Unit 7: Alternating Current

An alternating current or voltage is defined as one, whose magnitude changes with time and
whose direction reverses at regularly repeating intervals. For long distance transmission AC is
preferred because it can be stepped up or down conveniently using transformer which is one of
the most efficient devices.
EMF induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field
Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns and of length ‘a’ and width ‘b’ rotating with uniform
angular velocity ‘ω’ about its axis in a uniform magnetic field ‘B’.
The axis of rotation is at right angles to the field. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux passing
through it changes. Hence an emf is induced in the coil.
At any instant ‘t’, when the normal to the coil makes an
angle ‘θ’ with the direction of the field, the magnetic flux
through the coil is given by,
θ
∅ =  ∙  =  θ = NAB cosωt ∴ ω = 
t
Where A= ab is the area of the coil.
The instantaneous induced emf, (By Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction)
∅ NAB cosωt
=− = − = ω !"ωt
 
= E$ !"ωt
Where E$ = ω, called the peak value of the emf ,
ω = 2πν where ν is the frequency of the alternating
voltage. When ωt = 0, sin ωt = 0 ∴ E = 0
,
ωt = - , sin ωt = 1 ∴ E = E$

ωt = π, sin ωt = 0 ∴ E = 0
/,
ωt = , sin ωt = −1 ∴ E = −E$
-

ωt = 2π, sin ωt = 0 ∴ E = 0
A graph of E against ωt is a sine wave. Such an emf is
called an ‘alternating emf’. The resulting current in
the coil, if the coil is part of a closed circuit is the
alternating current.
Alternating emf : The emf which produces alternating current in some circuit is called
alternating emf.
Alternating current: An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes continuously and
whose direction reverses periodically.
The corresponding current ‘I’ through the circuit is given by 0 = 0$ !"ωt
The time taken by the alternating current to complete one cycle is known as time period ‘T’.
The number of cycles completed by the alternating current per second is frequency ‘ν’.
The maximum value of current or voltage in either direction is called amplitude or peak value
of alternating current or emf denoted by I0 or E0.
Mean Value of alternating current: Mean value of alternating current is defined as its average
over half a cycle.
67 9⁄ 9
-0  0$ !"ωt 
5$ 5$
⁄
0$ ω −cosωt : 20$
:
01234 = = <⁄ = > ? = = 0.6370$
87 = < ω <
2 $

Similarly 1234 = 0.637$

Root mean square value of an alternating current: It is defined as the square root of the
average of I2 during a complete cycle.
-97 -97
5$ 0  5$ 0$ !"- ωt 
-97
0$- ω :1
: - : -
0 =
D
-
= = E 1 − cos2ωt 
2<7 2<7 2< $ 2
= =
-97
0$- ω sin2ωt :
0$- ω 2< 0$-
= > − ? = G H=
4< 2ω $
4< = 2

0$- 0$
0I1J = K0 D- = L = = 0.7070$
2 √2
NO
Similarly I1J = = 0.707$
√-

Form Factor: The form factor gives an indication of the wave shape of the alternating voltage or
current. It is defined as the ratio of the virtual or rms value to the average value of alternating
current or voltage.
0I1J I1J 0.707$
P QR ST Q= = = = 1.11
01234 1234 0.637$
Effective value or virtual value of an A.C: The rms value of an alternating current can also be
defined as that direct current which produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance.
Therefore, the rms value of alternating current is also called as the ‘effective’ or the ‘virtual’
value of the current.
0$
0UVIWX3Y = = 0I1J
√2
Similarly, the rms value of an alternating voltage can be defined as that direct voltage which
produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance. The rms value of alternating voltage is
also called as the effective’ or the ‘virtual’ value of the voltage.
$
UVIWX3Y = = I1J
√2
Impedance: In any circuit the ratio of the effective voltage to the effective current is defined as
the impedance ‘Z’ of the circuit.
Representation of Sinusoidal voltage and current
Let  = E$ e[\] = E$ cos ωt + jE$ sin ωt. Thus an AC voltage can be represented by an
imaginary part of E$ e[\] or the real part of E$ e[\] provided we take E$ cos ωt as the applied
voltage. Similarly a sinusoidal current can be written as 0 = I$ e[\] = I$ cos ωt + jI$ sin ωt. The
alternating voltages can be represented using phasors. A phasor is a directed straight line, having
a constant amplitude and phase. It is a rotating vector. The length of the phasor is proportional to
the amplitude of the alternating quantity.

AC circuit containing pure resistance

Let an AC voltage represented by E$ e[\] be impressed
on a circuit containing only a resistance ‘R’ fig (a). If
‘I’ is the instantaneous value of current at any time ‘t’
then,
$ e[\] = 0a
Current through the reisitance is given by
$ e[\]
0=
a
0 = 0$ e[\]
NO
Where 0$ =
b
, the maximum current through the

circuit.The current is in phase with the applied voltage.

Fig (b) shows the graphical representation of voltage
and current in phase.
Fig (c) represents the phasor diagram of the AC circuit.
AC circuit containing pure inductance
Let an AC voltage represented by E$ e[\] be impressed
on a circuit containing only an inductance ‘L’ fig (a).
Thus instantaneous emf in the circuit  = E$ e[\] .
At any instant ‘t’, let ‘I’ be the current in the circuit.
Then the induced emf in the inductance is given by
ce
V4c = d
cW
(omitting sign)

The induced emf is always equal and opposite to the

applied emf.
ce
V4c − d =0
cW

E$ e[\] − d  = 0
0

ce fO ghij
=
cW k

0 = 
E0 ejωt
k
On integrating

5 0 = 5 
fO ghij
d
fO ghij
0=
k[\

The complex inductive reactance lk = djω . This is the impedance of the circuit.
m 97 97 n n
Also = −o = p qn - rp qn - = cos - − o sin - = 0 − o = −os
n
u
fO ghijt 7v fO
Therefore, 0 = = 00 the peak value of current. In this case the current lags
k\ k\
,
emf by a phase π72. The AC voltage and current is graphically represented in fig (b) and its
vector form in fig(c).
AC circuit containing pure capacitance
Let an AC voltage represented by E$ e[\] be impressed on a circuit
containing only a capacitance ‘C’ fig (a).
Thus instantaneous emf in the circuit  = E$ e[\] .
At any instant ‘t’, the charge on the capacitor is given by
w = x = xE$ e[\]
Corresponding to the charge the current ‘I’ through the circuit is
 cy fO ghij
0= = xjωE$ e[\] = m7
cW z[\
−o7
The capacitive reactance lz = 17xjω = xω

fO ghij fO ghij fO [ghij fO ,7

∴ 0= m7 = qn7 = m7 = m7 e[\]{ - ,
z[\ z\ z\ z\
,7
o = e[ -

E$ ,7
0= e[\]{ -
lx
In this case the current leads the emf by a phase π72. The AC
voltage and current is graphically represented in fig (b) and its vector form in fig(c).
AC circuit containing inductance and resistance in series
Consider an AC circuit with resistance ‘R’ and inductance ‘L’ in series. The instantaneous emf
applied to the circuit is given by E0sin ωt. This voltage is the imaginary part of the complex
number E$ e[\] . Let ‘I’ be the instantaneous current in the circuit.
Potential difference across the resistance VR = IR
Potential difference across the inductance VL = jLωI
 = od=0 + 0a
 
∴0= =
a + od= |
Vector impedance of the circuit, | = a + od=

Modulus of the impedance } |} = Ka - + d=-

So the instantaneous current in the circuit
E$ e[\] E$ e[\] 1
0= = × n
a + od= Ka - + d=- p
k:
where € = T"qm  ‚
b
E$
0= × e[\]q ƒ = 0$ e[\]q ƒ
Ka - + d=-
It is clear from in the equation that current ‘I’ lags behind the
applied emf by a phase ‘θ’. The last fig shows the variation of
current and voltage with time in an LR circuit
AC circuit containing capacitance and resistance in series
Consider an AC circuit with resistance ‘R’ and capacitance ‘C’
in series. The instantaneous emf applied to the circuit is given
by E0sin ωt. This voltage is the imaginary part of the complex
number E$ e[\] . Let ‘I’ be the instantaneous current in the
circuit.
Potential difference across the resistance VR = IR
e
Potential difference across the inductance „z =
n:z
0
= + 0a
o=x
 
∴0= =
a + 17o=x |

Vector impedance of the circuit, | = a + n:z = a −

e e
:z

a - + 17=x
-
Modulus of the impedance } |} =

So the instantaneous current in the circuit

N fO ghij m
∴0= n7 = ×
bq :z v 2 t†‡
b v {m7:z

m
where € = T"qm  ‚
bz:
fO
0= v
× e[\]{n  = 00 ejωt+ θ
b v {m7:z

It is clear from in the equation that current ‘I’ leads the applied emf by a phase ‘θ’.
The last fig (c) shows the variation of current and voltage with time in an RC circuit.
AC circuit containing capacitance and inductance in series
Consider an AC circuit with inductance ‘L’ and capacitance ‘C’ in series. The instantaneous emf
applied to the circuit is given by E0sin ωt. This voltage is the imaginary part of the complex
number E$ e[\] . Let ‘I’ be the instantaneous current in the circuit.
Potential difference across the inductance VL = jLωI
e
Potential difference across the inductance „z =
n:z
0 o0
 = od=0 + = od=0 −
o=x =x
  
∴0= =
o d= −
m
‚ |
:z

Vector impedance of the circuit, | = o d= −

1
‚
=x

Modulus of the impedance } |} = d= − ‚

1
=x
So the instantaneous current in the circuit
fO ghij
∴0= ˆ
nk:q‰Š‚

fO ,7 ,7
0= ˆ × e[\]q - = 00 ejωt− -
k:q‰Š‚

Thus it is seen that current lags behind the emf by a phase π72 when d= > :z. If :z > d=, then
m m

π
0 = 0$ e[\]{ 72 and hence the current leads the emf by a phase π72.
‚

AC circuit containing resistance, capacitance and inductance in series

Consider an AC circuit with resistance ‘R’, inductance ‘L’ and capacitance ‘C’ in series. The
instantaneous emf applied to the circuit is given by E0sin ωt. This voltage is the imaginary part
of the complex number E$ e[\] . Let ‘I’ be the instantaneous current in the circuit. The current in
the circuit can be expressed as 0 = 0$ e[\]q Œ
Potential difference across the resistance VR = IR
Potential difference across the inductance VL = jLωI
e
Potential difference across the inductance „z =
n:z
e ne
 = 0a + od=0 + n:z = 0a + od=0 − :z
m
E$ e[\] = 0$ e[\]q Œ R + 0$ e[\]q Œ od= − o0$ e[\]q Œ :z
m
E$ e[\] = 0$ rR + j d= − :z ‚s e[\]q Œ
m
E$ = 0$ rR + j d= − :z ‚s eq[Œ
fO [Πm
eO
e = R + j d= − :z ‚

The complex impedance is given by

 E$ e[\] E$ [Œ
|= = = e
0 0$ e[\]q Π0$
m
Therefore, | = R + j d= − :z ‚

-
The modulus of ‘Z’ is given by ||| =
m
a - + d= − :z ‚
 ˆ
k: q
tan ϕ = ‰Š
b

The phase difference depends on the value of ϕwhich depends on lk and lz .

Special Cases
Case 1: If d= > :z , the phase angle ϕ will be positive and the current will lag behind the
m

applied emf. The circuit behaves as an inductive circuit.

, the phase angle ϕ will be negative and the current will lead the applied emf.
m
Case 2: If d= <
:z

The circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit.

, the phase angle ϕ becomes zero. The emf and current will be in phase and
m
Case 3: If d= =
:z

the current will be in maximum. The potential difference across the inductance and capacitance
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction and hence cancel out. It behaves like a purely
resistive circuit.
Resonance in series LCR circuit
An LCR circuit is said to be in resonance when the inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive
reactance.
m m m
i.e. d=I = ∴ =I- = , =I =
:’ z kz √kz
m m
2<SI = , SI =
√kz -9√kz

Acceptor Circuit
At resonance the current through the LCR series circuit is maximum and the impedance Z=R.
The high voltage drop across L and C cancel each other. i.e., at resonance even though high
current flows through the LCR series circuit there is no voltage across L-C terminals together.
The whole voltage of the source appears across the resistance. If a number of frequencies are
given to it, the circuit accepts only one frequency SI and rejects all other frequencies. The
current will be maximum for that frequency. Hence this circuit is called an acceptor circuit and
the series resonance is called voltage resonance.
Sharpness of resonance
The curve of ‘I’ against ‘f’ for different values of ‘R’ is called
resonance curves. As the resistance in the circuit is reduced,
the resonance curve becomes sharper. The sharpness of
resonance is a measure of the rate of fall of amplitude of
current from its maximum value at resonant frequency on
either side of it.
The sharpness of resonance is defined as the ratio of the
resonant frequency to the difference of frequency on either
side of the resonant frequency at which the current in the
circuit reduces to 17 times its value at resonance.
√2
“’
“” q “• 
Sharpness of resonance =

Sk and S– are the lower and upper half power frequencies respectively. If the amplitude remains
more or less the same at this peak value over an appreciable range of frequency on either side of
the resonant frequency, the resonance is said to be flat.
Quality Factor (Q-factor)
The ratio of the potential drop across the inductor or capacitor at resonance and the applied emf
in the circuit is called Quality factor.
˜
m
or — − ST Q= =
ed=Q d=Q
— − ST Q= =
‰’ Š
eb b eb b:’ z

The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit is a measure of sharpness of resonance, greater the value
of Q, the greater is the sharpness of resonance.
“’ “’ b2Jš434W “I2yX24›œ
— = “ 
= =
” q “• -×∆“ 34c žVcWŸ

Sk = SI − ∆S , S– = SI + ∆S , S– − Sk = SI + ∆S − SI + ∆S = 2 × ∆S 
Tuning the Aerial of a radio receiver
The principle of resonance is used in electronics in tuning the aerial of a radio receiver to the
desired frequency of a selected radio station. A number of frequencies are picked up by the aerial
and corresponding to these frequencies, a number of voltages appear across the LCR series
circuit. But maximum current will pas through the circuit for that a.c. voltage having the
m
resonant frequency SI =
-9√kz
. Depending upon the Q – value of the circuit, the current
corresponding to all other frequencies will be very small, if Q is very large. Thus, we can select a
particular station. By changing the value of the adjustable capacitor C, programs from different
stations can be received.
Parallel resonant circuit
Consider an AC circuit with resistance ‘R’, inductance ‘L’
connected in parallel to a capacitance ‘C’. The instantaneous
emf applied to the circuit is given by E0sin ωt. This voltage
is the imaginary part of the complex number E$ e[\] . The
instantaneous current through the circuit is I = IL + IC.
The potential difference across each branch is the same, as they are connected in parallel.
N N N
= +m
b{nk: 7n:z

m m
= + o=x
b{nk:
m bqnk:
= + o=x
b v {k:v
m b k:
= + o =x − ‚
b v {k:v b v {k:v
N m b k:
Current through the circuit is 0 = =× =×r + o =x − ‚s
b v{k:v b v {k:v
b k:
Let  cos ϕ = ,  sin ϕ = =x −
b v {k:v b v {k:v

0 =  cos ϕ + o sin ϕ = e[Œ = E$ Ae[\]{Œ

•‰
:zq v
ϕ = T" qm ¡ ¢•‰v
¡
¡v ¢•‰v

bv k: -
- = b v {k:v v
+ =x − ‚
b v {k:v

b{:zb v { :£ kv zq:k
b v{k:v
Admittance = Y =

2
La2 +=xa2 + =3 d2 x−=d‚
1
The magnitude of the admittance ¤ = =
| a2 +d=2
The admittance will be minimum, when =xa - + =/ d- x − =d = 0

m bv
= = =I = −
kz kv

m m bv
This gives the condition of resonance and the resonant frequency is SI = −
-9 kz kv
.

bv m m
, SI =
kv kz -9√kz
If R is very small so that is negligible compared to . At such a minimum
admittance, i.e. maximum impedance, the circuit current is minimum.
Impedance at resonance
b v {k:v
At resonance, | =
b

But a - + d=- =
k
z
at resonance
d
∴ | = ax . Thus smaller the resistance R, larger is the impedance. If R is negligible, the

impedance is infinite at resonance.

Rejector Circuit
At resonant frequency, the admittance is minimum or impedance is maximum. So the circuit
current is minimum. Hence at resonance, the parallel circuit rejects the current corresponding to
the resonance frequency. So this circuit is known as a rejector circuit.
The parallel resonant circuit does not allow the current of the same frequency as the natural
frequency of the circuit. Thus it can be used to suppress the current of this particular frequency
out of currents of many other frequencies. Hence the circuit is known as a rejector or filter
circuit.
Comparison between series and parallel resonant circuits
Series resonant circuit Parallel resonant circuit
Acceptor circuit Rejector circuit
m
Resonant frequency is SI = m m bv
-9√kz Resonant frequency is SI = −
-9 kz kv

d
At resonance, impedance Z = R At resonance, impedance | = ax

At resonance the impedance is minimum and At resonance the impedance is maximum and
admittance is maximum admittance is minimum
Maximum current flows at resonance Minimum current flows at resosnance
Used in the tuning circuit to separate the Used to present maximum impedance to the
wanted frequency from the incoming wanted frequency, usually in the plate circuit
frequencies by offering low impedance at that of values.
frequency

Power in AC circuit
Power in an electric circuit is the energy consumed in one second. In a dc circuit, power is
measured as the product of voltage and current. P = VI
In an AC circuit the voltage and current vary continuously. Hence average power is calculated
for a complete cycle.
Consider an AC circuit containing resistance ‘R’, inductance ‘L’ and capacitance ‘C’. The
instantaneous values of emf and current are given by
 = $ sin = and 0 = 0$ sin= − ϕ  where ϕ is the phase difference between emf and
current.
The power at any instant at any instant ‘t’ is given by
¥  =  × 0 = $ sin = × 0$ sin= − ϕ 
On simplifying the above equation
 $ 0$
¥  = $ 0$ sin- = cos ϕ −
sin 2= × sin ϕ
2
The true power consumed during a cycle is the average instantaneous power over a period ‘T’.
So the true power is,

5$ $ 0$ sin- = cos ϕ  sin 2= sin ϕ 

6 6 NO eO
5$
¥= 6 − -
6
5$  5$ 

5$ sin- =  5 sin 2= 
6 6
$ 0$
¥ = $ 0$ cos ϕ − sin ϕ $
6
5$  2 6
5$ 
m
The mean value of sin- = over a complete cycle is , and the mean value of sin 2= over a
-
complete cycle is zero.
© ©
5O ¦§¨v :W cW m 5O ¦§¨ -:W cW
© = © =0
5O cW - 5O cW
i.e. and

m NO eO
Therefore, ¥ = $ 0$ cos ϕ × = cos ϕ = ª 0ª cos ϕ
- √- √-

The term ª 0ª is called the apparent power and cos ϕ is called the power factor.
Power factor
The true power of an AC circuit is given by ¥ = ª 0ª cos ϕ.
«
Therefore, cos ϕ =
N¬ e¬
, i.e. the power factor is the ratio of the true power to the apparent

power.
Special cases
1. In a purely resistive circuit, the emf and the current are in phase. i.e. ϕ = 0
∴ ¥ = ª 0ª cos ϕ = ª 0ª cos 0 = 1
2. In a purely inductive circuit, the current lags behind emf by a phase ϕ = π72
∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = 0 cos π72 = 0
3. In a purely inductive circuit, the current leads emf by a phase ϕ = π72
∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = 0 cos π72 = 0

4. In an L-R circuit, ϕ = T"−1  a ‚

d=

a a
cos ϕ = =
| Ka - + d=-
a
∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = „ 0„
Ka - + d=-

5. In an R-C circuit, ϕ = T"−1 ax=‚

1
 a a
cos ϕ = =
| 1 -
a- +  ‚
x=
a
∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = „ 0„
1 -
a - + x=‚

6. In an L-C circuit, current lags or leads by ϕ = π72

∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = 0 cos π72 = 0
7. In an LCR circuit,
a a
cos ϕ = =
| 1 -
a - + d= − x=‚

a
∴ ¥ = „ 0„ cos ϕ = „ 0„
1 -
a - + d= − ‚
x=
Wattless Current
True power of an AC circuit is given by ¥ = ª 0ª cos ϕ. The current in AC circuit is said to be
wattles when the average power consumed in the circuit is zero. If an AC circuit is purely
inductive or purely capacitive with no ohmic resistance, phase angle ϕ = π⁄2 so that cos ϕ = 0
or the power consumed is zero. The current in such a circuit does not perform any useful work
and rightly called the wattles or idle current. In this situation, the circuit does not consume any
power, though it offers a resistance to the flow of alternating current in it. It is the principle of
choke coil.
Preference of choke coil over an ohmic resistance
The current in an AC circuit can also be diminished using an ordinary ohmic resistance in the
circuit. This method is not economical because much of the electrical energy provided by the
source is wasted as heat. Hence choke coil is preferred over ohmic resistance. The energy used in
establishing the magnetic field in the choke coil is restored when the magnetic field collapses.
Hence to regulate AC, it is more economical to use a choke than a resistance.