Plate Tectonics

1. Plate Boundaries
● Types of plate boundaries
● Divergent (move away from each other)
● Convergent (move towards each other)
● Transform (slide past each other)

Why do Tectonic Plates move?

1. Convection currents are movements of heat within the mantle. Material in the mantle is
hated by the core, causing the mantle material to expand, rise and spread out beneath the
plates.
2. This causes plates to be dragged along and to move away from each other
3. Then, the hot mantle material cools slightly and sinks, pulling the plates along
4. The sinking mantle materials hearts up again as it nears the core and the whole process
repeats
5. Slab-pull force occurs when a denser oceanic plate is forced beneath a less dense
continental plate or oceanic plate in a process called subduction.
6. As the plate subducts, it pulls the rest of the plate along. The subducting or sinking plate
drives the downward-moving portion of convection currents.
7. The mantle material which is found away from where the plates subduct drives the rising
portion of convection currents.

● Processes & landforms

Name Processes

Divergent: At diverging plate boundaries of oceanic-oceanic plates, magma rises

Oceanic-Oceanic from the mantle to fill the gap between the plates as they move apart.
New seafloor is formed when the magma cools and solidifies-- this
process is known as seafloor spreading. When the two oceanic plates
diverge, a mid-oceanic ridge is formed. At various points along the
mid-oceanic ridge, magma builds up above sea level to form volcanoes.

● E.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge (North American Plate and the Eurasian

Plate moved away from each other)
Divergent: Diverging plates can cause continents to break up. When plates diverge
Continental-Continental or move apart, they are stretched, causing fractures to form at the plate
boundary. The land in between the two continental crusts sinks, forming
a linear depression known as a rift valley.

● E.g. East African Rift Valley (Nubian Boundary of the African

Plate moving away from the Somalian boundary of the African
Plate)

Convergent: When two oceanic plates converge, the denser plate subducts under the
Oceanic-Oceanic other less dense plate; this occurs at the subduction zone. At the
subduction zone, a depression in the sea floor called an oceanic trench is
created. At the same time, the sinking crust of the denser plate melts,
forming magma. The magma rises through the crust to form volcanoes.
Earthquakes may also occur at the boundary between the two plates due
to the friction created between the moving rock masses when a plate
subducts under another.

● E.g. Mariana Trench and the Mariana Islands (Pacific Plate

converging with the slower-moving Philippine Plate)

Convergent: Two continental plates may collide and push against one another,
Continental-Continental resisting subduction. This causes the plates to break and slide along
fractures in the crust. Layers of rocks on the upper part of the crust are
then compressed together, and they fold upwards or sideways, creating
fold mountains.

● E.g. Himalayas (Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate)

Convergent: When an oceanic plate converges with a continental plate, the denser
Oceanic-Continental oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate. An
oceanic trench is then formed at the subduction zone while fold
mountains are formed on the continental plate. Active volcanoes are also
formed on the continental plate when magma below the crust rises to
the surface. Earthquakes may occur on the continental plate.

● E.g. Sunda Trench (Australian Plate subducts under a section of

the Eurasian Plate)
 Transform Plates slide past each other along transform plate boundaries. This
movement results in the formation of a transform fault. In the process,
tremendous stress builds up and is eventually released, often in the form
of violent earthquakes.

● E.g. San Andreas Fault (Pacific Plate and the North American
Plate)

Oceanic trench​: Oceanic trench is a long, narrow depression in the ocean floor.
Island arc​: A curved chain of volcanic islands located at a tectonic plate margin.
Undersea Volcano​: Magma rises to the ocean floor as lava then solidifies upon reaching the
water to form rock.
Volcanic Islands (Hotspot Volcano)​: Located in the middle of a plate boundary.

Formation of Volcanoes

1. Magma r​ ises​ ​as it is less dense and accumulates in the magma chamber.

2. Amount of ​pressure​ in the chamber b

​ uilds up​, leading to a volcanic eruption.

3. When a stratovolcano erupts, ​pyroclasts are released​.​ Force of eruption depends on the

amount of pressure built up within the volcano.

4. New eruption o
​ f lava covers the pyroclasts and builds up the volcano

5. Lava builds up around the vent​, solidifying to form a small volcanic cone. Bowl-shaped

opening is called c
​ rater​.

6. Vent may become blocked ​and forces magma to find new exit route. ​Secondary cone​ of

newer volcanic material will develop.

7. Summit of volcano may be blown off​ d

​ uring an explosive eruption. Sides of crater may

collapse inwards due to the loss of structural support forming a l​ arge depression​ known

as ​caldera​.
● Diagrams of formations of processes & landforms
2. Volcanoes

● Formation/ Types of Volcanoes

Shield Volcano
● E.g. Mauna Loa, Hawaii; Erta Ale, Ethiopia; Mount Washington, Oregon, USA

● Liquid lava emitted from a central vent; large; sometimes has a collapse caldera
● Have gently sloping sides and a broad summit
● Formed when low-silica lava has been ejected - Low Low silica lava flows easily and
spreads out over a large area before solidifying
● Eruptions usually not explosive, since the lava does not trap much gas
● Common near divergent plate boundaries where magma can rise directly from the mantle
● With successive eruptions, the base of the volcano increases in size as lava accumulates

Composite Volcano/ Stratovolcano

● E.g. Mount Baker, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, Mount Hood, Mount Shasta
● More viscous lavas, much explosive debris; large, emitted from a central vent
● Successive eruptions of lava and ash build a high volcano with a slightly concave profile
→ steeper at the top and gentler at the base
● Secondary cones may develop as magma from the vent seeps into the sides of the cone
and erupts
● Pyroclastic flow and lahars may result from volcanic eruptions
● Pyroclastic: hot rock fragments and super heated gases ejected during a volcanic eruption
● Lahars: a mixture of pyroclasts and melted ice from the mountains; wet volcanic debris
flowing down the slopes of an erupting volcano

Cinder Cone Volcano

● E.g Mount Suribachi, Monte Nuovo, Mount Tabor, Mount Talbert
● The simplest type of volcano
 ● Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit Cinder cone volcanoes rarely
grow larger than about 1,000 feet above their surroundings.

Hotspot Volcano
● A volcano formed by a plume, which is an area of hot, upwelling mantle
● Formation: Mantle plumes are areas of hot, upwelling mantle. A hot spot develops above
the plume. Magma generated by the hot spot rises through the rigid plates of the
lithosphere and produces active volcanoes at the Earth's surface. As oceanic volcanoes
move away from the hot spot, they cool and subside, producing older islands, atolls, and
seamounts. As continental volcanoes move away from the hot spot, they cool, subside,
and become extinct

*Caldera -- This type of crater is the aftermath of an eruption of another volcano that is so violent
that the entire lava chamber of the volcano collapses and forms a giant crater in the ground that
can sometimes extend for miles. A caldera can still erupt, and its eruptions can still be quite
violent.

Distribution of Volcanoes
● Pacific Ring of Fire is where most active volcanic activity occurs
● Mainly at convergent and divergent plate boundaries
● Anomaly: few found away from plate boundaries as they are formed above hot spots.
Hot spots result from the upward movement of magma that is heated by a very hot
area lying between the core and mantle
 ● Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions (Social, Economic & Environmental)

Social

Point Volcanic eruptions allow countries to gain experience and knowledge to tackle future
(Positive) crises.

Elaboration During an eruption, when the level of preparedness is good, many lives can be saved
even if the area around the volcano is inhabited by a lot of people. Therefore with the
eruption, people can learn on how to be more prepared in order to save as many lives
and prevent devastating destructions too.

Example For example, Mount Merapi eruption in Indonesia in 2010 has taught the government
and people of evacuation and warning/alert systems.

Linkback When more people are prepared during volcano eruptions, there will be more
survivors.

Point Volcanic eruptions help produce geothermal energy.

(Positive)

Elaboration When groundwater comes into contact with hot rocks beneath the surface, it heats
up and erupts as hot water or steam. The hot water or steam can be harnessed to
drive turbines and produce electricity.

Example Most of Iceland’s electricity is generated from geothermal power because of the
large number of volcanoes in the country. Over 70% of homes in Iceland are heated
by volcanic steam.

Linkback Therefore, with renewable geothermal energy, the country can be self-sufficient in
ensuring that people have access to electricity.

Point Volcanic eruptions lead to the loss of lives.

(Negative)

Elaboration Volcanic eruptions can occur without any warning. People who are living close to the
volcano might be killed by the debris and volcanic matter that is ejected from the
volcano.
Example For example, the 2006 Mount Merapi eruption in Indonesia killed more than 200
people and displaced more than 100,000 residents.

Linkback Therefore, volcanic eruptions cause pyroclasts to be ejected from volcano, which will
lead to loss of lives.

Point Volcanic eruptions can increase employment.

(Positive)

Elaboration Job opportunities for locals will increase. Volcanic rocks can be mined for precious
stones and minerals.

Example Copper, gold and silver mining began in Mt. St. Helens as early as 1892.
Approximately 2000 direct and 4000 indirect jobs were created.

Linkback Thus, volcanic eruptions can provide jobs for the unemployed giving them an income
which enables them to have a higher standard of living.

Point Volcanic eruptions lead to health problems.

(Negative)

Elaboration Ash from volcanic eruptions could trigger respiratory problems, especially in children
and elderly.

Example Inhabitants near Sakurajima volcano experience difficulty in breathing after smoke is
blasted from the volcano after every eruption. The number of people staying near
Sakurajima, is more than 600,000. Therefore, this is a significant issue.

Linkback Therefore, people’s health would be affected by the eruption of volcanoes which may
eventually lead to death.

Point Volcanic eruptions causes landslides.

(Negative)

Elaboration Landslides occur due to the structural collapse of a volcanic cone during a volcanic
eruption. They can obstruct the flow of rivers causing floods, blocked roads and
buried villages and farmlands.
Example The eruption of Nevedo del Ruiz in the Andes Mountains of South America in 1985
released a pyroclastic flow. The mixing of pyroclastics and glacial ice along its path
triggered lahars which engulfed the town of Armero and killed more than 20,000
people.

Linkback Landslides can cause serious injury or death as well as damage to property.

Economic

Point Volcano eruptions would increase the economic revenue from crops grown on fertile
(Positive) soil.

Elaboration Farmers are able to reap good harvest and thus, have a good income, benefitting the
country economically.

Example For example, ancient volcanic activity has enriched the soils in the Brazilian plateau,
allowing coffee production to thrive. The exports of coffee from Brazil alone in 2011
and 2012 harvest invoiced USD 7,841 billion.

Linkback Therefore, with fertile soil, people living there are able to earn an income through
agriculture.

Point The site of volcano eruptions could be a tourist attraction spot.

(Positive)

Elaboration Volcanic areas offer a variety of activities for tourists to engage in and are rich in
history, encouraging people visit these areas to learn more about them.

Example For example, in 2011, a Mount Nyamulagira eruption which spews 300m of red, hot lava
into the air has encouraged tourism in Virunga National Park in the Democratic
Republic of Congo which brought in $1 million revenue that year.

Linkback Therefore, with tourism, the economy of the country can be improved as tourists help to
bring in revenue.
Point Volcanic rocks can be rich in precious stones and minerals.
(Positive)

Elaboration These resources can only be extracted from volcanic areas after millions of years.
When the upper layers of volcanic rocks are eroded, the precious stones and
minerals can be extracted.

Example For example, old volcanic rocks at Kimberly in South Africa are one of the world’s
richest resources for diamonds.

Linkback Therefore, economic increases when these minerals are made into jewellery and
when countries export the precious stones and minerals to improve the economy.

Point Volcano eruptions cause economic losses when properties and crops are destroyed.
(Negative)

Elaboration Lava and rock fragments or volcanic bombs lead to widespread damage to property.
The lava with high temperatures burns the areas it flows through.

Example For example, in 2006, Mount Merapi eruption in Indonesia killed more than 1000
livestock and losses in the farming sector in Magelang was estimated to be Rp 247
billion.

Linkback Volcanic eruptions can cause serious injury or death as well as damage to property
which lead to economic losses.

Point The ash particles from the volcano eruptions affects the tourism and aviation
(Negative) industries, resulting in economic losses.

Elaboration Ashes and pyroclasts ejected → quality of vision lowered → affects aviation industry
(airplanes cannot fly due to lowered visibility) → tourists will not reach their
destination → less revenue → economic losses
 Example For example, Eyjafjallojokul volcanic eruption in Iceland, 2010 produced extensive
volcanic ash clouds which posed a serious danger to aircraft engines and structures.
The eruption resulted in a closure of airspace over much of Europe affecting 1.2
million passengers daily and costing the industry a total of US$1.8 billion.

Linkback Therefore, volcano eruptions would affect the economy through the tourism and
aviation industries.

Environmental

Point Volcanic eruptions cause the Earth to be cooled temporarily countering the effects of
(Positive) global warming.

Elaboration Sulphur dioxide released from volcanic eruptions react with water vapour in the air to
form sulphur-based particles which reflect the sun’s energy back into space.

Example The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia lowered global temperatures by
1.7°C.

Linkback The fall in temperature can affect human activities like agriculture and also results in
global cooling.

Point Volcanic eruptions destroys natural habitat.

(Negative)

Elaboration Ash particles ejected during a volcanic eruption can affect the environment over large
distances from the volcano. Thick plumes of ash may eventually settle on the ground and
block sunlight, suffocate crops and cause severe respiratory problems for animals.

Example For example, the eruption of Mount PInatubo in 1991 destroyed more than 150km2 of
reforestation projects in Philippines.

Linkback Pollution may result in health issues for people as well as affect human activities and the
environment.
 Point Volcanic eruptions create fertile soil.
(Positive)

Elaboration Lava and ash from volcanic eruptions break down to form fertile land soils. As the richest
soils on the earth, volcanic soils are very favourable to agriculture.

Example For example, the volcanic soils of Java and Bali in Indonesia support the cultivation of
crops such as tea, coffee and rice. Despite continuous use the soils are more fertile than
most non-volcanic areas of Indonesia.

Linkback Therefore, with fertile soil, people living there will be able to cultivate and grow more
crops.

Point Volcanic eruptions release carbon dioxide.

(Negative)

Elaboration Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which traps heat in the atmosphere. This leads to
disastrous environmental impacts such as floods and droughts which could destroy wildlife.

Example For example, it is estimated that an average of 180 to 440 million tonnes of carbon dioxide
is released each year because of volcanoes.

Linkback Thus, due to volcanic eruptions releasing carbon dioxide the environment can be
negatively impacted.

Factors that influence the extent of Earth and/or Tsunami damage

Factor Explanation

Population Density ● More densely built up → More badly devastated

(Human) E.g. In Kobe, Japan, a 7.2 earthquake in 1995 caused greater destruction and killed
6434 people compared to the 8.6 magnitude earthquake in the earth in the same place
in 1964 which killed 26 people due to population increase and density.

Type of Soil ● Soil that is softer would result in greater damage as they succumb easily to the
(Physical) energy of the seismic waves. Sometimes, soil becomes unstable and
‘jelly-like’, known as liquefaction.
E.g. During the 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand, many houses have to
be abandoned due to liquefaction after the earthquake.

Distance from ● Closer to epicentre → more damage

epicentre E.g. In 2011, earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand, the epicentre was in a town
(Physical) few km away from the city centre. Hence, the city centre suffered greater damage than
other areas.

Magnitude of ● The higher the magnitude on the Richter scale, the larger the damage caused.
earthquake Impact of earthquake becomes 10 times greater than the previous one on the
(Physical) Richter Scale.
E.g. 2011 Tohoku earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0 and a death toll of 28,000.

Level of ● The more prepared a country is, the lesser the damage: Evacuation drills,
preparedness warning systems, post-disaster management (trained and skilled rescued
(Physical) workers)
● Largely dependent on resources available in the country.
E.g. A magnitude 9.5 earthquake struck off Chile in 1960 and resulted in 1,400 deaths
and 2 million who were homeless due to a massive tsunami. They have since stepped
up measures to prepare citizens and residents with drills and infrastructural
developments. In contrast, only around 500 people people died when there was a
magnitude 8.8 earthquake that struck Chile in 2010.

Depth of focus ● The more shallow a focus, the greater the damage caused. Energy released
(Physical ) from earthquake would travel through a shorter distance to reach the earth’s
surface.
E.g. A magnitude 7.8 earthquake would travel through a shorter distance to reach the
earth’s surface.

Time (Physical) ● When earthquake strikes at night, damage tends to be larger as people are
asleep and less prepared to evacuate
E.g. More than 2400 people died when an earthquake occurred couple after midnight
in the Sun Moon Lake Region in Taiwan in 1999.

Effectiveness of methods to minimize earthquake and tsunami damage

1. Preparedness Measures

Methods Successes Limitations

Infrastructural 1. ​Features designed to withstand 1. ​Costly

Developments seismic shocks​→ less susceptible to ● Expensive to construct and maintain
collapsing E.g. The mass damper incorporated into Taipei
● Shock absorbers and mass 101 costs US$4 million, a price not many LDCs
dampers commonly found in are able to afford.
many buildings today
E.g. Imperial Hotel in Tokyo has been 2. Seawalls may not be helpful as ​some
built with earthquake-resistant such as waves are so huge.
reinforced concrete and steel cables. It ● The seawalls could have been
survived the 1923 earthquake which destroyed causing greater damage as
measured 7.9 magnitude. waves are unable to recede.
 E.g. Seawalls were designed at a height of 6m
2. Some developments like ​seawalls in some coasts of Japan but waves during the
are able to withstand tsunami 2011 Japan Tsunami were much higher, hence
● By absorbing energy from the seawalls were inadequate and due to these
waves. Seawalls higher than seawalls, waves could not recede which result
5m reduce damage caused by in greater damage as water-borne diseases
tsunamis. could spread easily.
E.g. In northeast coast of Fudai, a
small town with 3000 people were left
largely unscathed by the tsunami due
to a 51-foot high seawall where waves
reach a height of 66-feet but damage
was minimal.

Earthquake & 1. ​Warn/alert people about 1. ​Expensive

Tsunami impending earthquakes and ● Equipments are costly and require
Monitoring & tsunamis skilled labour to manage which could be
Warning ● People are able to evacuate expensive
Systems more quickly E.g. Japan’s warning systems cost $1 billion.
E.g 90,000 people were saved from the
7.3 magnitude earthquake in Haicheng, 2. Warning may be​false alarms
China 4th Feb 1975 that destroyed ● Public losing confidence in warning
90% of the city’s infrastructure, due to a systems and eventually may not pay
short term earthquake prediction given heed when a real earthquake/tsunami
to the population in the area as early as happens
mid-January 1975. E.g. False alarms have been happening in
Whakatane in New Zealand, 2013. As a result,
the latest alarm for a possible tsunami resulted
in only 4 or 5 families evacuating.

Land Use 1. Rules implemented to ​ restrict 1. Have to be carried out in areas which may
Regulation developments​in certain areas which already be built up or are privately owned.
are at risk of earthquakes of ● Government authorities would buy from
liquefaction. private landowners and compensate
● Liquefaction occurs when those who have to move out → could
vibrations from an earthquake be costly
cause saturated soil to flow like ● Private owners refuse to move out as
liquid. The ground becomes they believe that another disaster won’t
unstable and buildings should happen.
not be constructed as in these
areas as it is unsafe. 2. Challenging in cities of​less developed
E.g. In California, USA, all new building countries ​where there is ​high rural-urban
developments are not built across fault migration
lines or areas at risk of liquefaction. ● Poor migrants could construct homes
illegally on earthquake or
2. Prohibit constructing new buildings tsunami-prone zones → more
on​low-lying land​which are vulnerable susceptible to earthquake or tsunami
 to tsunamis. damages
● Developments may be allowed E.g. In India, it has been estimated that around
only when protective barriers 200 million city dwellers will be exposed to
like seawalls are connected. earthquake or storms by 2025. There is also a
E.g. In Minami-Sanriku, Japan, after high rural-urban migration in many Indian cities
the 2011 Tsunami, houses and public with entrenched problem of illegally
facilities such as schools were constructed homes, posing risks to these city
relocated to safe high ground. dwellers.

Emergency 1. ​Familiarise people with 1. ​Dependent on people’s mindset

Drills evacuation routes ● Some people might be reluctant to
● Increase level of preparedness move due to complacency
→ hasten the process of E.g. Despite effective emergency drills carried
evacuation when necessary out in Japan, during the Kobe earthquake in
E.g. Sichuan Earthquake in 2008 1995 only 600 people evacuated.
revealed the importance of earthquake
drills as people were not prepared and 2. Designed based on the most serious
death toll was at 87,000 and 400,000 earthquake recorded in the area in the past
were made homeless. ● People may not be sufficiently prepared
E.g. Tohoku earthquake in Japan in 2011 was
on a scale never experienced before at a
magnitude of 9.0.
Linkback: Thus, emergency drills were
insufficient and adequate.

Short-Term responses

Methods Successes Limitations

Search and 1.​Skilled workers ​to rescue people → 1.​Limited time to rescue survivors
Rescue reduce casualty rate ● Rescue workers only have a limited
● People trapped under collapsed time of 72 hours or 3 days to find
buildings are quickly located and survivors → may be difficult
freed E.g. Rescue workers had a limited time of 3
E.g. After the earthquake in Tohoku, days to rapidly search through 2 towns after
Japan, in 2011, sniffer dogs and heat earthquake in Tohoku in 2011.
sensors were deployed and rescued
many who were trapped.

Emergency, 1.​Provision of aid helps survivors 1. ​Inexperienced governments/ countries

Food and continue with their lives ● Lack of clear directions and
Medical ● Injured are treated and clean coordination
Supplies drinking water is provided to E.g. 2010 Haiti earthquake was a first major
prevent dehydration one since 1860, hence lacked coordination
● Reduce spread of diseases (i.e. and supervision and could not provide aid for
water-borne diseases after the people → high death toll of 220,000
 tsunami) people.
E.g. After earthquake in Ayfon in 2002,
Turkish Red Crescent Society
immediately responded by delivering
20,00 tents, 50,000 blankets and 3,000
heaters to the region.

Long-Term responses

Methods Successes Limitations

Rebuilding of 1. Authorities develop ​stricter building 1. Reinforced buildings are built to protect
infrastructure codes ​to ensure infrastructure is restored against earthquakes, may not necessarily
at a higher safety level than before protect against tsunamis.
E.g. After 1995 earthquake in Kobe, E.g. Many of Chile’s buildings are
Japan, Japan spent billions developing earthquake-resistant, the coastal areas suffered
technology to protecting structures and massive damage from a tsunami when an
retrofitting older and more vulnerable earthquake struck in 2010.
buildings

Provision of 1. ​Problems can be identified and 1. Improving health options (i.e. mental and
Health Care addressed early physical resilience of people) can be
E.g. A year after the Christchurch challenging as countries especially LDCs may
earthquake in New Zealand in 2011, lack funds or expertise.
significant problems of anxiety and E.g. After Haiti earthquake in 2010, many
depression were identified amongst all survivors continue to lack access to basic
age groups in affected populations. necessities. As basic physical needs are not
Greater number of health workers were met, it is difficult to then meet mental health
deployed in the area. needs.