats It has:
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers Extremely high home density
Extremely high population density
Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species
Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
Traffic congestion Pollution of groundwater No electricity
Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution No running water or sewage
Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up Diseases spread easily
Poor quality of life The pungent smell of human waste
No infrastructure or privacy
Food shortage

1.7. Urbanisation 2. Theme 2: The Natural

Urban Growth in Rural Areas Environment
Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth
for several reasons: 2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Better transport links, e.g. road, rail, river
Better trading prospects Volcanoes
Nearby natural resources, e.g. fuel
A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the earth’s
Better job prospects
surface as lava through the vent in the earth's crust.
Better schools and hospitals
Better supply of electricity, gas and water
Varied entertainment
Features of a Volcano

Rural-Urban Migration

Movement of people from the countryside towards cities

Rural-urban migration is the main cause of urbanisation
It is caused by several push & pull factors:

Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare
Agricultural products have
Good transport/comms
low prices
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment Feature Characteristics

Better quality & quantity of Lava Magma that reaches the surface
Poor housing quality Clouds of mixed poisonous gases and
houses Pyroclastic flow
Drought/famine pace and excitement ash

Shortage of resources government support Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Feature Characteristics
Snow and ice melt and combine with
Lahars
the ash, creating lahars.
Main vent Central tube through the volcano
Eruptions from other vents lead to the
Secondary cones formation of secondary cones on the
sides.
Bowl bowl-shaped basin at the top of
Crater
the volcano Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
Magma chamber A large underground pool of magma basaltic lava
Low in height, gently sloping High in height, steep-sided
How do volcanoes form? sides with a broad base volcanic cones
Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers
Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
long distances) short distance)
Pressure and tension are released → Plate movement
Frequent eruptions but low in Rare eruptions but in high
Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption
magnitude magnitude
Lava cools and forms a new crust
Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on top, High temperature Low temperature
forming a volcano. Low gas content High gas content
There is little build-up
Impacts of Volcanic Eruption: Enormous build-up pressure
pressure.
Environmental Human
Pyroclastic flow Loss of life and injury Causes of eruptions:
lava flow collapse and destruction of buildings At constructive margin, plates move away from each
volcanic bombs transport network damaged other; magma rises to fill the gap;
At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from
Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses
friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed
earthquakes Loss of crops
magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface
ashfall Power and water supply damaged
landslides Distribution of Volcanoes:
Tsunami
acid rain
ash fallout

Opportunities of Volcanos:
The cooled lava contains minerals,
Fertile soils
leading to a high yield of crops.
Many people want to visit the area and
Tourism
study it.
Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work
precious stones and income.
Geothermal the magma gives out heat, which can be
energy used to generate geothermal energy.
Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new
areas fertile land.
Earthquakes
Stages of Volcanoes:
Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt Earthquakes
again. An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground followed
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future by a series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust.
Extinct: no evidence to erupt again.
How earthquakes happen:
Types of Volcanoes:
Tectonic plates move; they strike.
Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to
move.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension are Earthquake-proof buildings:
released inside the crust as energy.
The energy passes through the earth’s crust as waves,
an earthquake.
Features of earthquake:

Tectonic Plates
Features of earthquakes
Focus: point of earthquake
Epicentre: point directly above the focus, on the ground
Seismic waves
Shaking ground
Subduction zone: occurs at a destructive margin; one plate
goes under the other
Magnitude: the amount of energy released.

Effects of earthquakes
A large number of deaths Types of Plate Boundaries:
Fires breaking out Diagram Description
Water pipes burst
Water contamination, diseases
Collision: occurs when two
Corpses: human & animal
continental plates move
Accessibility difficult
towards each other.
Building damaged/destroyed
Tsunami can follow
Reconstruction costs Example: Indo-Australian and
the Eurasian Plate
Reduce impacts of earthquakes:

Prediction Preparation Constructive/divergent:

Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof occurs when two plates move
pressure, and release of gas buildings away from each other.
Use maps and facts to find
Train emergency services
patterns in time/location
Example: North American and
Unusual animal behaviour Set up a warning system
Eurasian Plate
Seismometer Create evacuation plan
Richter scale Emergency food supply
Prepare earthquake kit

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Diagram Description The Hydrological Cycle

Conservative/transform:
occurs when two plates slide
past each other.
The hydraulic cycle is where water is constantly recycled
Example: North American through the system.
Plate and the Pacific Plate Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.

Destructive/subduction/conve
rgent: occurs when a
continental plate subducts an
oceanic plate.‎

Example: pacific plate and the

Eurasian plate

Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains

Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin.
Constructive Gentle Gentle No Watershed - the edge of a highland surrounding a
Destructive Violent Violent Yes drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two
Collision None Violent Yes drainage basins.
Conservative None Violent No Source - The beginning or start of a river.
Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river joins a larger stream
Structure of the Earth
or river.
The mouth is where the river ends, usually when entering
the sea.

Drainage basins act as a system with:

Inputs: precipitation
Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
throughflow & groundwater flow
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage

Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration

Drainage Basin Features

Crust

There are two types of crust:

The oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km) but heavier and

denser
The continental crust is thicker (25-90km) but is older and
denser
The oceanic crust is continually being created and
destroyed due to plate movement, where it is denser and
subducts under the continental crust.

2.2. Rivers

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and

break into smaller pieces.
Hydraulic action: flowing water that hits against the
riverbanks and beds.
Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks and
bed like sandpaper.
Solution: acid in rivers dissolves rocks; it occurs at any
part of the river

Types of Erosion

Vertical erosion: dominant in the upper course of rivers. It

increases the river's depth and valley as the river erodes
downwards.
Lateral erosion: dominant in the middle and lower course
of rivers. It increases the width of the river and valley as it
erodes sideways.

Transportation

Bed: The bottom of the river channel

Bank: The sides of the river channel
A river has two banks
Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of
a river
Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving;
different speeds arise at different parts of the river
Wetted perimeter: length of the bed and banks in contact
with the river
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that
a river flows. The flow of the river is often described as
channel flow.
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the
middle of the river channel, where there is least friction Traction: rolling stones along the bed
Saltation: small particles bounce along the bed in a
River Processes leapfrog motion
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the
1. Erosion water flow
2. Transportation Solution: minerals dissolve in the water
3. Deposition
Deposition
Erosion
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load, it deposits
Erosion is the wearing away of surfaces. the heaviest particles.
It happens when there is less water or where the current
slows down
Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small
particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting

River Profiles

Long profile:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Interlocking Spurs

Cross Profile

Meanders
River Landforms and their Formation

Water Fall and Gorges:

V-shaped valley:

Oxbow Lake

Floodplains and Levees

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

2.3. Coasts
The sea forms coasts and winds working together in 3
Floods essential tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
Components of a wave:
Causes of flooding: Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
No vegetation Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Deforestation
Urbanization Types of Waves
Poor drainage
Steep slopes Constructive Destructive
Rock type (impermeable rocks do not absorb water) Low wave height High wave height
Wet soil (over saturation) The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep
Impacts Opportunities Spill forward gently Plunge forward
Water supply (drinking, Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
People can be killed.
washing) Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
Homes destroyed. Fishing industry material strong backwash
Spread of waterborne Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Transportation for trading
diseases Deposits material
Shortage of clean water and Builds up beaches
Tourism
food
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil Erosion:
Businesses destroyed. Powerplants (dams) Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind
Sports/recreation against the riverbed
Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Flood Management Techniques Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other while
moving in the flow, making them rounder and smaller
Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in
cliffs

Transportation:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages

Increases
distance
between waves Certain
In front of the and coasts → sections of the
Groynes area facing Waves lose coast may be
coastal erosion energy → more exposed
Reduces to erosion
impacts of
waves.
Reduces the
Longshore Drift: impact of
Not as effective
waves on a
Waves approach the coast at an angle as other
Gabions Base of cliff cliff, prevents
Swash moves up the beach at an angle coastal
cliff from being
Backwash drains straight back down the beach defences
undercut, and
Gradually moving material along the beach in a zig-zag
cheap
motion
Absorbs
energy of
waves,
prevents cliffs
Slanted barrier from being
against waves eroded;
Revetments Expensive
at the base of Rippled
the cliff surfaces help
dissipate wave
energy; No
need for much
maintenance

Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats Rocks and Absorbs wave Visual pollution,
stones put energy, susceptible to
Sports/recreation Hurricanes Rip-raps
against the protects cliffs being moved
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms base of the cliff behind by the sea
Habitat for fish Tsunamis Effective, Visual pollution
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides Breakwaters Near coasts breaks easily
Tourism Flooding incoming water destroyed
Job opportunities Coastal erosion Prevents storm
Tidal
Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
Coastal Management effective

Hard Engineering: Soft Engineering:

Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
Reduce erosion Increases
Very expensive
and prevent distance
and big,
Coastlines/foot flooding; between
Sea wall requires Sand/shingle
of cliffs Curved Beach waves and Effectiveness
constant added to the
structure nourishment cliffs → Waves is uncertain
maintenance beach
breaks waves lose energy →
Less erosive
power.
Tourism is
Good barrier affected as
Land Protect and against coastal dunes are
management rebuild dunes flooding and marked out of
erosion bounds to the
general public

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Name Description Advantages Disadvantages

Break up
waves and
reduce speed
and power of
waves → Limits Effectiveness
Marshland
area which is uncertain
waves can
reach →
Prevents
flooding
Widen beach
Beaches:
and reduces
Planting dead
Beach wave energy, Effectiveness In bays, the waves diverge outwards.
trees in sand
stabilization lowers the is uncertain The wave energy is dissipated, creating a low-energy
to stabilize
profile of the environment. Hence, deposition to form beaches.
beach
Bays and Headland:
Landforms

Cliffs and wave-cut platforms:

Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff

A wave-cut notch is formed
The cliff is undercut & collapses
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff

Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily

Headlands are usually formed since they are made of
resistant rock and are eroded more difficultly.

Spits:

Caves, Arches, and Stack:

A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.

Erosion produces caves on both sides of the headland.
More erosion produces an arch through the headland.
Eventually, the roof is weak & collapses, forming a stack.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Coral Reefs:

Coral reefs support a great diversity of life

Spits form when the coastline changes direction Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
Longshore drift carries material in the same direction coralline algae
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind. Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Sand Dunes: Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
A plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
Dunes form behind wide sandy beaches
A plentiful supply of plankton
Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-
Lack of strong current
water mark & carry it landward by saltation
If they encounter an obstacle, the wind loses energy & Salt Marshes:
deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle
Eventually, a dune is formed
Plants grow on it, which stabilizes it & traps more sand

Mangrove Swamps:

Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in

saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics
Provide habitat and protection for many fish & other sea
animals, especially when young
They slow water flow, encouraging any sediment to be
deposited, keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for the formation of mangrove
swamps:

2.4. Weather
Weather:
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
It can vary from day to day and from place to place

Protip: essential to know the features of Stevenson’s screen

Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers

Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for

insulation
Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light from getting in

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Legs 1m long to prevent heating from the ground

On short grass for the same amount of reflection

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are

blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted &
Protip: important to know what weather instruments look like converted into m/s, km/h or knots
and have brief knowledge of how to use
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the
sunshine at a given location
same amount of water & so comparisons can be made

Burns a timeline
Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focuses the light
This burns a line onto the card

Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. Temp. over 24hr

period
Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
Funnel (A) to collect the water.
Container to collect water, which may be graduated
Emptied once every 24hrs
Rain is measured in millimetres.
Sunk into the ground, but not level, so splashes or
surface water can’t get in.

Anemometer: Measures wind speed

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read.

Barometer: Measures air pressure

Protip - Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains

alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index, and when it cools, mercury contracts, and the index An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
is left in place at highest temp As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with expands
it; but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at Levers conduct this movement to a spindle, which moves
its lowest temp the pointer on the dial, which records the air pressure in
Both indexes read from the bottom once every 24hrs mmHg

Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate Wind Vane: Records wind direction
the humidity of the air

The wind blows the fletching so that the arrowhead points

into the wind.
Mounted on high places (rooftops)
A dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer, and it Make sure no trees are blocking
measures actual air temperature
The wet bulb is the same but is covered with a fine cloth
connected to a water reservoir.
2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
Weather
it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Describes the condition of the atmosphere, e.g. sunny,

hot, windy
Climate
This is the average condition over a longer period,
usually a few years.

Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics:

Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature

Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and
cooler summers
Prevailing winds: The seasonal difference in heating
between land and the sea affects the temperature of the
prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in
temperature
Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures
in coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
100m)

Tropical Rainforest Climate:

Distribution: They are close to the equator, so they have very similar
climates all year around
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up
Hot air rises, causing low pressure.

Adaptations:
Plants Animals
Drip tips - plants have leaves
The sloth uses camouflage
with pointy tips. This allows
and moves very slowly,
water to run off the leaves
making it difficult for
quickly without damaging or
predators to spot.
Structure: breaking them.
Drip tips - plants have leaves
with pointy tips. This allows The spider monkey has long,
water to run off the leaves strong limbs to help it to climb
quickly without damaging or through the rainforest trees.
breaking them.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Plants Animals The lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to

escape
The flying frog has fully
Epiphytes are plants that live Causes night-time temps to be low
webbed hands and feet and a
on the branches of trees high The annual temperature range is very low
flap of loose skin that
up in the canopy. They get Daily temperature range is very high
stretches between its limbs,
their nutrients from the air
which allows it to glide from Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests
and water, not the soil.
plant to plant.
Lianas - vines which use the Causes:
tall Population growth
Economic growth
trees as support to reach the
Mining
The toucan has a long, large
Road building
bill to allow it to reach and cut
sunlight Agriculture
fruit from branches too weak
Urbanisation
to support its weight. Exploitation of land by TNCs
Effects:
Hot Deserts
Local environment Global environment People
Distribution: Death of local
Loss of vegetation Melting ice
tribes people
Global
More carbon
Causes floods warming/increase
dioxide
temperatures
Threatens species
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction
Changes in climate Reduction of
Loss of habitat patterns e.g. materials available
drought to build buildings
Vegetation & Animal Adaptations: Reduction of food Loss of species
Vegetation Animal supply such as polar bears

Camel have humps to store Soil erosion

Seeds remain dormant
water Food chain
Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce disrupted
transpiration heat
Thorns to protect from
predators
Shelter in underground to
avoid heat
3. Theme 3: Economic
Long roots to search for water
Only comes out at night to Development
hunt
Thick stem to store water
3.1. Development
Light colours to reflect
sunlight Development is the process of a country where it
improves its quality of life for its people, making its place
Climate: more independent.
Stages of development:
Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places
Least developed countries → developing countries →
Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
newly developed countries → Developed countries.
Air is dry because:
Quality of life is the person’s well-being in terms of
Most of the moisture has precipitated over the
environment, security, health and happiness.
equator
Air travelling to the desert travels over land, not the
Indicators of Development
sea
No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to
Gross National Product (GNP) per capita: wealth of a
high levels of incoming radiation from the sun country averaged per person.
Causes day-time temps. to be very high
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capital: the total value
of goods and services produced within a country in a year

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

divided by the country's population.

Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of the total
population
Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of the
total population
Literacy rate: the percentage of people who can read and
write.
Life expectancy: the amount of time one is expected to
live
Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
under 1 per 1000 live births per year.
Composite indices like the Human Development Index
(HDI): measure the disparities between countries. An LEDC,
e.g. Ghana
Economic Sectors The majority are in the primary sector.
Few in the secondary sector.
Economic activity involves making, providing, purchasing,
Tertiary may be larger than secondary.
or selling goods or services.
Economic activity can be divided into 4 categories:
Primary.
Secondary.
Tertiary.
Quaternary.

A NIC, e.g. Brazil

Majority tertiary.
Few in the secondary sector primary.
Primary is larger than secondary.
Sectors of the Industry:

An MEDC, e.g.
Comparing Nations:
UK

Low proportion in the primary sector.

Numbers are falling in the secondary sector.
The tertiary sector is the primary growth area.

Globalisation

Process in which the world is becoming increasingly

interconnected through economic, cultural, political and
tourism processes.
Causes of globalisation:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Improvements in transportation
Freedom of trade
Improvements of communications
Labour availability and skills

Impacts of globalisation:
Positive Negative
Economic growth Economic Inequality
Job Displacement and Labor
Job Creation and Employment
Exploitation
Access to Goods and Services Environmental Degradation
Cultural Exchange and
Cultural Homogenization
Diversity
Exploitation of Developing
Technological Advancements
Countries
Access to Information and Social Disruption and
Communication Inequality
Environmental Awareness
Public Health Risks
and Sustainability

TNCs (Transnational Corporations

Companies that operate in more than 1 country, usually in

foreign countries or overseas.

Advantages Disadvantages
Job opportunities Labour drain.
Improvement in skills and Damage to the environment -
communication. factories create air pollution.
Good education, healthcare Cultural dilution or loss of
and good quality of life. cultural identity.
Social mobility is limited to
Invest in infrastructure.
urban areas.
Cheaper products Profits going overseas.
Natural resources are being
Greater choice of goods
over-exploited.
Movement of people,
High level of income from transport ownership and loss Food Shortages & Famine
tourism, exports, imports of biodiversity increases
globally. When demand for food exceeds the supply of food,
leading to undernourishment
Access to vast levels of skills
Daily living costs increased. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
and resources.
health and eventually lead to starvation

3.2. Food Production Human Causes Physical Causes

Increasing population- supply Too hot or cool temperatures
Agriculture cannot keep up with demand. can kill crops and animals.
Overgrazing reduces the
Farming types: integrity of the soil and can Shortage of rainfall kills most
cause topsoil erosion and soil crops or requires irrigation.
Commercial and subsistence
degradation.
Arable, Pastoral and mixed
Intensive and extensive Over cultivating causes soil Too much rain can flood & kill
degradation, using up and not crops or wash away topsoil,
Factors influencing the type of agriculture: giving nutrients recovery reducing soil fertility and
time. leading to low yield.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Human Causes Physical Causes

Deforestation of woodland
Natural disasters can destroy
damages the integrity of the
large areas of agricultural
soil and its source of
land and kill or injure farmers.
nutrients.
If soil is infertile because the
Farming and industrial
bedrock contains few
pollution can both degrade
minerals, cultivating land can
land and reduce crop yields.
be hard, leading to low yields.
Diseases: these reduce yields
Corruption of government,
and can result in livestock
war and conflict.
deaths/

Effects:
Hunger and rising food prices.
Susceptible to infectious diseases.
Impair physical and mental development.
Reduce labour productivity,
Undernutrition and malnutrition.
Wasting.
Soil erosion and desertification.
Migration.
Solutions:

3.3. Industry
Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs.

Input: resources that need to start the process can be

physical.
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things.
Outputs: product + profit or loss + waste materials
Types of Industry:
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically
used by consumers, e.g. toys
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials
used in manufacturing, e.g. metal production

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put Advantages Disadvantages

together a finished product, e.g. electronics Increased in skills Loss of land
Hi-Tech: specialized industries that mostly do
Increased diversity of culture Illegal behaviour of tourists
research but often have small sections dedicated to
each of the 3 standard types of industry Creates job opportunities Often low-paid seasonal work.
Congestion and pollution is
New infrastructure is built
Industry Input Processes Output Impact caused
Electric Money is brought to the Money often goes to big
Steel, Noise, dust,
Alloy: furnace, country’s economy businesses
Steel sheets, smell and
chromium oxygen, Tax revenues are provided Economic leakage
production waste, slag, water
and cobalt rolling,
gases. pollution. Foreign language skills are Local language and traditional
cutting.
promoted values can erode
Iron ore, Noise, air,
Blast Iron, slag, Nature conservation areas Nature can be destroyed for
Iron coke, smell,
furnace, gases, heat awareness can be increased land use
production limestone, water and
ore, coke. and water. Money from tourism can be
water, iron. waste. Tourism leads to more
used to protect the
pollution
environment
Factors influencing location of an Industry
Improves sustainable Increased greenhouse gas
practices emissions from travelling
The activity of tourists
Preserve area or species disturbs and damages the
habitat and wildlife
Electricity and water supply
Racism and discrimination
improves
Improved roads, healthcare
Shortage of supplies
and education

Managing Tourism

Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities &

are sustainable, e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding
Sustainable Tourism: tourist activities that are socially,
3.4. Tourism environmentally & economically sustainable
How?
Tourism: when a person travels to another destination for Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money
more than 24 hours but less than one year. It is a leisure raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of
activity done for enjoyment in free time. parks
Reasons for Growth of Tourism Ban hunting/fishing
Fence-prohibited or protected areas
Increased income of money and leave allowance. Put up signs such as “no littering”
Easier travel. Impose fines for littering or breaking any rules
Faster and easier transport. Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
Improved communication. Create paths for people to walk on
Increased natural attractions.
Increased manmade human attractions.
3.5. Energy
More advertisement of places.

Factors that Change Tourist Patterns The demand for energy across the globe is rising.
Population growth and development are the two leading
Transport & accessibility. causes of the increase in energy demand.
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski trip
Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure
facilities & sites offered.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
source
- Not reliable only
works when the wind is
strong enough but not
too strong. \n - Visual
- No greenhouse gas pollution. \n - Noise
emissions. \n - No air pollution \n - Many
pollution. \n - Can be turbines are needed to
Wind
small or large scale. \n produce the same
- Cheap to run. \n - Can energy as an average
be on land or offshore. coal-fired power
station. \n - May affect
bird migration patterns
Renewable Energy is energy which comes from natural
or kill birds who fly into
resources:
the moving blades.
Solar energy: energy derived from the sun through
solar radiation. - No greenhouse gas
Wind energy: conversion of wind energy into a useful emissions \n - No air
form of energy. pollution \n - Can be - Expensive to install \n
Hydro energy: the power derived from the force or small or large-scale \n - Not reliable; only
energy of moving water. - Can be used in most works when it is sunny
Geothermal energy: energy obtained by tapping the Solar locations \n - Can be \n - Large numbers
heat of the earth itself. incorporated into needed to produce
Biomass: is a renewable energy source, biological building design \n - energy \n - Uses large
material from living. Technology is areas of land
improving and
Energy reducing cost
Advantages Disadvantages
source - No CO gases. \n - Lots - Expensive. \n - Emits
- Large areas of land of potential sites. \n - sulfuric gases. \n -
are flooded behind the Geothermal Reliable. \n - Can High temperatures
dam. \n - Dam traps produce large cause maintenance
sediment, which can amounts of energy. issues.
- No greenhouse gas affect ecosystems - Uses waste or
emissions. \n - Control - Air pollution. \n -
downstream. \n - biofuels which regrow.
flooding downstream. Visual pollution. \n - Biomass Produces greenhouse
Hydroelectric \n - Available in most
\n - Provide water Can prevent fish gases. \n - Expensive.
locations.
storage for irrigation movement upstream.
and domestic use \n - People and
Non-Renewable energy: Fossil fuels are formed from
settlements may have
living organisms' remains (plants/animals). These are
to be relocated. \n - non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed
Expensive to build and which keeps up with consumption.
maintain. Coal
- No greenhouse gas Oil
- Expensive to build
emissions. \n - No air Gas
and maintain. \n - Can
pollution. \n - Has the
Wave/ Tidal affect marine
potential to produce Advantages Disadvantages
ecosystems. \n - Few
large amounts of The cost of production
suitable sites.
energy. \n - Reliable. is high, produces a lot of
It lasts 300yrs, now
GH gases, is dangerous,
Coal become more efficient,
open cast = visual
needed to make coke
pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Advantages Disadvantages LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK

It lasts only 50-70yrs; oil
More efficient than spills release
coal, more accessible to greenhouse gases,
Oil
transport, diversity of prices fluctuate,
uses, petro-chemicals refineries use a lot of
space, acid rain
It releases methane,
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
explosives, prices
Gas cheaper than oil, easy
fluctuate, acid rain, and
to distribute
greenhouse gases.
- Plenty of radioactive
- Risk of nuclear
supply as fuel \n - Very Methods of Water Supply
accidents \n - Risk of
low amounts of
nuclear plants as Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
greenhouse gases
terrorist targets \n - Reservoirs: the artificial lake that develops behind a dam
made \n - Reduces
Nuclear technology can Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
Nuclear dependency on fossil
be used to make WMDs Desalination:
power fuel countries \n -
\n - Remains radioactive Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
Nuclear waste stored
for a long time & Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-
safely underground \n -
expensive \n - Uranium permeable membrane to remove salt
Electric supply altered
mining is dangerous Sewage Treatment:
quickly based on
and polluting Removal of contaminants from wastewater &
demand
household sewage
Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to
3.6. Water remove all the contaminants and make safe

​ ater is a scarce and limited resource. There are many uses,

W Causes of Water Shortages
such as:
Uses of Water Population Growth: increased pressure on water sources
as world's population grows
Agriculture: to water plants Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
Industrial: Demand: as development increases globally, so does the
Heated to make steam to turn turbines amount of water needed
Cooling down reactors Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that
Domestic: waste is often pumped directly into water sources
Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking Climate Change: global warming may be releasing
Recreational, e.g. swimming, sports freshwater from glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is
Environmental: preserving water in a dam running directly into oceans; inaccessible
Political: water sources are often shared; some people
Evolution of Global Water Use control large percentages of the shared resource, leading
to shortages for others
Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately, causing
water shortages

Impact of Water Shortages

Drought: below-average supply of water over a prolonged

Water Use in Different Economies period
LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage
Conflict arises when sharing a limited supply of water
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases
Eutrophication due to run-off
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity
Eutrophication:
Run-off from farms containing fertiliser causes excess
growth of algae in water

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light When infrared radiation passes through the
Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die atmosphere, & some is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by greenhouse gas molecules
Solutions to Water Shortages This warms the surface & lower atmosphere
Effects:
Desalination: governments should invest more in
Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms
desalination plants
Change in the distribution of precipitation
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
policies regarding disposal and reuse of wastewater
Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
Conservation:
More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases
Half-flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Greenhouse gases are:
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
Collecting rainwater to use in the garden
Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste
Using appropriate plants for the climate
CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations
Water Charities:
Air pollution:
Building wells to access groundwater
Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
containing substances causes oxygen starvation
Teaching appropriate farming techniques
Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes
Low-cost schemes to filter and clean water
respiratory problems and acid rain
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute
Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to
water & water the land
heat (furnace/engine); same effect as sulphur dioxide
Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol damages nervous
3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic system
Development Water Pollution:
Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
Oil spilling into the sea
Acid rain destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Health hazards for humans
Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Noise Pollution:
Vehicles
Machinery in industries and farms
Noisy humans
Visual Pollution:
All man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
nature
Desertification:
Overgrazing
Soil erosion
Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less
rain
Deforestation - fewer roots of trees to hold the soil
together
Sustainable Development: Economic development without
destroying natural resources
Management:
Population policies
Soil Erosion: Sustainable tourism
Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is Use of renewable energy
washed away by rain because there are no tree roots Afforestation
to retain it Resource Conservation: Meeting needs of the present
In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers without affecting needs for the future
& pollutes drinking water Ways of Conservation:
Global Warming: 3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases Renewable energy
Greenhouse Effect: Use energy-efficient products

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Restrict the use of resource The government can raise tax on petrol prices
Use more public transport

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-26 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE PRACTICAL SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Advantages:‎ Disadvantages:‎

1. Safety Features You can study a larger area

Information may include a
larger area than your study
area
Protection from the weather (waterproof jacket, umbrella,
May include data that you
hat, sun cream) May not know how data was
Always carry out coursework in groups
cannot obtain personally e.g.
collected and who collected it
Always tell an adult or teacher where you area carrying
salaries
out coursework Data might be in the wrong
Always carry a mobile phone with you format e.g. in a graph and not
Never do coursework near a river or the sea without an raw figures
adult or teacher and without them checking that it is safe
Carry out coursework in day light and wear reflective Census: a survey carried out by nearly all countries every
clothes 10 years. Is a very detailed survey that is compulsory for
Check that your study area is safe. everyone to fill in.
Don't display valuables making you more vulnerable to Quantitative data: Any data that involves figures. Is very
crime e.g. if you have a camera or a phone keep it out of easy to present and analyse however it can be ‎very
sight general and excludes some data.‎
Qualitative data: This is written data or photographs.
Tends to be individual/personal, and can be hard ‎to
2. # Data collection: present and analyse. Often comes as results of interviews
with open questions.‎
Objective: when data collection is not influenced by Pilot Survey: a test you carry out before data collection.
people's personal opinion. Important to test forms to ensure you ask right ‎questions
Subjective: when personal opinion has an influence on the and forms contain all right categories. It is too
outcome of the data collection. expensive/time consuming to go and ‎collect data a
Primary data: Any data that is personally collected by you. second time, if you missed it the first time.‎
Primary data may include traffic counts, pedestrian
counts, environmental indexes, questionnaires or land
use surveys. 3. Questionnaires
Advantages: Disadvantages:‎ Open ended questions: questions that have infinite
Data may include some numbers of answers. The respondent has no ‎restriction
It is up to date (current)‎
personal bias on how they might answer
You know how the data has Closed questions: when there is a limited number of
Data collection can be time responses. These questions are often multiple ‎choice in
been collected i.e. what
consuming style
technique
Includes data relevant to Can be expensive to collect Open ended questions
coursework data
Pros: Cons:
It is hard to study temporal
Only covers your study area You are getting respondents
changes
personal opinion. They are Some responses irrelevant
Some data might be not limited in their response.‎
Collected in the format that
unavailable or too dangerous
you want Results very hard to analyse
to collect
using graphs or tables
Only possible to cover a small
area
Closed questions
Pros: Cons:
Secondary data: Any data that has been collected by
someone else. Secondary data collection maybe found in All answers relevant to your Results lack personal opinion;
books, on the internet, in academic journals, etc. research very generalized
If "other" box ticked, you don't
Advantages:‎ Disadvantages:‎ Results are easy to analyse
know what the respondent
using graphs and tables
Can study temporal changes thinks
It is out of date
e.g. over a number of year Your personal opinion has
It can be quicker, especially if More information than you been placed on the questions
the data is on the internet need (subjective).‎

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

4. Photographs
Advantage of Photographs Disadvantage of Photographs
They are more accurate than People often include
field sketches irrelevant photos
People forget to label,
Can be good for showing data
annotate or refer to photos,
collection techniques e.g.
which then makes them
measuring a river's load
irrelevant
People often only photograph Flowmeter: used for measuring velocity of rivers. Have a
Can support data collection the nice things (pretty view) small propeller which you place just under ‎surface of the
findings e.g. show an example and forget more ugly areas water. Depending on the speed of propeller, a small
of a poor environment that are important (area of digital read out then gives speed ‎of river.‎
pollution)
They can show temporal They can often contain too
changes, especially if you can much information e.g. people
find historical photos. and vehicles
Because they are two-
You can annotate and label
dimensional, depth can be
them.
deceptive

5. Fieldwork Equipment for

coasts:
Pebbleometer: A very basic device for measuring the size
and shape of material found on a beach or in ‎a river.
Quadrat: Used for measuring vegetation cover. Normally
50cm2 and divided into 100 small squares. By ‎placing
quadrat over an area of vegetation, can calculate area
covered in vegetation or % of ‎different vegetation types.

\n Ranging poles: Has a

pointy end so that it can be properly anchored into the

Callipers: used to measure width, depth or length of small

objects like load.

Clinometer: used for measuring slope angle (gradient).

soil/sand.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

5.2. For weather and climate:

Weather and Climate

equipment:

6. Evaluation and Conclusion

6.1. Conclusion
Refer back to original hypothesis
Use some data to support your findings
Refer to theory (if mentioned in introduction) - do your
findings agree or disagree with theory
State what you have learnt from your investigation

6.2. Evaluation
What went well (keep this brief)‎
Any problems with data collection e.g. bad weather,
missing data, sampling technique, questions, data
‎collection form
Data that could be useful in the future e.g. secondary data
from government, more questionnaires ‎( bigger sample)‎
Additional hypothesis you could have used
Time/money problems changed

7. Data Presentation
Strengths Weaknesses
Can disguise intra-region or
Shows spatial distribution e.g.
intra-country variations e.g.
dot map
choropleth map

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Strengths Weaknesses Good coverage of the study area can be more easily
Shows variations between achieved - better representation of the total population.
Hard to see trends and
regions and countries e.g.
anomalies → Disadvantages:
choropleth map
Visually interesting More biased as not all members have an equal chance of
Very complicated to read
(interesting colors, symbols) being selected.
Symbols take up too much May lead to over or under representation of a particular
Very bold and clear pattern/subpopulation.
room
Easy to understand
Clearly shows trends and 9.4. Stratified sampling:
anomalies
→ Advantages:

Can be used alongside random or systematic sampling,

9. # Sampling methods: and with point, line or area techniques.
Can generate results which are more representative of
It is hard to collect data from the whole population hence the whole population.
geographers do sampling which is the process of Flexible and applicable to many geographical enquiries
collecting data from certain people which represent the and investigations.
whole population. Correlations and comparisons can be made between
There are three types of sampling techniques: subpopulations.
Random sampling.
Systematic sampling. → Disadvantages:
Stratified sampling.
Proportions of the subpopulations must be the same; up-
to-date data may not be available which makes the
division into subpopulations difficult.

10. # COASTS:
10.1. Beach profile:
1. Person A stands at a safe distance from the edge of
9.2. Random sampling: the sea holding a ranging pole
2. Person B stands holding a second ranging pole further
Action of randomly selecting . up the beach where there is a break of slope
→ Advantages: 3. The distance between the two ranging poles is
Can be used with large sample populations. measured using a tape measure
Avoids bias. 4. The angle between matching markers on each
ranging pole is measured using a clinometer
→ Disadvantages: 5. Repeat this process at each break of slope until the
top of the beach is reached.
Can lead to poor representation of the overall population
(certain subpopulations might be over or
underrepresented, eg. there might be more teenagers
than elderly people sampled).
Made worse if the study area is very large.
Practical constraints in terms of time available and access
to certain parts of the study area

9.3. Systematic sampling:

Done in regular intervals or pattern that is followed by every
nth time.
→ Advantages:

More straightforward than random sampling.

Longshore drift:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

1. Lay the measuring tape parallel to the coast, next to 1. Rest ruler / rod on the riverbed vertically upright /
the water perpendicular
2. Mark out a 10m section 2. Make a mark of the water level
3. Place a float or an orange in the swash zone at the 5 3. Repeat this at intervals along a river
metre middle mark
4. Record the direction in which the object travels (left or Wetted perimeter:
right) and how long it takes to travel 5 metres
5. Repeat the experiment and take an average. 1. Lay a chain across the river bed from one bank to the
\ other
2. Mark the distance on the chain and remove it from the
Wave counts: river
3. Measure the distance of the chain
1. Place a pole in the water
2. Using a stopwatch, count the number of times the Hydraulic radius:
waves hit the pole per minute
3. Repeat this 5 times and take the average Cross Sectional Area ÷ wetted perimeter

Material/ trash count: River gradient:

1. Place quadrats along the transect/throw the transect 1. Using a tape measure, measure a 10m transect
over shoulder downstream of the cross section
2. Count number of squares with different types of beach 2. Place the ranging poles along the transect
material/trash 3. The person at the lower ranging pole uses the
3. Convert to percentage clinometer to place it at the 1.5m mark on the pole
4. Have multiple people count as well to increase and look directly at the 1.5m mark on the other pole
reliability of the findings 4. Repeat this at every 1m interval
OR
4. Use caliper and pebbleometer to measure length and River surface velocity:
width of the material
RIVERS: 1. Using a tape measure, measure a 10m stretch
downstream of the cross section
2. One person stands at one end of the 10m stretch and
10.2. River crosssection: releases a tennis ball as the stopwatch is started
3. Stop timing when the tennis ball reaches the 10m
1. Lay the measuring tape from one bank to the other
mark
2. Measure the width of the stream
4. Repeat the experiment for the left, right and middle of
3. Use the ranging poles to measure the depth of the
the river and average out the results
river at equal intervals

Cross-sectional area: River flow velocity:

1. Calculate the average velocity using a flowmeter,
channel depth x channel width (measure both using tape
carrying out these measurements at intervals along
measures)
the transect
2. Place the flowmeter below the surface of the water
Width of river: 3. Blades should face upstream
4. Stand upstream of the flowmeter and next to it, so as
1. Students stand on opposite sides of the river bank / to not impede river flow
place a ranging pole on each side of the bank
vertically upright
2. Use a measuring tape to measure the distance
Water quality: (multiple strategies)
between the two poles
1. Use visual pollution survey (ranked numerically)
3. Keep the tape measure taut / horizontal
2. Measure level of oxygen in water
4. Measure perpendicular / at right angles to bank
3. Measure pH of water using a meter / universal
indicator
Depth of river: 4. Count number of species of animals and plants /
number of creatures / number of plants

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

5. Evaporate a water sample and weigh solid residue

6. Filter water sample and weigh solid residue

Pebble length and roundness:

USING A CALIPER
· Put pebble into mouth / teeth of calipers
· Close calipers to hold the pebble into place
· Use scale of calipers / measure the gap between the
‘teeth’ with a ruler

OTHER METHODS:
· Electronic caliper (Reduces risk of human error, more
accurate)
· Pebblometer

Safety:
A class of students were studying how a river changes
downstream. Suggest 3 things they should consider in
choosing their fieldwork sites.
· Safe to access: Sharp rocks and Strength of current
· Accessibility from road / school
· Depth of water
· Away from waterfalls / rapids
· Away from human impacts eg. dams and hydroelectric
stations
· Equal distance from other investigation sites

Weather and Climate

equipments:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2022-2023 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SKILLS SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

small paragraphs
etc.
1. Overview of Paper 2
They may ask you to:

1.1. Welcome to IGCSE Geography’s identify features described,

describe what is shown in the figures,
Paper 2 – Geographical Skills
explain why something occurs,
recall facts from the themes,
This paper is assessed in main 2 sections
compare and contrast two resource given.
1. Mapwork Question (Question 1); 20/60 marks,
2. short answer, evidence-based questions (Questions 2– The structure of questions
6); 8 marks each, 40/60 marks.
Usually, there are at least one of each of the following types
You may use the following equipment in Paper 2: of questions:

pencil, rubber, ruler, protractor, calculator and string or map-based questions that ask you to describe, explain
piece of paper. and predict,
a sheet of plain paper will be provided to you in the exam photo-based resource that ask you to identify and explain,
room for measuring distances or assisting with cross- long answer compare and contrast questions,
sections on the large-scale maps. diagram and graph based questions that ask you to
describe changes, distributions and patterns
1.2. Question 1: Mapwork Question These questions are less common:

In this question, you will be assessed: describing field sketches, or drawing field sketches,
plotting data on a diagram (usually examined in Paper 4).
four- and six-figure grid reference
16-point cardinal directions
measure distances and cross sections 2. Topographical Map Skills
understand, interpret and use contour lines
using the key to identify human and landscape features
on the map 2.1. Map
identify, describe explain, analyse and draw inferences on
physical and human landscapes (including patterns), Walk before you run!
using map evidence Four figure grid reference of the tourist information
give brief descriptions of basic landscape features using center is 4733.
suitable geographical terms Six figure grid reference of the tourist information
draw sketch maps illustrating patterns of both human and center is 476334.
physical nature

The following are usually worth the most marks:

interpret and describe features of urban morphology as

they are shown on large-scale maps
describe the functions of and services provided by
settlements
give reasons for the site and growth of individual
settlements
recognise communication networks in terms of their type
and density in relation to physical and human features

1.3. Questions 2–6:

These questions are based on the themes you have studied.
They may draw on:

maps
graphs and diagrams Compass points for direction
photos and sketches
Contours:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

The IGCSE requires you to give direction on a 16 point

compass.

Contour lines connect points of equal altitude (elevation

above sea level) on a map.
Measure from sea level in meters
Each contour is in regular intervals
Spot heights e.g. 398 on trigonometrical points
V ertical Interval (diff erence in height)
Gradient = Horizontal Equivalent (horizontal distance) ​

(the 16 point compass)

Patterns of contours:
Bearings are used to give the direction of a point in
degrees, always starting from north.
2.2. Calculating Distances
This means that:
In the IGCSE exams, maps are given at a scale of 1:25000 OR
1:50000. The scale of the map is given on the map itself and North would be 0° from north (or 000 as a bearing),
also in the exam paper. East would be 90° ( written as 090 for bearings),
A map with a scale of 1:25000 means that 1 cm on the map is South would be 180° ( written as 180),
0.25km. Similarly, a scale of 1:50000 means that 1 cm on the West would be 270° (written as a bearing of 270).
map is 0.5 km.
You also may be asked how to convert units: Remember:

1. Each sub-sub-division is 22.5˚

2. Direction is always given in the form of ‘FROM and TO’
statements.
3. Wind is always named as the direction it is blowing
from.
4. Rivers always flow from high to low land.
5. When taking compass directions: 0 ̊ must be facing

2.4. Important reminders about maps

Exotic forest are a human feature (introduced forest). •
Measuring Distances Describing an area: 1) general statement (location on map,
direction, place specific details: names etc) 2) physical
To measure straight distances, use a piece of paper and the features (contour, relief, spot height etc), 3) human features
scale given. (e.g. land use, settlement etc), Always look for patterns:
You will also be asked to measure curved distances. You can: concentration, spread etc • If contour lines are going in, then
it is a valley.
1. by using a piece of paper
2. by using a piece of string 2.5. Cross-sections
This video teaches you how to measure curved distances:
This video explains how to take cross-sections:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goCTtV7vLEc
https://youtu.be/c7gT8gU_pD8

2.3. The Compass rose and bearings

Describing Cross-sections
You will be asked to describe the location of features by
giving directions.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

When interpreting a cross-section, you can describe

(whether)

slopes are concave or convex

the gradient is steep or gentle
the maximum height
the type of feature shown (eg. hill, mountain, mountain
range, flood plain, plateau etc.)
characteristics of a feature ( broad, flat, etc.)
the features which the cross-section cuts through
changes throughout the cross-section

3. Patterns and Features

3.1. Recognizing Patterns
Settlement patterns: isolated, dispersed, nucleated or
linear
Street patterns and residential types:
Straight roads normally indicate terraced housing
Curved roads and cul-de-sacs often represent
suburban privately owned detached ‎and semi-
detached houses.‎
Natural advantages of a settlement: on flat land, near a
water source, on the coast, near farmland, near natural
resources, defensive location
Human locational factors: good road links, schools,
hospitals, jobs, leisure facilities
Natural features: bays and headlands, river valleys,
mountains, mangroves and forests
Land uses: agricultural, residential, industrial
Areas main functions: tourism, educational, fishing
Features that may have promoted a particular function:
e.g. tourism may have been promoted by:
Natural features: beaches, the sea, mountain scenery,
waterfalls
Human features: museums, historical buildings, water
parks, golf course, hotels and ‎restaurants
Humans interaction with nature: building a dam on a river,
building groynes on a beach or draining ‎wetlands.‎

3.2. Describing Patterns

Relied is the height and shape (flat/steep) of the map
– (look for spot heights, index and interval contours, shape of
contour).

1. Convex slope – contours closer at the bottom

2. Concave slope – contours further apart at bottom
3. Uniform slope – contour decrease evenly.
4. Depressions – height decrease as go into circle.
5. Valleys intrude, ridges protrude:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

You do not have a camera to take a photograph

You want to remove some detail from the view you are
drawing
You want to labels or annotations to the view you are
drawing
Describing photographs:‎
Describe the structure (building) shown in the photo.‎
Describe the type of vegetation
Describe the geographical features shown

5. Graphs
Line Graph: Used for showing continuous data. Non-
variable data goes on the x axis and the variable data on y
axis.
Bar Graph: Used for showing data that is related but not
the same i.e. it is not constant. Normally the frequency
goes on the y axis and types of data on the x axis.
Pie Chart: Good for showing related data that is calculated
out of 100%. Usually the largest piece of data comes first.
Divided Bar Graph: Good for showing related data that
adds up to 100%.
Histogram: like a bar graph, but only show one type of
data
Scatter graphs: good for showing the relationship
between two pieces of variable data
Isoline maps: often used for showing weather data like
temperature
Triangular graphs: used for showing information where
three related pieces of data equal 100% e.g. primary,
secondary and tertiary data
Radial (kite) graphs: good for showing related data that
can all be scored out of the same score. e.g.
environmental index of different areas
Wind rose graphs: good for showing wind speed and wind
direction
Kite diagrams: good for showing transects e.g. velocity
change across a river’s cross section
River landscapes Flow (system) diagram: Can be used to show things like
the positive or negative multiplier effect i.e. on factor that
causes another factor. They can be also used to show
more complicated relationships like the hydrological
cycle.
When describing graphs:
Look for trends e.g. positive/negative correlation,
staying constant, or data fluctuating ‎
Look for anomalies: pieces of information that do not
fit the general trend
Mention the start and finish figure
Mention the highest and lowest figure
4. Field Sketches and Photos Always use figures (evidence) to support your
description

Reasons you would make a field sketch:‎

No map of your study area exists 6. # Other important things to
The map of your study area contains too much detail
or not enough detail note:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Settlement patterns: dispersed, nucleated, linear. Describing landscape: ridge, plateau (elevated land with
Natural advantages of a settlement: flat land, near water flat top and steep sides), scarp, floodplain
source, on the coast, near farmland, near natural broad, flat, steep-sided, deeply cut, gently sloping
resources, defensive location. Drainage:
Human locational factors: good road links, schools, density of drainage: the greater the number of
hospitals, jobs, leisure facilities streams, the higher the density
tourism can be promoted by: beaches, sea, mountain, stream patterns: dendritic, trellis or radial
waterfalls, historical buildings, water parks, golf courses, area drained – many tributaries joining the main river
hotels and restaurants. etc.
Describing photos: structure, type of vegetation, direction of flow
geographical features. course of river: straight or meandering, braiding,
Describing relief: average height of relief and height of width
highest point presence of river features e.g rapids, waterfall
mountainous or hilly or part of a plateau Choropleth map: maps which are shaded according to a
state locations (grid reference) of any relief features pre-arranged key.
that stands out
slope: concave, convex, uniform, steep

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG