MODULE-2

A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period, frequency,
amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor. (only
definitions) Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits.
Concept of Impedance. Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series circuits. Active power, reactive
power and apparent power. Concept of power factor. (Simple Numerical). Three Phase
Circuits: Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and limitations; star and delta
connection, relationship between line and phase quantities (excluding proof).

A.C FUNDAMENTALS
Important definitions:

Important terms/definitions, which are frequently used while dealing with ac circuits, are
as given below:

1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts in alternate positive and
negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in definite
intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical with the
sequence of changes while positive.

e = Em sin ωt….1

We know that θ = ωt

e = Em sin θ…..…2

It is clear from this expression of alternating e.m.f. induced in the coil that instantaneous
e.m.f. varies as the sin of the time angle (θ or ωt).
ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence eqn.(2) can be written as
e = Em sin 2πft…4
If T = time of the alternating voltage = 1/f , then eqn.(4) may be re-written as
2𝜋
e = Em sin 𝑇 t

so, the e.m.f. induced varies as the sine function of the time angle, ωt, and if e.m.f. induced is
plotted against time, a curve of sine wave shape is obtained as shown in Fig below. Such an
e.m.f. is called sinusoidal when the coil moves through an angle of 2π radians.

 Equation of Alternating Current:

When an alternating voltage e = Em sin ωt is applied across a load, alternating current

flows through the circuit which will also have a sinusoidal variation. The expression for the
alternating current is given by:

i= Im sin ωt……………………………………………………………………………..(6)

 Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation

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The standard form of an alternating voltage,
2𝜋
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt = Em sin 2πf t = Em sin t
𝑇

from the above equation we find that,

a) The amplitude or peak value or maximum value of an alternating voltage is given by

the coefficient of the sine of the time angle.
b) The frequency f is given by the coefficient of time divided by 2π.

2. Waveform: The graph between an alternating quantity (voltage or current) and time is
called waveform. Generally, alternating quantity is depicted along the X-axis and time
along the -Y-axis. Figure below show the waveform of a sinusoidal voltage.

e
+Em

0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π ω

-Em

Figure : A sinusoidal waveform

3. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called

instantaneous value.The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are
represented by 'e' and ‘i’ respectively.

4. Alternation and Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes through one half cycle
(complete set of +ve or –ve values) it completes an alternation, and when it goes through
a complete set of + ve and –ve values, it is said to have completed one cycle.

5. Amplitude: It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one

completed cycle. It is also called as maximum or peak value. The amplitude of alternating
current and voltage is represented by Em and Im respectively.

6. Periodic Time and Frequency: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is known as periodic time and is denoted by T .

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The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency
and is denoted by ‘f’ In the SI system, the frequency is expressed in hertz.

The number of cycles completed per second =f.

The periodic time T= time taken in completing one cycle=1/f
Or f=1/T.
7. Average Value:
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its
average value

8. RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat produced
by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
Irms = Im / √2

Form Factor and crest or peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf)

A definite relationship exists between crest value (or peak value), average value and r.m.s.value
of an alternating quantity.

1. Form Factor: The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s. value) to average value of an
alternating quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor, i.e.

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 r.m.s value
Form Factor, Kf =
average value

For sinusoidal alternating current,

Hence, the R.M.S. value (of current or voltage) is 1.11 times its average value.

2. Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to
the effective value (r.m.s. value) of an alternating quantity. i.e.,
maximum value
Ka =
r.m.s value

𝐼
For sinusoidal alternating current, Ka =𝐼𝑚𝑚 = √2 = 1.414
⁄
√2

For sinusoidal alternating voltage,

𝐸
Ka = 𝐸𝑚𝑚 = 1.414
⁄
√2

Phasor Representation

An alternating quantity can be represented using

(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor

A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor.

A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular

velocity.

Phase

Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity has
advanced from the selected zero position of reference.

Phase Difference

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When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they are said
to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of phase difference.
In Phase

Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero. That
is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.

Equation of alternating E.M.F.

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an
angular velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure below.
Let the time be measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with theX-
axis. At this instant maximum flux Φmax links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux linking
with it changes and hence e.m.f. is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle θ in time
tseconds, and let it assume the position as shown in Fig andθ = ωt.

When the coil is in this position, the maximum flux acting vertically downwards can
be resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the other, namely;
a) Component Φmaxsin ωt, parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not
induce e.m.f as it is parallel to the plane of the coil.

b) Component Φmaxcosωt, perpendicular to the plane of coil. This component induced

e.m.f in the coil.

Flux linkages of coil at that instant (at θ̊) is

= No. of turns in coil x flux linking in each turn of coil

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 = N Φmaxcosωt

As per faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic induction, the e.m.f. induced in a coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux linkages of the coil. So, instantaneous e.m.f, e induced in the coil at this
instant is:

It is apparent from eqn.(1) that the value of e will be maximum (Em), when the coil has

rotated through 900 (as sin 900 = 1)

Thus Em = N ω Φmax volts…………………………………………………………..…(2)

Substituting the value of N ω Φmax from eqn.(2) in eqn.(1), we obtain:

e = Em sin ωt

We know that θ = ωt

e = Em sin θ……………………………………………………………………..…(3)

It is clear from this expression of alternating e.m.f. induced in the coil that
instantaneous e.m.f. varies as the sin of the time angle (θ or ωt).
ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence eqn.(3) can be written as

e = Em sin 2πft………………………...…………………………………………(4)

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RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat produced
by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time

Average Value

The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called
its average value

Voltage and Current relationships with phasor diagrams in R, L and C

Circuits
The path for the flow of alternating current is called an a.c. circuit. In a d.c. circuit, the
current/flowing through the circuit is given by the simple relation I = V/R . However, in an a.c.
circuit, voltage and current change from instant to instant and so give rise to magnetic
(inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) effects. So, in an a.c. circuit, inductance and
capacitance must be considered in addition to resistance.

We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits:

i) AC circuit containing pure ohmic resistance only.

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 ii) AC circuit containing pure inductance only.
iii) AC circuit containing pure capacitance only.

i)AC circuit containing pure ohmic Resistance

When an alternating voltage is applied across a pure ohmic resistance, electrons (current)
flow in one direction during the first half-cycle and in the opposite direction during the next
half-cycle, thus constituting alternating current in the circuit.
Consider an a.c. circuit with just a pure resistance R only, as shown in Figure 1.11

Let the applied voltage be given by the equation

V = Vm sin 𝜃= Vmsinωt…………………………………………………………… (i)

As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current i will flow through the

circuit. The applied voltage has to supply the drop in the resistance, i.e.

V= iR
Substituting the value of v from eqn. (i), we get

Vmsinωt = iR or i= sin ωt ……....(ii)

The value of the alternating current i is maximum when sinωt = 1,
i.e., Im=Vm/ R
Eqn.(ii) becomes,
i =Im sin ωt…………………... (iii)
From eqns.(i) and (ii), it is apparent that voltage and current are in phase with each other.
This is also indicated by the wave and vector diagram shown in Figure 1.122.

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Power: The voltage and current are changing at every instant.
Therefore, instantaneous Power p = Vmsinωt . Imsinωt
= VmIm sin2ωt
= VmIm(1- cos 2ωt)/2
= VmIm/2 – (VmIm/2)(cos 2ωt)
The average value of (VmIm/2)(cos 2ωt) over a complete cycle is zero.
So, power for the complete cycle is,

P= VmIm/2= (Vm/√2 )(Im/√2)= VI watts.

Power curve
The power curve for a purely resistive circuit is shown in Fig. 1.13. It is apparent that
power in such a circuit is zero only at the instants a,b and c, when both voltage and current are
zero, but is positive at all other instants. In other words, power is never negative, so that power
is always lost in a resistive a.c. circuit. This power is dissipated as heat.

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ii) A.C. circuit containing pure Inductance
An inductive coil is a coil with or without an iron core and has negligible resistance. In
practice, pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always a small resistance.
However, a coil of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance,
so, for the purpose of our study, we will consider a purely inductive coil.

On the application of an alternating voltage (Figure 1.14) to a circuit containing a pure

inductance, a back e.m.f. is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f.
opposes the rise or fall of current, at every stage. Because of the absence of voltage drop, the
applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced e.m.f. only.

Let an applied voltage be v= Vm sin ωt and self-inductance of the coil = L Henry

𝑑𝑖
Self induced emf , e = - L 𝑑𝑡

Since the applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self induced e.m.f.
i.e v= -e
𝑑𝑖
Vm sin ωt = - L 𝑑𝑡

Or di= (-Vm/L) sinωt

Integrating both sides,
i= (Vm/L)∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
i= (Vm/ωL)(-cosωt)+ A
where A is a constant of integration and A=0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
so, i= (Vm/ωL)[- {sin ( 2 − ωt)}] Since,{- (sin ( 2 − ωt))} = sin (ωt - 2 )
𝜋
ori= (Vm/ωL)[{sin (ωt - 2 )}]
𝜋
therefore, i =Im sin(ωt - 2 )
𝜋
current will be maximum when sin (ωt - 2 )=1 and maximum value Im=Vm/ωL

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 𝜋
we have, i= Imsin( ωt - 2 ) and v = Vm sinωt

from the above expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and the instantaneous current
𝜋
flowing through a purely inductive coil, it is clear that the current lags behind the voltage by 2
or 90° as shown in figure 1.15

Inductive Reactance:

ωL in the expression Im = is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by ,

i.e., =ωL.

If L is in henry and ω is in radians per second, then will be in ohms. So, inductive
reactance plays the part of resistance.
Power: Instantaneous Power,
𝜋
p= v x i = Vm sin ωt x Imsin (ωt- 2 )

= - VmImsin ωtcosωt
= - (VmImsin 2ωt)/2
The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of p, which is zero since average
of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Put in mathematical
terms,

Power consumed by the inductor for the whole cycle of input, P = - dt = 0

Hence, power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.
Power curve

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 The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in Fig. 1.16 This indicates that
power absorbed in the circuit is zero. At the instants a,c and e, voltage is zero, so that power
is zero: it is also zero at points b and d when the current is zero. Between a and b voltage and
current are in opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy is taken from the circuit.
Between b and c voltage and current are in the same direction, so that power is positive and is
put back into the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is taken from the circuit and
between d and e it is put into the circuit. Hence, net power is zero.

Figure 1.16

 AC circuit containing pure capacitance

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is
charged in one direction and then in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses. With
reference to Figure 1.17

Figure 1.17

Let alternating voltage represented by, v= Vm sin ωt isapplied across a capacitor of

capacitance C Farads.
Instantaneous Charge, q= Cv = C Vm sin ωt

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Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge or
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
i= = 𝑑𝑡(C Vm sin ωt)
𝑑𝑡

= ωCVmcosωt
𝑉𝑚
= 1/𝜔𝐶cosωt
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Or i= 1/𝜔𝐶 sin (ωt + 2 )

Hence, current is maximum at t=0,

𝑉𝑚
And Im=1/𝜔𝐶
𝜋
i= Im sin (ωt+ 2 )
𝑉𝑚
Capacitive Reactance: 1/𝜔𝐶 in the expression Im=1/𝜔𝐶is known as capacitive reactance
and is denoted by Xc.

i.e., Xc =1/𝜔𝐶

If C is farads and ω is in radians, then Xc will be in ohms.

It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by,v= Vm sin ωt then the current is given by
𝜋
i =Im sin (ωt+ 2 )

this shows that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown in
Figure 1.18, or phase difference between its voltage and current is with the current leading.

Power: Instantaneous Power,

P = vi
𝜋
= Vm sin ωt. Im sin (ωt+ 2 )

= VmIm sin ωtcosωt

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 = Imsin 2ωt
Power for the complete cycle

= Im dt = 0

Hence power absorbed in a capacitive circuit is zero.

Hence power absorbed in a capacitive circuit is zero.

Power curves:
At the instants b,d, the current is zero, so that power is zero(Figure 1.19); it is also zero
at the instants a,c and e, when the voltage is zero. Between a and b, voltage and current are in
the same direction, so that power is positive and is being put back in the circuit. Between b
and c, voltage and current are in the opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy
is taken from the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is put back into the circuit, and
between d and e it is taken from the circuit.

Figure 1.19

Therefore, power absorbed in a pure capacitive circuit is zero.

1. The equation for an AC voltage is given byV = 0.04Sin (2000t +60)̊.

Determinethe frequency, angular frequency, instantaneous voltage when t
=160μs.

V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) Comparing with general equation

V = Vm Sin (wt +ø)

w = 2∏f ;

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f = 2000/2∏ = 318.30Hz.

T = 1/f = 3.14ms

For V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°)

put t = 160μs

V = 0.04Sin (2000(160*10-6) +60°)

=0.034V

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