.

TOPIC FIVE
FUNDIMENTALS OF ROBOTS
Robots are devices that are programmed to move parts, or to do work with a tool. Robotics is a
multidisciplinary engineering field dedicated to the development of autonomous devices,
including manipulators and mobile vehicles.A robot can be defined as follows:
1. A robot is a re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move
materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for
the performance of a variety of tasks.
2. A robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator
programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use
in industrial automation applications.
3. A robot is any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it
may not resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike
manner.
4. A robot is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects
and to be given electronic programming to do a specific task that may also have some
ability to perceive and absorb data on physical objects or on its local physical
environment, or to process data, or to respond to various stimuli.
5. A robot is a mechanical device that sometimes resembles a human and is capable of
performing a variety of often complex human tasks on command or by being
programmed in advance.

Basic Elements of Robotics System

The basic element of a robot includes the following:

1. Mechanical platform- the hardware base

- such as a wheeled platform, arm, or other construction, capable of interacting with its
environment.
2. Sensors

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- Sensors are the parts that sense and can detect objects or things like heat and light and
convert the object information into symbols or in analog or digital form and then robot
reacts according to the information provided by the sensory system. The sensors used in
robotics are;
Vision Sensors: Camera, Frame Grabber, Image processing unit
Proximity Sensors: distance is estimated between the robot and the object.
Proprioceptive Sensors: are responsible for monitoring self-maintenance and
controlling internal status. This includes battery monitoring, current sensing, and
heat monitoring.
Logical Sensors
2. Motors
A variety of electric motors provide power to robots making them move with various
programmed motions. AC /DC motors can be used.
3. Driving Mechanisms:
Gears and Chains, Pulleys and Belts, Gearboxes are used to transmit rotational motion
from one place to another
4. Servomotors
They adjust themselves until they match the signal. A very common use of servos is in
Radio Controlled models (R/C Servos).
5. Power Supply: Power supply is provided by two types of sources:
Batteries that are used once only and then discarded.
Rechargeable batteries: operate from a reversible chemical reaction and can be
recharged thousand times.
6. Electronic controls:
This uses a digital logic control circuit which controls the mechanical system. This circuit
is connected to the mechanical system through a bridge relay. A control signal generates
a magnetic field in the relay's coil that mechanically closes a switch.
7. Microcontroller systems
Microcontrollers are intelligent electronic devices that are used inside robots. They
deliver functions similar to those performed by a microprocessor (CPU) inside a personal
computer. It comprises of;
 Speed: is designated in clock cycles, and is usually measured in millions
of cycles per second (Megahertz, MHz).
 Size: specifies the number of bits of information the Microcontroller can
process in one step (e.g, 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-bits).
 Memory: Microcontrollers count most of their read-only memory (ROM)
in thousands of bytes (kB) and random access memory (RAM) in single
bytes.
8. Languages
The following programming languages are used:

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VAL - Variable Assembly Language

Robo ML - Robotic Mark-up Language
ROBOFORTH
ROSSUM
XRCL - Extensible Robot Control Language
Scripting language such as RoboLogics
Visual Programming Languages is written by Labview
9. Pneumatics:
Pneumatic system is used for actuating purposes. Pneumatics are useful for generating
linear motion.
10. Driving high-current loads from logic controllers:
- the interfacing of logic circuitry to high current loads such as motors, solenoids, or
Nitinol wire. Logic circuitry can sink and source loads in the range of 1 to 20 mA. The
logic circuitry are;
Switch basics: interface for high-current loads can be though of as a switch.
Relays: One of the simplest ways to accomplish high-current..
Transistors: an semiconductor version of a relay.
H-Bridges: Most loads such as motors need to be operated in both forward and
reverse.

Types of robots
There are three types of robots;
i. Manual robots
ii. Semi-automatic robots
iii. Automatic robots

Classification of Robot
Robots can be classified in many ways. This is according to;
a). their degrees of freedom,
b). kinematical structure,
c). drive technology,
d). work-shop geometry and
e). motion characteristics.

[A] Classification of robots by Degrees of Freedom

A manipulator should have 6 degrees of freedom to manipulate an object freely in three
dimensional spaces and thus from this point of view a robot may be a;
i). General purpose robot: if it possesses 6 degrees of freedom.
ii). Redundant robot: if it possesses more than 6 degrees of freedom. It provides more
freedom to move around obstacles and operate in a tightly confined work space.
iii). Deficient robot: if it possesses less than 6 degrees of freedom.

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[B] Classification of robots by Kinematic Structure

According to kinematic structure robots can be classified as;
i). Serial Robot or Open- loop Manipulator:-A robot is said to be a serial robot or an
open-loop manipulator if its kinematic structure takes the form of an open-loop chain.
Example: Adept-One Robot.
ii). Parallel Manipulator:-if it is made up of a closed-loop chain. In general, a parallel
manipulator has the advantages of higher stiffness, higher payload capacity, and lower
inertia to the manipulation problem than a comparable serial manipulator, at the price of a
smaller workspace and more complex mechanism
iii). Hybrid Manipulator:-if it consists of both open and closed loop chains. Example:
Fanuc S-900 W. Many industrial robots employ this type of robot construction.

[C] Classification of robots by Drive Technology

Manipulators can be classified by their three drive technologies are;
i). Electric Technology:-Most manipulators use either electric DC servomotor or stepper
motors because they are clean and relatively easy to control.
ii). Hydraulic Technology:-used for high speed and/or high-load-carrying capabilities. A
major disadvantage associated with this is the possibility of leaking oils. A hydraulic
drive is inherently flexible, due to bulk modulus of oil.
iii). Pneumatic Technology: Also used for high speed and/or high-load-carrying
capabilities. A pneumatic drive is clean and fast but it is difficult to control because air is
a compressible fluid.

[D] Classification of robots by Workspace Geometry

The workspace of a manipulator can be defined as the volume of space the end of effecter can
reach. The workspace can be of two types:
A reachable workspace is the volume of space withinwhich every point can be reached
by the end effecter in at least one orientation.

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A dexterous workspace is the volume of space within which every point can be reached
by the end effecter inall possible orientation.

i).Cartesian robot
In this the kinematic structure of a robot arm is made of three mutually perpendicular prismatic
joints. The wrist center position of a Cartesian robot can be described by three Cartesian co-
ordinates associated with the three prismatic joints. The regional work-space of a Cartesian robot
is a rectangular box. When a Cartesian robot is mounted on rails above its workspace, it is called
a gantry robot.

ii).Cylindrical Robot
A robot arm is called cylindrical robot if either the first or second joint of a Cartesian robot is
replaced by a revolute join. The wrist center position of a cylindrical robot can be described by a
set of cylindrical coordinate system associated with the three joint variables. The workspace of a
cylindrical robot is confined by two concentric cylinders of finite length.

iii).Spherical Robot
A robot arm is called a spherical robot if either the first or second joint of a Cartesian robot is
replaced by a revolute joint. The wrist center position of a spherical robot can be described by a
set of spherical coordinate system associated with the three joint variables. The workspace of
cylindrical robot is confined by two concentric spheres.

iv).Articulated Robot
A robot arm is said to be an articulated robot if all three joints are revolute. The workspace of an
articulated robot is very complex, typically a crescent shaped cross section. Puma robot is an
articulated robot.

v).The SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot arm) Robot:

It is a special type of robot consisting of two revolute joints followed by a prismatic joint. All
three joint axes are parallel to each other and point along the direction of gravity. The wrist has
one degree of freedom and the entire robot has 4 degrees of freedom. This type of robot is useful
for assembling parts on a plane.

[E] Classification of robots by Motion Characteristics

Robot manipulators can also be classified according to their nature of motion as follows:
i). Planar
A manipulator is called a planar manipulator if its mechanism is a planar mechanism. Planar
manipulators are useful for manipulating an object on a plane.

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ii). Spherical
A rigid body is said to be under a spherical motion if all particles in the body describe curves that
lie on concentric spheres. A mechanism is said to be a spherical mechanism if all the moving
links perform spherical motion about a common stationary point. A manipulator is called a
spherical manipulator if it is made up of a spherical mechanism.
iii). Spatial Manipulator
A rigid body is said to perform a spatial motion if its motion cannot be characterized as planar or
spherical motion. A manipulator is called a spatial manipulator if at least one of the moving links
in the mechanism possesses a general spatial motion. Planar and spherical mechanisms can be
considered as special cases of spatial mechanisms.

Laws of Robotics
Asimov proposed the three "Laws of Robotics" and later added a 'Zeroth law' as given below:
Law Zero:
A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity tocome to harm.
Law One:
A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a humanbeing to come
to harm, unless this would violate a higher order law.
Law Two:
A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orderswould
conflict with a higher order law.
Law Three:
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does notconflict with a
higher order law.

Robot Anatomy
Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are capable of various
armmanipulations and they possess different motion systems.Four basic configurations are
identified with available industrialrobots:

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1. Cartesian configuration
A robot which is constructed around this configuration consistsof three orthogonal slides, as
three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z axesof the Cartesian coordinate system. By appropriate
movements of these slides, the robot iscapable of moving its arm at any point within its three
dimensional rectangular spaced workspace.
2. Cylindrical configuration
The robot body is a vertical column thatswivels about a vertical axis. The arm consists of several
orthogonal slides which allow thearm to be moved up or down and in and out with respect to the
body.
3. Polar configuration
This configuration also goes by the name “spherical coordinate”because the workspace within
which it can move its arm is a partial sphere. The robot has a rotary base and a pivot that can be
used to raise and lower atelescoping arm.
4. Jointed-arm configuration
It is combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations.This is similar in appearance to the
human arm,the arm consists of severalstraight members connected by joints which are analogous
to the human shoulder, elbow, andwrist. The robot arm is mounted to a base which can be rotated
to provide the robot with thecapacity to work within a quasi-spherical space.

Basic Robot Motions

Whatever the configuration, the purpose of the robot is to perform a useful task. Toaccomplish
the task, an end effector, or hand, is attached to the end of the robots arm. It is theend effector
which adapts the general purpose robot to a particular task. To do the task, therobot arm must be
capable of moving the end effectors through a sequence of motions andpositions.There are six
basic motions or degrees of freedom, which provide the robot with thecapability to move the end
effectors through the required sequences of motions. These sixdegree of freedom are intended to
emulate the versatility of movement possessed by thehuman arm. Not all robots are equipped
with the ability to move in all six degrees. The sixbasic motions consist of three arm and body
motions and three wrist motions.

Arm and body motions

1.Vertical traverse:
-Up and down motion of the arm, caused by pivoting the entire armabout a horizontal
axis or moving the arm along a vertical slide.
2. Radial traverse:
-extension and retraction of the arm (in and out movement)
3.Rotational traverse:
-rotation about the vertical axis (right or left swivel of robot of the arm)
4. Wrist Motion
• Wrist swivel: Rotation of the wrist

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• Wrist bend: Up or down movement of the wrist, this also involves rotationmovement.
• Wrist yaw: Right or left swivel of the wrist.

Motion systems
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot: is capable of moving from one point to anotherpoint.
The locations are recorded in the control memory. PTP robots do not controlthe path to get from
one point to the next point. Common applications includecomponent insertion, spot welding,
hole drilling, machine loading and unloading, andcrude assembly operations.
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot: with CP control, the robot can stop at anyspecified
point along the controlled path. All the points along the path must be storedexplicitly in the
robot’s control memory. Typical applications include spray painting,finishing, gluing, and arc
welding operations.
3. Controlled-path robot: the control equipment can generate paths of differentgeometry such
as straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree ofaccuracy. All controlled-
path robots have a servo capability to correct their path.

Technical Features of an Industrial Robot

The features of an industrial robot determine its efficiency and effectiveness atperforming a
given task. The following are some of the most important among these technicalfeatures.
1. Degree of Freedom (D.O.F)
Each joint on the robot introduces a degree of freedom. Eachof can be a slider, rotary, or other
type of actuator. Robots have 5 or 6 degrees offreedom: 3 of the degrees of freedom allow
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positioning in 3D space, while the other 2or 3 areused for orientation of the end effector. 6
degrees of freedom are enough to allow the robot toreach all positions and orientations in 3D
space. 5 D.O.F requires a restriction to 2D space, orelse it limits orientations. 5 D.O.F robots are
used for handling tools such as arcwelders.
2. Work Volume/Workspace
The robot tends to have a fixed and limited geometry. Thework envelope is the boundary of
positions in space that the robot can reach. For a Cartesianrobot (like an overhead crane) the
workspace might be a square, for more sophisticated robotsthe workspace might be a shape that
looks like a ‘clump of intersecting bubbles’.
3. Precision Movement
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration in
most applications. A portion of a linear positioning system axis, with showing control resolution,
accuracy and repeatability is required. In robotics, precision of movement is a complex issue,
and we willdescribe it as consisting of three attributes:
i). Control resolution
ii). Accuracy
iii). Repeatability
i. Control Resolution
This is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedbacksensors, or caused by the
actuators, whichever is larger. If a rotary joint has an encoder thatmeasures every 0.01 degree of
rotation and a direct drive servo motor is used to drive thejoint, with a resolution of 0.5 degrees,
then the control resolution is about 0.5 degrees (theworst case can be 0.5+0.01).
ii. Accuracy
This is determined by the resolution of the workspace. If the robot is commandedto travel to a
point in space, it will be off by some amount, the maximum distanceshould be considered the
accuracy.
iii. Repeatability
The robot mechanism will have some natural variance in it. This means thatwhen the robot is
repeatedly instructed to return to the same point, it will not always stop atthe same position.

5. Speed
Refers either to the maximum velocity that is achievable by the TCP, or by individualjoints. This
number is not accurate in most robots, and will vary over the workspace as thegeometry of the
robot changes.
6. Weight Carrying Capacity (Payload)
The payload indicates the maximum mass the robotcan lift before either failure of the robots, or
dramatic loss of accuracy. It is possible toexceed the maximum payload, and still have the robot
operate, but this is not advised. Whenthe robot is accelerating fast, the payload should be less
than the maximum mass. This isaffected by the ability to firmly grip the part, the robot structure
and the actuators.The end of arm tooling should be considered part of the payload.

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Key features of Robots

i. Quality-offer a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of
something or service rendered. They offer high quality services.
ii. Serviceability- The quality of being able to provide good service.
iii. Safety- The state of being certain that adverse effects will not be caused by some
agent under defined conditions. It a device designed to prevent injury or accidents.
iv. Modularity- Constructed with standardized units or dimensions for flexibility and
variety in use.
v. Dexterity- Skillful performance or ability without difficulty and without using hands.

Robot Drive Systems

There are three basic drive system used in available robots:
1. Hydraulic drive:
They give a robot great speed and strength. These systems can be designed to actuate
linear or rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is that it occupies
floor space in addition to that required by the robot.
2. Electric drive:
An electric system provides a robot with less speed and strength and that is why electric
drive systems are adopted for smaller robots and thus robots supported by electric drive
systems are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability, and are cleaner to use.
3. Pneumatic drive:
They are generally used for smaller robots. These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom,
carry out simple pick-and-place material handling operations.

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CHAPTER 6
PROGRAMMING A ROBOT
There are various methods which robots can be programmed to perform a given work cycle and
theyof four categories as follows;
1. Manual method
2. Walkthrough method
3. Lead through method
4. Off-line programming method
1. Manual method
This method is not really programming in its sense but more like setting up a machine rather than
programming. It is the procedure used for the simpler robots and involves setting mechanical
stops, cams, switches or relays in the robots control unit. For these low technology robots used
for short work cycles (e.g., pick and place operations), the manual programming method is
adequate.

2. Walkthrough method
In this method the programmer manually moves the robots arm and hand through the motion
sequence of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory for subsequent playback
during production. The speed with which the movements are performed can be controlled
independently so that the programmer does not have to worry about the cycle time during the
walk through. The main concern is getting the position sequence correct. The walk through
method would be appropriate for spray painting and arc welding.

3. Lead-through method
The lead-through method makes use of a teach pendant to power drive the robot through its
motion sequence. The teach pendant is a small hand held device with switches and dials to
control the robots physical movements. Each motion is recorded into memory for future
playback during work cycle. The lead through method is very popular among robot programming
methods because of its ease and convenience.
Advantages of this programming include:
_ It is easy and no special programming skills or training
Disadvantages of this programming include:
_ it is not practical for large or heavy robots
_ High accuracy and straight-line movements are difficult to achieve
_ it is difficult to edit out unwanted operator moves
_ it is difficult to incorporate external sensor data
_ it is difficult to synchronization with other machines or equipment in the work cell
_ A large amount of memory is required

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4.Off- line programming method

This method involves the preparation of the robot program off-line. Off-line robot programming
is accomplished on a computer terminal. After the program has been prepared, it is entered in to
the robot memory for use during the work cycle. The advantaged of off-line robot programming
is that the productiontime of the robot is not lost to delay in teaching the robot a new task.
Programming off-linecan be done while the robot is still in production on the preceding job. This
means higher utilization of the robot and the equipment with which it operates. Another benefit
associated with off-line programming is the prospect of integrating the robot into the factory
CAD/CAM data base and information system.

Robot Programming Languages

Non-computer controlled robots do not require programming language. They are programmed by
the walkthrough or lead through methods while the simpler robots are programmed by manual
methods. With the introduction of computer control for robots, came the opportunity and the
need to develop a computer oriented robot programming language that include;
1. The VALTM Language
• The VAL language was developed for PUMA robot
• VAL stands for Victors Assembly Language
• It is an off-line language in which program defining the motion sequence.
• VAL statements are divided into two categories;
a) Monitoring command
b) Programming instructions.
• Monitor command are set of administrative instructions that direct the operation of the
robot system.
• Examples for monitor commands are: EDIT, EXECUTE, SPEED, HERE etc.
• Program instructions are a set of statements used to write robot programs. One
statement usually corresponds to one movement of the robots arm or wrist.

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• Example for program instructions are :- Move to point, Move to a point in a straight line
motion, open gripper, close gripper. (MOVE, MOVES, APPRO, APPROS, DEPART,
OPENI, CLOSEI, AND EXIT).

2. The MCL Language

• MCL stands for Machine Control Language developed by Douglas.
• The language is based on the APT and NC language.
• MCL is enhancement of APT which possesses additional options and features needed to
do off-line programming of robotic work cell.
• Provides the supplementary capabilities intended to be covered by the MCL. These
capability include Vision, Inspection and Control of signals
• MCL permits the user to define MACROS like statement that would be convenient to
use for specialized applications.
• MCL program is needed to compile to produce CLFILE.
• Some commands of MCL programming languages are DEVICE, SEND, RECEIV,
WORKPT, ABORT, TASK, REGION, LOCATE etc.

Textual Statements
Language statements include basic motion statement lke:
MOVE P1
Commands the robot to move from its current position to a position and orientation defined by
the variable name P1.The point p1 must be defined. The most convenient method way to define
P1 is to use either powered lead through or manual leads through to place the robot at the desired
point and record that point into the memory.
HERE P1 OR LEARN P1
These are used in the lead through procedure to indicate the variable name for the point. What is
recorded into the robot’s control memory is the set of joint positions or coordinates used by the
controller to define the point. For example, (236,157,63,0,0,0). The first values give joint
positions of the body and arm and the last three values (0,0,0) define the wrist joint positions.
MOVES P1
It denotes movement that is to be made using straight line interpolation. The suffix‘s’ designates
a straight line motion.
DMOVE (4,125)
Suppose the robot is presently at a point defined by joint coordinates (236,157,63,0,0,0) and it
is desired to move joint 4from 0 to 125. DMOVE represents a delta move. Approach and depart
statements are useful in material handling operations.

APPROACH P1, 40 MM; MOVE P1

Command to actuate the gripper.

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DEPART 40 MM
The destination is point p1 but the approach command moves the gripper to a safe
distance(40mm) above the point. Move statement permits the gripper to be moved directly to the
part for grasping. A path in a robot program is a series of points connected together in a single
move. A move statement is used to drive the robot through the path. A path is given a variable
name;
DEFINE PATH123=PATH (P1,P2,P3)
MOVE PATH123

SPEED 75 the manipulator should operate at 75% of the initially commanded velocity where the
initial speed is given in a command that precedes the execution of the robot program. For
example,
SPEED 0.5 MPS
EXECUTE PROGRAM1
This indicates that the program named PROGRAM1 is to be executed by the robot at a speed of
0.5m/sec.

Interlock and Sensor Statements

The two basic interlock commands used for industrial robots are WAIT and SIGNAL. The
wait command is used to implement an input interlock. For example,
WAIT 20,ON
This would cause program execution to stop at this statement until the input signal coming into
the robot controller at port 20 was in “ON” condition. This might be used in a situation where the
robot needed to wait for the completion of an automatic machine cycle in a loading and
unloading application. The SIGNAL statement is used to implement an output interlock. This is
used to communicate to some external piece of equipment. For example,
SIGNAL 20, ON
The above interlock commands represent situations where the execution of the statement
appears. There are other situations where it is desirable for an external device to be continuously
monitored for any change that might occur in the device. For example, in safety monitoring
where a sensor is setup to detect the presence of humans who might wander into the robot’s work
volume, the sensor reacts to the presence of humans by signaling the robot controller.

REACT 25, SAFESTOP

This command would be written to continuously monitor input port 25 for any changes in the
incoming signal. If and when a change in the signal occurs, regular program execution
isinterrupted and the control is transferred to a subroutine called SAFESTOP. This subroutine
would stop the robot from further motion and/or cause some other safety action to be taken.

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Commands for controlling the end-effectors .Although end effectors are attached to the wrist of
the manipulator, they are very much like external devices. A Special command is written for
controlling the end effector. Basic commands are;
OPEN (fully open)
and
CLOSE (fully close)
For grippers with force sensors that can be regulated through the robot controller, a command
such as ,
CLOSE 2.0 N
This controls the closing of the gripper until a 20.N force is encountered by the grippers. A
similar command would be used to close the gripper to a given opening width is,
CLOSE 25 MM
A special set of statements is often required to control the operation of tool type end
effectors.(such as spot welding guns, arc welding tools, spray painting guns and powered
spindles).

End Effectors
An End effector can be defined as a device which is attached to the robot’s wrist to perform a
specific task. The task might be work part handling, spot welding, spray painting, or any of a
great variety of other functions. The possibilities are limited only by the imagination and
ingenuity of the application engineers who design robot systems. The end effectors are the
special purpose tooling which enables the robot to perform a particular job. For purpose
organization, we will divide the various types of end effectors into two categories: grippers and
tools.
1. Grippers:
- These are used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a desired location. Grippers can
be classified as;
 Mechanical grippers
 Vacuum or suction cups
 Magnetic grippers
 Adhesive grippers
 Hooks, Scoops, and so forth.
2. Tools:
- A robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a work part. Here the
tool acts as end-effectors. Spot-welding tools, arc-welding tools, spray painting nozzles,
and rotating spindles for drilling and grinding are typical examples of tools used as end-
effectors.

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Work Cell Control and Interlocks

1. Work cell control

Industrial robots work with other things: processing equipment, work parts, conveyors, tools and
perhaps human operators. A means must be provided for coordinating all of the activities which
are going on within the robot workstations. Some of the activities occur sequentially, while
others take place simultaneously to make certain that the various activities are coordinated and
occur in the proper sequence, a device called the work cell controller is used. The work cell
controller resides within the robots and has overall responsibility for regulating the activities of
the work cell components. Functions of work cell controller include the following;
1. Controlling the sequence of activities in the work cycles
2. Controlling simultaneous activities
3. Making decisions to proceed based on incoming signals
4. Making logical decisions
5. Performing computations
6. Dealing with exceptional events
7. Performing irregular cycles, such as periodically changing tools

2. Interlocks
An interlock is the feature of work cell control which prevents the work cycle sequence from
continuing until a certain conditions or set of conditions has been satisfied. In a robotic work
cell, they are two types: outgoing and incoming. The outer going interlock is a signal sent from
the workstation controller to some external machine or device that will cause it to operate or not
to operate for example this would be used to prevent a machine from initiating its process until it
was commanded to process by the work cell controller, an incoming interlock is a single from
some external machine or device to the work controller which determines whether or not the
programmed work cycle sequence will proceed.

Robotic Sensors
The robot must take on more human like senses and capabilities in order to perform the task in a
satisfactory way. These senses and capability includes vision and hand eye coordination, touch,
and hearing. The types of sensors used in robotics are grouped into three categories;
1. Vision sensors

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2. Tactile and proximity sensors

3. Voice sensors
1. Vision sensors
Robot vision is made possible by means of video camera a sufficient light source and a computer
programmed to process image data. The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed
position above the robot so that its field of vision includes the robots work volume. The
computer software enables the vision system to sense the presence of an object and its position
and orientation. Vision capability would enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of
operations.
- Retrieve parts which are randomly oriented on a conveyor.
- Recognize particular parts which are intermixed with other objects.
- Perform assembly operations which require alignment.

2. Tactile and proximity sensor

Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces between itself
and other objects within its work volume. Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
a). Touch sensors
Touch sensors are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object. A
simple micro switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor.
b). Stress sensors
Stress sensors are used to measure the magnitude of the contact force. Strain gauge devices are
typically employed in force measuring sensors.

3. Proximity sensors
Proximity sensors are used to sense when one object is close to another object. On a robot, the
proximity sensors would be located n or near the end effectors. This sensing capability can be
engineered by means of optical proximity devices, eddy-current proximity detectors, magnetic
field sensors, or other devices. In robotics, proximity sensors might be used to indicate the
presence or absence of a work part or other object.

4. Voice sensors
Voice programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the robot or other
machine. The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition system which analyzes the
voice input and compares it with a set of stored word patterns. When a match is found between
the input and the stored vocabulary word the robot performs some actions which correspond to
the word. Voice sensors could be useful in robot programming to speed up the programming
procedure.

Robot Applications
There is a need to replace human labour by robots in:
• Work environment hazardous for human beings

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• Repetitive tasks, Boring and unpleasant tasks

• Multi shift operations, Infrequent changeovers
• Performing at a steady pace
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Responding in automated operations
• Minimizing variation

Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:

a). Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to another.
• It includes part placement, palletizing and/or depalletizing, machine loading and
unloading. This category includes the following:
1. Part Placement
2. Palletizing and/or depalletizing
3. Machine loading and/or unloading
4. Stacking and insertion operations
1. Part Placement:
• The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place operation.
• This application needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate type.
• Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.
2. Palletizing and/or Depalletizing:
• The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to palletize
them, or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is depalletize them.
• Example: process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a pallet or
vice versa.
3. Machine loading and/or unloading:
• Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
• There are three possible cases example: bin picking, die casting and plastic molding:
_ Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means.
Example: a press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press,
but the finished parts drop out of the press by gravity.
_ Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without robot
assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.
_ Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the work
parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process ad unloads a finished
part. Example: Machine operation difficulties
• Difference in cycle time between the robot and the production machine. The cycle time of
the machine may be relatively long compared to the robot’s cycle time.

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4. Stacking and insertion operation:

• In the stacking process the robot places flat parts on top of each other, where the
vertical location of the drop-off position is continuously changing with cycle time.
• In the insertion process robot inserts parts into the compartments of a divided carton.
The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:
- The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.
- The robot must have the reach needed.
- The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
- The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory to store all the programmed
points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
- The robot must have the speed for meeting the transfer cycle of the operation.
b). Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the end effectors.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray painting, machining,
metal cutting, debarring, polishing.
• Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
• The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector.
• Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.
• Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
_ Spot welding and Continuous arc welding
_ Spray painting
_ Metal cutting and deburring operations
_ Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and water jet cutting,
and riveting.
_ Rotating and spindle operations
_ Adhesives and sealant dispensing
c). Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other automatic tasks and
operations.
• The applications involve both material-handling and the manipulation of a tool.
• They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
• Are traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry and are highly repetitive and
boring. Hence are logical candidates for robotic applications.
• These are classified as:
_ Batch assembly: As many as one million products might be assembled.
_ The assembly operation has long production runs.
_ Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be
made.
_ The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.

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d). Inspection Operations:

• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform the inspection.
• Some inspection operation requires parts to be manipulated, and other applications
require that an inspection tool be manipulated.
• Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and human judgment is often
needed to determine whether a product is within quality specifications or not.
• The robot may be in active or passive role.
_ In active role robot is responsible for determining the part is good or bad.
_ In the passive role the robot feeds a gauging station with the part.

Advantages of Robots
• Robotics and automation can increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and
consistency of Products
• Robots can work in hazardous environments
• Robots need no environmental comfort
• Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illnesses
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times
• Robots can be more accurate than humans at milli or micro inch accuracy.
• Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
• Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously, humans can only one.
• Robots replace human workers who can create economic problems.

Disadvantages of Robots
• Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:
_ Inappropriate and wrong responses
_ A lack of decision-making power
_ A loss of power
_ Damage to the robot and other devices
_ Human injuries
• Robots may have limited capabilities in;
_ Degrees of Freedom
_ Dexterity
_ Sensors
_ Vision systems
_ Real-time Response
• Robots are costly, due to;
_ Initial cost of equipment and Installation Costs
_ Need for peripheralsand Need for training
_ Need for Programming

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