History of Ecumenical Movement

Topic : Issues and Problems of Unity in the History of the Christian Church

AK Cays

Introduction

Since the apostolic era, Christianity has experienced numerous divisions and disunity, a trend
that persists to this day, resulting in the fragmentation of the faith into various sects and
denominations. Throughout church history, councils and conferences have primarily convened
to address misunderstandings and resolve issues, dating back to the Council of Jerusalem. Over
centuries, the Ecumenical movement has diligently endeavoured to reconcile these divisions,
striving to establish a platform that fosters unity and diversity. This paper will delve into the
historical problems and challenges that have contributed to the disunity and division of the
church.

1. Issues and Problems of Unity

Various issues and problems within the Christian community ultimately resulted in divisions,
prompting the need for ecumenism or ecumenical council. Below are some of the issues that led
to the division within the church right from the beginning of Christianity.

1.1. Division in the New Testament Community

Jesus established one church. His followers were one people characterized by the faith in him, a
fellowship of worship, love and sharing. However, personal misunderstanding appeared to have
crept in within the community that subsequently led to division. For instance, Euodias and
Syntyche at a church in Philippi (Phil. 4:2); supporters of Paul, Cephas and Apollos were divided
on personal grounds (1 Cor. 3:3-4; 6:16); Diotrephes too who claimed higher ecclesiastical
leadership over other members, eventually divided the Church (3 John). However, these
problems did not seem to have much threat to the unity of the Church as a whole.1

The most threatening controversy which had crept in to the very life of the Church was
concerning the admission of the uncircumcised Gentile converts into the Christian Church. This
racial issue that could have ripped the Church apart took place at Antioch. However, St. Paul

1
O. L. Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical Movement. An Introduction (Bangalore: BTESSC/SATHRI,
2004), 18. Hereafter cited as Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical...
1
intervened and by the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) took a successful step averting a perilous
schism in the Church on religio-racial factor.2

Another serious divisive element, which was a threat to the unity of the Church, was the
intrusion of false teachings towards the end of the New Testament period that refuted the divine
incarnation. Johannine Epistles warned the members of the Church against false teachers who
denied both the Father and the Spirit.3

1.2. Gnosticism and Marcionism

During the second century, the Church faced internal crisis arising from the Gnostic teachings
and Marcionism movements which seriously threatened the unity and integrity of the Christian
Church. These proved to be even more challenging than the persecutions it encountered in the
subsequent centuries.4

Gnosticism was a system of belief based on knowledge that sought to combine together
teachings from different religions. It began in the later New Testament times but became
influential in the second century. The Gnostics believed that the material world is evil and
rejected the idea of Christ’s incarnation. His appearance was as docetic and ghostly or as
temporary indwelling of the man Jesus or even an apparent birth from Mary, the virgin mother
without partaking of material nature. O.L. Sanitang opined that the Gnostics also regarded the
Old Testament God as inferior who committed a great mistake when he came to make human
beings. Such teachings run contrary to the faith of the Church.5

Marconism was part of the Gnostic belief system, named after a person named Marcion from the
second century. He taught that Jesus is sent by the good, not as the Messiah, but to undo the
works of the Old Testament Demiurge6. Marcion believed that Christ’s existence was more of a
spiritual appearance without a real birth or death, a concept known as docetism. To understand
the spiritual side of Christ, Marcion emphasizes strict asceticism, including rejection of marriage
and freeing the body from worldly desires.7 Marcion’s challenges presented a significant obstacle
to the Church, which had not yet officially canonized the New Testament. In response, Church
Fathers convened to determine the final list of books to be the canonized for the New Testament.

2
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical ..., 18.
3
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical ..., 18.
4
Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr., A Source Book for Ancient Church History. From the Apostolic Age to the Close
of the Conciliar Period (Michigan: AMS Press, 1970), 75.
5
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical ..., 19.
6
In the Platonic school of philosophy, the Demiurge is a deity who fashions the physical world in the light
of eternal ideas, 13th July 2024, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demiurge.
7
J.W.C. Wand, A History of the Early Church to A.D. 500 (London: Megtuen & Co., 1937), 51.
2
Despite the threat of division, Marcionism ultimately spurred the Church Fathers to unite
unanimously establish the canon.8

1.3. Christological Controversies

The Christological heresies grew out of attempts to define between the divined and the human in
Jesus. For centuries the Church was shaken and shattered by bitter controversies with Arianism,
Eutychians, Nestorians, etc. Each of these parties was put under the ban by the Catholic councils
which raised Creed of Nicea and of Chalcedon as standards of infallible orthodoxy. The heresies,
like the Nestorian and others, have been perpetuated in the East as separate churches to the
present time.9 According to Committee on the War and the Religious Outlook, Christian Unity:
Its Principles and Possibilities, the primary cause of heresy during the Catholic period was the
doctrine of the person of Christ and the nature of the Godhead, vitally related to the conception
of Salvation. Arianism sprang up in the Orient from Greek soil. It was converted by Athanasius
and condemned by the Council of Nicea. It ended in a schism which ran its course in the sixth
century.10

1.3.1. Arianism and the Council of Nicaea, 325

In the fourth century, a big split happened in the church over how God the Father and his Son,
the Word of God were related. This debate on the trinity began in 318 because of Arius, a priest
in Egypt. Arius taught that the Son was created, of a different substance from the Father and
subordinate alike.11 They denied Jesus being God but focus on his human nature. This belief
caused a long-lasting division in the church. To counter this heretical teaching, Emperor
Constantine convened the first Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325 and condemned Arianism. 12

1.3.2. Nestorianism and the Council of Ephesus, 431

Nestorius, from the Antiochean School, became Patriarch of Constantinople in 428. The
Alexandrians, led by Bishop Cyril, suspected him of heresy, claiming he taught that Christ had
two natures and two persons – divine and human – disrupting the unity of Jesus. This view made

8
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 20.
9
Committee on the War and the Religious Outlook, Christian Unity. Its Principles and Possibilities (New
York: Association Press, 1921), 212. Hereafter cited as Religious Outlook, Christian Unity...
10
Religious Outlook, Christian Unity..., 212.
11
William G. Rusch, Ecumenism. A Movement Toward Church Unity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985),
19. Hereafter cited as Rusch, Ecumenism...
12
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 21.
3
Mary the ‘Mother of Jesus’, not ‘Mother of God’ (Theotokos). The Council of Ephesus in 431
condemned Nestorius, leading to the separation of the West-Syrian Church or Persian church,
which sheltered the Nestorian party. These became the first major division in the East, officially
known as the Assyrian Churches of the East.13

1.3.3. Eutychianism and the Council of Chalcedon, 451

Eutychianism was another heretical teaching at which the Church could not sit idle. Its
proponent, Eutyches, was convinced that after the incarnation, Christ’s two natures were
completely fused together into one divine nature alone. He denied Christ’s manhood and
emphasized just the divine aspect. The Council of Chalcedon, 451 took serious note of
Eutychianism and condemned it outright. The Council stated that Christ was truly God and truly
human, having two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without
separation.14

1.4. Macedonianism and the Council of Constantinople, 381

Macedonius, the Bishop of Constantinople (341-360), asserted that the Holy Spirit was not
eternal but a created being, placing the status of the Holy Spirit on par with the angels.
Essentially, he believed the Holy Spirit was subordinate to the father and the Son in the Trinity.
In response, the Church, led by Basil the Great, affirmed the traditional teaching that the Holy
Spirit is the third person of the triune God, equal and eternal with the Father and the Son. The
Council of Constantinople in 381 officially condemned Macedonianism.15

1.5. Schools of Alexandria and Antioch

The 5th century saw significant Church controversies in the East concerning the Trinity and
Christology. Affirming Christ’s divinity was seen as challenging the monotheism of Judaism.
The Christian response was Trinitarian doctrine, stating One God in Three Persons – Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit – where Jesus Christ is the Son, the Second Person. These debates were centered
in the rival schools of Alexandria and Antioch, with distinct cultural backgrounds; Alexandrians
emphasized Christ’s divinity, while Antiocheans focus on his humanity.16

1.6. Iconoclastic Controversy

13
Kuncheria Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement (Delhi: ISPCK, 2017), 7. Hereafter cited as
Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement...
14
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 22.
15
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 21.
16
Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement..., 7.
4
In the Greek or Byzantine part of the Catholic Church after the seventh century, a big argument
broke out with regard to the use of images in Christian worship. This dispute began in 726 and
lasted for over a hundred years until 843. Christians had protested using images, called icons, in
the churches, homes, and chapels. Some against such used, thinking icons were too pagan. 17
Emperor Leo III, not long after becoming emperor, made a rule against icons in 726, leading to
the destruction of the cherished image of Christ which led to riot and persecution. 18 Iconoclasm
continued in the later period leading to disunity and division among the Church.

1.7. The Great Schism (1054) – Eastern and Western

The significant and tragic split between Eastern and Western Christianity occurred in1054,
driven more by political factors than doctrinal differences. 19 The division had its roots in the third
century when Emperor Diocletian decided to split the vast Roman Empire into ‘the Western
Roman Empire’ and ‘the Eastern Roman Empire’ due to governance challenges. Language
played a role in the separation, as Latin was predominant in the West, while Greek dominated in
the East. The churches in these divided regions began to drift apart, each under the authority of
one of five patriarchs in Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. Although
the Poe in Rome held the honour of “first among equals”, he did not wield authority over the
other patriarchs.20

The rift between the East and the West increased and reached its climax in 1054 when an
encounter of high intensity broke out between the envoys of Pope Leo X and Patriarch Michael
Cerularius. Cardinal Humbert, Pope’s legate, excommunicated the Patriarch. In retaliation,
Patriarch Michael Cerularius excommunicated the Pope’s legates. These regrettable events
solidified the division between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Roman Catholic Churches. 21

1.8. Protestant Reformation in the 16th Century

The sixteenth century Reformation unleashed another kind of Christian movement that became
decisive for subsequent developments not only in Europe but across the world. There was a big
split in the Church. Western Catholicism went through changes because of the Protestant
Reformation led by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli, and others. These reformers
questioned some beliefs and practices of the medieval Church, like the concept of indulgences,
practices of sacraments, and the strong control of Popes and Bishops. The reform movements

17
Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity. Beginning to A.D. 1500, vol. I (New York: Harper &
Row Publishers, 1975), 292. Hereafter cited as Latourette, A History of Christianity...
18
Latourette, A History of Christianity..., 293.
19
Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement..., 8.
20
Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement..., 9.
21
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 23.
5
focused on religious freedom, personal connection with God, God’s absolute power, the
importance of Bible, and more democratic ways of leading the Church. 22 With differences in
views, the Church of England separated from Rome in 1533. Congregational churches emerged
and thus the Reformation transformed the Western Christianity, Europe, and gave rise to modern
denominations.23

The Reformation freed the individual and the group from the age-long denomination of Roman
Catholicism. The newly acquired right of private judgement and the exclusive authority of the
Scriptures in faith and practice lent themselves to interpretations of the Gospel differing so
widely that numerous divisions were inevitable. 24 The rise of radical reformation with its
insistence on baptism of adult members alone and affirmation on the authority of spiritual
inspiration had further multiplied Christian fragmentation. 25

1.8.1. Disunity among various Protestant Groups

The original Reformers, Luther and Zwingli, agreed in their protests against Rome, but they
differed in their affirmations on the teachings of the New Testament. The result was a division of
Protestantism into two branches – the Lutheran and the Reformed. Men of radical views
followed in the wake of the conservative reformers and insisted on a reformation of the
Reformation, a more thorough-going reconstruction of the Church than either Luther or Zwingli
desired. Thus there were three types of reform – the Lutheran, the Reformed, and the Radicals,
including the Anabaptists, the Socinians, and the Mystics. 26

1.9. Eucharistic Debates

Theological differences compounded the unity of the Protestant reformation. For instance,
Luther and Zwingli did not agree on the understanding and interpretation of the Lord’s Supper.
The Wittenberg Concord of 1536 taught that the “Body and Blood of Christ are truly and
substantially present, offered, and received with the bread and wine.” This definition set aside
the concept of “transubstantiation” but affirmed its “sacramental union.” Zwingli vehemently
rejected Wittenberg Concord definition of the Lord’s Supper. Even the famous Marburg
Colloquy – a conference arranged by Philip of Hesse between Luther’s party and Zwingli’s
group, could not arrive on an agreement on the interpretation of the Lord’s Supper despite their
approval on Major theological themes.27
22
Panthil, Future of the Ecumenical Movement..., 9-10.
23
Rusch, Ecumenism..., 22.
24
Committee on the War and the Religious Outlook, Christian Unity. Its Principles and Possibilities (New
York: Association Press, 1921), 217..
25
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 27.
26
Religious Outlook, Christian Unity..., 217.
27
Snaitang, A History of Ecumenical..., 26.
6
1.10. Non-theological factors of division28

The non-theological factors that lead to the division of a church mentioned in the book, The
Ecumenical Movement. An Anthology of Key Texts and Voices by Michael Kinnamon and Brian
E. Cope are discussed below.

1.10.1. Development of churches in isolation

Churches or groups of churches have existed over long periods separated by geographical,
cultural or other factors. Thus they have developed differences in doctrine, church order and
Christian discipline. At a certain point this divergence may have turned into a breach of
communion.

1.10.2. Compulsion or Persecution

The compulsion or persecution by a partnership of church and state to achieve a Christian

1.10.3. Discrimination

Certain groups find themselves subject to disabilities within a church on social, economic,
political or racial grounds; they have actually been excluded from a church for the same reasons.
As a result, they have formed separate churches.

1.10.4. Secession or Ejection

Sometimes ‘reformers,’ revivalists, ‘enthusiasts,’ etc., have become separated from the churches
unwilling to allow the expression of their message within the church

1.10.5. National antagonisms

National antagonisms or wars have divided churches of the same confession into separated
churches. National feeling and differences of language have had the same effect. There is also
the danger that churches be compelled by their governments to give up connections with other
churches for fear that they might come under the influence of opposing political powers.

1.10.6. Ambitions

The ambitions or rivalries of prominent persons in church or state have caused divisions.

28
Michael Kinnamon and Brian E.Cope, eds., The Ecumenical Movement. An Anthology of Key Texts and
Voices (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 214.
7
Conclusion

The history of the Christian Church has been marked by numerous issues and problems that have
threatened unity and ultimately led to divisions, schisms, and conflicts. From the early stage, the
church has grappled with theological, ecclesiological, and political differences that have strained
the relationships and fragmented the body of Christ. The efforts through ecumenism and
dialogue, unity remains an elusive goal, hindered by deep-seated historical, cultural, and
doctrinal differences. The Church’s struggles with authority, power, and interpretation of
scripture have contributed to ongoing divisions, making unity a seemingly intractable problem.

However, amidst the challenges, there have been moments of convergence, cooperation, and
reconciliation, demonstrating that unity is not an impossible dream. The Church’s goals for
common faith and commitment to the Gospel have provided a foundation for unity, even in the
face of significant differences. Hence, acknowledging the complexities of history and engaging
in honest and respectful conversation, the Church can work towards a greater unity that honours
its diversity and enriches its witness to the world.

8
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the Close of the Conciliar Period. Michigan: AMS Press, 1970.
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Possibilities. New York: Association Press, 1921.
Kinnamon, Michael & Brian E. Cope, eds. The Ecumenical Movement. An Anthology of Key
Texts and Voices. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Beginning to A.D. 1500. Vol. I. New York:
Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
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