Qno1:- Explain network architecture in detail

• Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
• Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer
• Following are the two types of network architecture
• Peer-To-Peer network
• Client/Server network
• Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead
to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Clients server network

• Client/Server Network : CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one
of centralized and powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to which many of
personal computers that are less powerful or workstations
• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. From a central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.

Qn2:- explain the interface and services

• Interfaces and Services is a process that generally provides and gives a common technique for
each layer to communicate with each other.
• Service Interface is used to implement a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA). This is
implemented to achieve interoperability among the applications among various technologies.
• Standard terminology basically required for layered networks to request and aim for the
services are provided.
• Service is defined as a set of primitive operations. And are provided by layer to each of layers
above it.
• Below is diagram showing relation between layers at an interface
In diagram, layers N+1, N, and N-1 are involved and engaged in process of communication among each
other.

Components Involved and their Functions :

Service Data Unit (SDU) – SDU is a piece of information or data that is generally passed by layer just
above current layer for transmission. Unit of data or information is passed down to a lower layer from
an OSI (Open System Interconnection) layer or sublayer. Data is passed with request to transmit data.
SDU basically identifies or determines information that is been transferred among entities of peer layers
that are not interpreted by supporting entities of lower-layer.

Protocol Data Unit (PDU) – PDU is a single unit of information or data that is transmitted or transferred
among entities of peer layers of a computer network

Interface Data Unit (IDU) – IDU is used to have an agreed way of communication among two layers in a
network layered architecture. It is passed from (N+1 to N).

Qno3:-what are two fundamental ways by which network performance is measured

• Network performance refers to measures of service quality of a network as seen by the

customer.
• There are many different ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is
different in nature and design

Parameters for Measuring Network Performance

BANDWIDTH

• One of the most essential conditions of a website’s performance is the amount of bandwidth
allocated to the network
• Bandwidth determines how rapidly the webserver is able to upload the requested information.
• Bandwidth is characterized as the measure of data or information that can be transmitted in a
fixed measure of time
• Bandwidth is only one component of what an individual sees as the speed of a network.

LATENCY

• In a network, during the process of data communication, latency(also known as delay) is defined
as the total time taken for a complete message to arrive at the destination,
• Starting with the time when the first bit of the message is sent out from the source and ending
with the time when the last bit of the message is delivered at the destination
• The network connections where small delays occur are called “Low-
Latency-Networks” and the network connections which suffer from long
delays are known as “High-Latency-Networks”.
• High latency leads to the creation of bottlenecks in any network communication

Qno3:-Explain the design issue in computer network OSI model

The following are the design issues for the layers:

 1. Reliability: It is a design issue of making a network that operates correctly even when
it is made up of unreliable components.
2. Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every layer needs
a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
3. Error Control: It is an important issue because physical communication circuits are
not perfect. Many error detecting and error correcting codes are available. Both
sending and receiving ends must agree to use any one code.
4. Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one
route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing
algorithms, which chooses optimized route to the destination.
5. Flow Control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then
there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers
Qno. 4 Difference between connectionless and connection oriented communication
QNO. 5:- WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK. IT’S IMPORTANCE AND GIVE ITS MERITS AND DEMERITS

Computer network
 computer network is a system that connects numerous independent
computers in order to share information (data) and resources
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are
linked together
. A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media.
Importance
Computer networks play a crucial role in today’s interconnected world.
They allow devices to communicate and share resources, such as files and
printers, which enhances collaboration and efficiency.
Networks also enable internet access, email communication, online gaming,
and much more.
Businesses rely on networks for their daily operations, enabling employees to
work together,
access shared data, and communicate seamlessly.
Overall, computer networks are essential for modern communication,
information sharing, and productivity.
Advantages of Computer Networking
Some of the main advantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file
server) that can be shared and made available to every user in an
organization.
Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a
modern computer network
It allows us to collaborate on projects.
→ Most companies use computer networking to connect with the teams to get
all the updates and get the shared documents.
It can ease us to send/receive large-sized files in a few blinks of the eye.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
It can lead us to lose access to information very quickly.
→ If a file crashes over a computer network, we will not be able to access that
information instantly.
The cost of computer networking is very high.
→ Executing the network as a whole, along with the cables, is pretty
expensive.
Computer networking can result in people stopping believing in their memory.
A virus in one device can also disturb the entire network
UNIT 2
Qno.1 explain data link layer address with example?

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open System

Interconnection) network architecture model

It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data. Its major role is to ensure error-

free transmission of information

This is considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying

complexities of the hardware from the other above layers.

Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer

The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data among

applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing error messages and

acknowledgments as well.

Media Access Control (MAC)

MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing frames, and

also controls physical media access.

Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:

Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network frame

within a Link layer frame before the transmission across the link.

A frame consists of a data field in which network layer datagram is inserted and a

number of data fields.

The data link layer encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/ physical

address in the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery

Error Control

Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise, attenuation, etc. So, it is the

responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the error in the transmitted data and

correct it using error detection and correction techniques respectively

Flow Control

If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s sending speed, then this can

lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some frames may get lost. So, it’s the

responsibility of DLL to synchronize the sender’s and receiver’s speeds and establish

flow control between them.

Access Control
When multiple devices share the same communication channel there is a high

probability of collision, so it’s the responsibility of DLL to check which device has control

over the channel

Qno. 2 Describe the stop and wait flow control technique?

Flow control:-refers to the mechanisms and techniques used to manage the rate of data
transmission between sender and receiver to prevent congestion, and buffer overflow, and
ensure reliable delivery..

Stop-and-wait flow control is the simplest form of flow control. In this method the message is

broken into multiple frames, and the receiver indicates its readiness to receive a frame of data .

When acknowledgement is received, then only sender will send or transfer the next frame

This process is continued until sender transmits EOT (End of Transmission) frame.

In this method, only one of frames can be in transmission at a time.

Working of Stop and Wait protocol

The above figure shows the working of the stop and wait protocol. If there is a
sender and receiver, then sender sends the packet and that packet is known as a
data packet. The sender will not send the second packet without receiving the
acknowledgment of the first packet. The receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
data packet that it has received. Once the acknowledgment is received, the sender
sends the next packet. This process continues until all the packet are not sent. The
main advantage of this protocol is its simplicity but it has some disadvantages also.
For example, if there are 1000 data packets to be sent, then all the 1000 packets
cannot be sent at a time as in Stop and Wait protocol, one packet is sent at a time.

Qno.3 Explain the go back N flow control?

Go-Back-N protocol, also called Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat reQuest, is a data link layer protocol

that uses a sliding window method for reliable and sequential delivery of data frames.

It uses the principle of protocol pipelining in which the multiple frames can be sent before receiving

the acknowledgment of the first frame.

If we have five frames and the concept is Go-Back-3, which means that the three frames can be

sent, i.e., frame no 1, frame no 2, frame no 3 can be sent before expecting the acknowledgment of

frame no 1.

Working of Go back and N

Suppose there are a sender and a receiver, and let’s assume that there are 11 frames to be sent.

These frames are represented as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, and these are the sequence numbers of the

frames. Mainly, the sequence number is decided by the sender’s window size. But, for the better

understanding, we took the running sequence numbers, i.e., 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. Let’s consider

the window size as 4, which means that the four frames can be sent at a time before expecting the

acknowledgment of the first frame.

Step 1: Firstly, the sender will send the first four frames to the receiver, i.e., 0,1,2,3, and now the

sender is expected to receive the acknowledgment of the 0th frame.

Qno.4 explain selective repeat protocol flow control!?

Selective Repeat ARQ

It is also known as Sliding Window Protocol and used for error detection and control in the data link

layer.

In the selective repeat, the sender sends several frames specified by a window size even without

the need to wait for individual acknowledgement from the receiver as in Go-Back-N ARQ

In selective repeat protocol, the retransmitted frame is received out of sequence.

In Selective Repeat ARQ only the lost or error frames are retransmitted, whereas correct frames are

received and buffered.

The receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers buffers the frames in memory and sends

NACK for only frames which are missing or damaged. The sender will send/retransmit a packet for

which NACK is received.

Example

Given below is an example of the Selective Repeat ARQ

Explanation
Step 1 – Frame 0 sends from sender to receiver and set timer.

Step 2 – Without waiting for acknowledgement from the receiver another frame, Frame1 is sent by

sender by setting the timer for it.

Step 3 – In the same way frame2 is also sent to the receiver by setting the timer without waiting for

previous acknowledgement.

Step 4 – Whenever sender receives the ACK0 from receiver, within the frame 0 timer then it is

closed and sent to the next frame, frame 3.

Step 5 – whenever the sender receives the ACK1 from the receiver, within the frame 1 timer then it

is closed and sent to the next frame, frame 4.

Step 6 – If the sender doesn’t receive the ACK2 from the receiver within the time slot, it declares

timeout for frame 2 and resends the frame 2 again, because it thought the frame2 may be lost or

damaged.

Qno. 5 explain framing and different types of framing

Framing in computer networks is the process of dividing digital data into small parts, or frames, to

be sent across a network

Frames are made up of a header, which contains information about the frame, and a payload,

which contains the actual data being sent

The header is divided into smaller fields, such as destination address, source address, and control

information

. Parts of a Frame

A frame has the following parts −

• Frame Header − It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame.
• Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered.
 • Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction bits.
• Flag − It marks the beginning and end of the frame.

Types of Framing

Framing can be of two types, fixed sized framing and variable sized framing.

Fixed-sized Framing

Here the size of the frame is fixed and so the frame length acts as delimiter of the frame.

Consequently, it does not require additional boundary bits to identify the start and end of the

frame.

Example – ATM cells.

Variable – Sized Framing

Here, the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. So additional mechanisms are kept

to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of the next frame.

Qno. 6 explain the sliding window protocol

The sliding window is a technique for sending multiple frames at a time.

It controls the data packets between the two devices where reliable and gradual delivery of data

frames is needed. It is also used in TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).

In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence number. The sequence numbers are used

to find the missing data in the receiver end

Sliding window protocol has two types:

Go-Back-N ARQ

Selective Repeat ARQ

Qno. 7 explain bit stiffing and byte stiffing with example

Bit stiffing

Bit stuffing is the process of inserting noninformation bits into data to break up bit
patterns to affect the synchronous transmission of information.
It is widely used in network and communication protocols, in which bit stuffing is
a required part of the transmission process
Bit stuffing is used for various purposes, such as for bringing bit streams that do
not necessarily have the same or rationally related bit rate
Another use of bit stuffing is for run length limited coding:

Bit stuffing can also serve other purposes. For example, it can bring bit streams that don't
have the same bit rates up to the same rate to fill buffers or fill frames.
Byte stuffing
Byte stuffing is a mechanism to convert a message formed of a sequence of bytes that may
contain reserved values such as frame delimiter, into another byte sequence that does not
contain the reserved values.
Byte Stuffing is a technique used in data communication to ensure accurate and reliable
transmission of data between devices.
The main purpose of Byte Stuffing is to distinguish between data and control characters
within the transmitted data stream, preventing the occurrence of specific reserved
characters that might be misinterpreted as control characters.
QNO. 8 EXPLAIN Finite state model
In simple terms, a finite state model for protocol verification is like creating a roadmap that shows

all the possible states a system can be in and how it transitions between those states during

communication.

It helps ensure that the protocol works correctly by mapping out every possible scenario or

situation that can occur.

It’s like having a clear plan to follow to make sure everything runs smoothly.

In a finite state model for protocol verification, the states are determined by considering all the

different possible conditions or situations that the system can be in during communication.

Each state represents a specific scenario or condition that the system can encounter

. By identifying and defining these states, we can create a comprehensive map of how the system

behaves and transitions between these states during communication.

It’s like creating a detailed picture of all the possible paths the system can take.

PETRI NET MODEL

In a network, a Petri net model is like a way to visually represent how data and processes move and interact within the network

. It helps in understanding the flow of information, actions, and states in a network system, similar to how it works in other

contexts like systems or protocols. It’s a useful tool for analyzing and optimizing network processes.