6

Guide

Guide
Guide for

for

for
Practitioners

Practitioners

Practitioners
Conversion of
Traditional
Buildings
Application of
the Scottish
Building

Conversion
Standards

PART 1
Principles and
Practice

Conversion

of Traditional
of Traditional

Buildings Application of the Scottish Building Standards

Buildings
Application
TECHNICAL
CONSERVATION,
of the
RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION
Scottish Building Standards

GROUP
PART 1

ISBN: 978-1-904966-46-3
PART 1

THE HOUSE 2/07 PRODUCED ON SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL

9 781904 966463
Historic Scotland Technical Advice Notes
1 Preparation and Use of Lime Mortars (revised 2003)
2 Conservation of Plasterwork (revised 2002)
3 Performance Standards for Timber Sash and Case Windows (1994) (Deleted)
4 Thatch & Thatching Techniques (1996)
5 The Hebridean Blackhouse (1996)
6 Earth Structures and Construction in Scotland (1996)
7 Access to the Built Heritage (1996)
8 Historic Scotland Guide to International Conservation Charters (1997)
9 Stonecleaning of Granite Buildings (1997)
10 Biological Growths on Sandstone Buildings (1997)
11 Fire Protection Measures in Scottish Historic Buildings (1997)
12 Quarries of Scotland (1997)
13 The Archaeology of Scottish Thatch (1998)
14 The Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Historic Buildings (1998)
15 External Lime Coatings on Traditional Buildings (2001)
16 Burrowing Animals and Archaeology (1999)
17 Bracken and Archaeology (1999)
18 The Treatment of Graffiti on Historic Surfaces (1999)
19 Scottish Aggregates for Building Conservation (1999)
20 Corrosion in Masonry Clad Early 20th Century Steel Framed Buildings (2000)
21 Scottish Slate Quarries (2000)
22 Fire Risk Management in Heritage Buildings (2001)
23 Non-Destructive Investigation of Standing Structures (2001)
24 The Environmental Control of Dry Rot (2002)
25 Maintenance and Repair of Cleaned Stone Buildings (2003)
26 Care and Conservation of 17th Century Plasterwork in Scotland (2004)
27 Development and Archaeology in Historic Towns and Cities (2004)
28 Fire Safety Management in Heritage Buildings (2005)
29 Corrugated Iron and other Ferrous Cladding (2005)
30 Scottish Turf Construction (2006)

Guides for Practitioners

Stonecleaning – A Guide for Practitioners (1994)
Timber Decay in Buildings – The Conservation Approach to Treatment (1999)
1 Rural Buildings of the Lothians: Conservation and Conversion (1999)
2 Conservation of Historic Graveyards (2001)
3 Conservation of Timber Sash and Case Windows (2002)
4 Measured Survey and Building Recording (2003)
5 Scottish Iron Structures (2005)

Available from:
Publications Department
Technical Conservation, Research and Education Group
Historic Scotland Conservation Bureau
Longmore House, Salisbury Place
EDINBURGH EH9 1SH
Tel 0131 668 8638
Fax 0131 668 8669
email [email protected]
 6
Guide for
Practitioners

Conversion of
Traditional
Buildings
Application of
the Scottish
Building
Standards

part 1
Principles and
Practice

Editor
and Principal Author
Dennis Urquhart

Published by
Historic Scotland
© Crown copyright

ISBN 978 1 904966 46 3

Edinburgh 2007

Commissioned by
TECHNICAL
CONSERVATION
RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION
group
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

GUIDE FOR PRACTITIONERS

Conversion of Traditional Buildings
Application of the Building Standards

Editor and Principal Author

Dennis Urquhart

Contributing Authors*
Mark Anderson, Stewart Brown, Iain Cram, Jocelyn Cunliffe, Ian Gough, Lyndall Leet,
Stuart MacPherson, Simon Montgomery, Mark Watson
*
Refer to Acknowledgements for information on the designations of the contributing authors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Editor and authors of this guide recognise that without the support and guidance of a large number of
individuals and organisations they would not have been able to undertake a work of this magnitude and complexity.
To help focus the structure and content of the guide, a Steering Group was set up by Historic Scotland to provide
the necessary support and to represent the interests of the two main stakeholders; namely Historic Scotland (who
funded the project) and the Scottish Building Standards Agency. The Steering Group has been instrumental in
ensuring that the two main strands of the book, the conservation of historic buildings and the application of the
new Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004, have been targeted appropriately towards its principal audience.
Members of the Steering Group included: Ingval Maxwell OBE, Director of TCRE, Historic Scotland; Janet Kleboe,
TCRE, Historic Scotland; Simon Montgomery, Inspector of Historic Buildings, Historic Scotland; Jane Robertson,
Manager, Historic Scotland Conservation Bureau; Jeff Carter, Assistant Chief Executive, Scottish Building Standards
Agency; Dennis Urquhart, Urquhart Consultancy Services and Mark Watson, Historic Scotland.
In addition to the Steering Group, an Advisory Panel met periodically to review and comment on work in progress.
The Editor and contributing authors – many of whom were members of the panel – are extremely grateful for the
time, effort and invaluable expertise given unstintingly by busy practitioners. In addition to members of the Steering
Group, the following individuals also served on the Panel at some time: John Addison, Structural Engineer,Waterman
Group; Mark Anderson, Building Control Manager, Midlothian Council; Stewart Brown, Simpson and Brown
Architects; Iain Cram, Architect, Bell Ingram Design; Jocelyn Cunliffe, Conservation Architect, Gray, Marshall and
Associates; John Duncan, Conservation Officer, Highland Council; Ian Gough, Fire Safety Consultant; Lyndall Leet,
Architect (retd), The Leet Rodgers Practice; Stuart MacPherson, Principal, Irons Foulner Consulting Engineers;
David Narro, Structural Engineer, David Narro Associates; Elaine Richardson, Midlothian Council; Andrew Wright,
Historic Environment Advisory Council for Scotland; Ian Young, Conservation Officer, Midlothian Council.
The Editor would also like to thank the following for their valuable contributions, in the form of detailed drawings,
written comments, or in meetings with the Editor or Project Manager: Mike Coull, Grampian Fire and Rescue
Service: Richard Fawcett, Historic Scotland; Douglas Forrest, Architect; Paul Harding, Mark Hopton, LDN
Architects; Stewart Kidd, British Automatic Sprinkler Association; Hugh Ross, Matheson Mackenzie Ross, Architects;
Linda Sheridan, Scottish Building Standards Agency; Benjamin Tindall Architects; Steven Torrie, Deputy Firemaster,
Lothian and Borders Fire Brigade and Mark Watson, Historic Scotland, for his rigorous review of Part I.
Special thanks are due to Janet Kleboe for her support during the project, to Ingval Maxwell for wise counsel and
leadership of the Steering Group and to Jeff Carter for his advice on the interpretation of the Building Standards.

ii
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD v 2.6 Importance of building surveys 20

2.7 The economic reuse of existing buildings 21
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 1
2.8 Financial considerations: Value Added Tax 22
2.9 Appropriate solutions in the conversion of
SUMMARY 3
historic buildings 23

1. INTRODUCTION 5
3. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL
1.1 Scope of the Guide 5 BUILDINGS: MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 25
1.2 Definitions 6 3.1 Understanding Scottish traditional buildings 25
1.3 The Building (Scotland) Act 2003 and its 3.1.1 Stone masonry construction 25
application to historic buildings 7
3.1.2 Brickwork 27
1.3.1 Conversions to which regulations apply 7
3.1.3 Timber construction 28
1.3.2 Alterations 8
3.1.4 Other structural systems 29
1.3.3 Extensions 8
3.2 Traditional materials and components 29
1.3.4 Ruined buildings 9
3.2.1 Stone walls 29
1.4 Balancing conversion and conservation 9
3.2.2 Plasterwork 32
1.5 Sustainable development 9
3.2.3 External coatings and renders 32
1.6 Constructive dialogue 10
3.2.4 Roof coverings 33
1.7 Risks to historic buildings 10
3.2.5 Windows 34
1.8 Broad principles 11
3.2.6 Dealing with replacement windows in
1.8.1 Criteria for alteration work 11 historic buildings 36
1.9 Summary of investigations and assessments 3.2.7 Doors 36
required for the conversion of historic buildings 12
3.2.8 Environmental considerations 36
3.3 Use of modern materials and methods 37
2. CONSERVATION THROUGH CONVERSION 15
3.3.1 Avoiding unnecessary damage 37
2.1 Assessment of significance 15
3.3.2 Impact of the Construction products
2.1.1 Value of traditional construction 15 Directive (CPD) 38
2.2 Identification of character 15 3.4 Repairs 39
2.3 Retention of historic fabric and architectural
character 17
4. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL
2.4 Conservation plans 18 BUILDINGS: THE BUILDING AS AN
2.5 Principles of repair and alteration 18 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM 41

2.5.1 Proper assessment of the site. 19 4.1 The systems approach 41

2.5.2 Understanding the causes of defects 4.2 Air quality 42

and decay 19 4.3 Moisture and water vapour 43
2.5.3 Unnecessary replacement and minimum 4.3.1 Moisture from the ground 43
intervention 19
4.3.2 Ventilation and water vapour 44
2.5.4 Appropriate techniques and materials 19
4.4 Thermal insulation 45
2.5.5 Hazardous materials 20
4.5 Improving thermal insulation 46
2.5.6 Missing features 20
4.6 Heating 46

iii
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

4.6.1 Systematic approach 46 7. LEGISLATION 59

4.6.2 Alternative energy solutions 47 7.1 Introduction 59
4.7 Thermal efficiency of historic buildings 48 7.2 Historic buildings and statutory protection 59
7.2.1 Listed buildings 59
5. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL 7.2.2 Conservation Areas 59
BUILDINGS: STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE 49
7.2.3 Scheduled Ancient Monuments 60
7.2.4 Government policy and guidance 60
6. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL
BUILDINGS: FIRE, SOUND AND ACCESS 51 7.3 Building regulations 60

6.1 Performance in fire 51 7.3.1 Application to historic buildings 60

6.1.1 Factors influencing fire risk 51 7.3.2 Verifiers and Approved Certifiers 61

6.1.2 Regulatory principles 52 7.4 Houses in multiple occupation 61

6.1.3 Fire engineering approach 52 7.4.1 Fire safety 62

6.1.4 Emergency Planning 53 7.4.2 Environment 62

6.1.5 Performance of critical elements 53 7.4.3 Safety 62

6.2 Sound transmission 54 7.4.4 Noise 63

6.2.1 Impact of sound transmission on 7.4.5 Energy 63

historic buildings 54 7.5 Fire 63
6.2.2 Mandatory regulations 55 7.5.1 Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 63
6.2.3 Achieving balance between sound 7.5.2 The Fire Safety (Scotland)
insulation and conservation 56 Regulations 2006 63
6.2.4 Summary of risks associated with 7.6 Access 64
improving sound insulation in
historic buildings 57 7.7 Health and safety 65

6.3 Access issues 57 7.7.1 Construction (Design & Management)

Regulations 1994 65
7.7.2 Other safety legislation 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

iv
 FOREWORD

The successful conversion of existing buildings is volume. Part 1 of the Guide emerges as a platform for
something to be celebrated. When it occurs it may bring raising awareness on how the traditionally constructed
a new lease of life to a depressed neighbourhood or the built environment embodies the skills, energies and
appropriate reuse for a redundant farm steading. From knowledge of our ancestors. Whilst Part 2 reveals how,
the first pioneer occupation of lofts in Manhattan, or with appropriate care and consideration, the relevant
for that matter in Glasgow's Merchant City, converted standards can be accommodated in a way that will permit
factories and warehouses spearheaded the renewal of the effective conversion of a traditional building so that it
districts. As a catalyst for change, the sensitive conversion can be successfully retained for future use.
of a building can be the first sign of recovery, indicating The presented information is the direct result of
that an area has turned the corner and is looking forward discussion and agreement between two government
to a new lease of life yet without rejecting its origins.The agencies; Historic Scotland and the Scottish Buildings
reuse of empty mills and warehouses, for example, can be Standards Agency. Historic Scotland has the over-arching
a major element in delivering high-density urban living responsibility for the protection of the built heritage in
in a quality environment; a counter to suburban sprawl Scotland, whilst the Scottish Building Standards Agency
eating up the countryside. A reused church can continue has lead responsibility for the legislative functions relating
to give a community meaning even if it is no longer a to the building standards system. Both organisations have
place of worship. The embodied energy that went into a remit which inevitably overlaps in places. Consequently
the original construction, using materials that would now there was an inescapable logic for both bodies to consider
be difficult to source make conversions inherently more the production of a joint publication to offer a more
sustainable than the equivalent built anew. Adaptive integrated and comprehensive approach to practitioners
reuse is already delivering the sustainability agenda. involved in the conversion and adaptation of traditional
This Guide for Practitioners is specifically concerned buildings.
with the conversion of Scotland’s traditionally constructed This guidance therefore draws together the responsibilities
built heritage. It has been prepared to provide those and legislative viewpoint of both Agencies. Its primary
involved with its design, development and rehabilitation aim is to assist in the finding of sensitive and applicable
with relevant information on the application of the reuses for a large part of Scotland’s built heritage.
Building Standards.
The authorship of this ambitious work was a considerable
The introduction of The Building (Scotland) Regulations task as questions concerning conservation, relevant
2004 is significant because, together with the supporting legislation and practice constantly needed to be balanced.
Technical Handbooks, they allow judgement to be made As a result, bringing together the two seemingly opposing
on how successfully an existing traditional building issues of retaining, conserving and repairing the historic
can be converted to meet the requirements of the new environment with the need to address the mechanisms
functional standards. Retaining the historic integrity of which often have to consider proposed radical changes
the existing built heritage and meeting the standards to that same environment, has been successfully achieved.
presents a challenge which frequently requires dialogue The result is a unique “text book” which “reinterprets”
to resolve. It is intended that this Guide assists with the Scottish Building Standards.
that dialogue. It does this by outlining the construction,
materials and performance of traditional buildings and, It is hoped that by being comprehensive, the Guide
by addressing the relevant functional standards that are does not intimidate by its size and range of issues that
applicable, illustrates how their successful survival and are covered. It was written to be used as a “reference
reuse might be achieved. It also draws attention to the manual”, rather than a technical publication to be read
legislation governing traditional buildings. from cover to cover. It aspires to provide confidence to
retain older fabric, and help create a sustained future for
As the attached formal letter from the Chief Executive it, whilst meeting, as far as possible, present day needs.
of the Scottish Buildings Standards Agency intimates, this
Guide legally sits alongside other documents that have In conjunction with other published technical material
been prepared for the purpose of providing practical that has emanated from Historic Scotland’s Technical
guidance with respect to the building regulations. Conservation, Research and Education Group over
the years, the Guide aims to inform good practice
The task of producing the Guide was overseen by a and contribute to the awareness, understanding and
Steering Group consisting of officials from Historic appreciation of Scotland’s traditionally constructed
Scotland and the Scottish Building Standards Agency, building stock and its adaptation to new uses.
together with a range of practitioners well versed in the
field.
The Managing Editor and lead author, Dennis Ingval Maxwell, OBE
Urquhart, with support from a number of contributing Director TCRE
conservation practitioners, has brought together a wealth Edinburgh
of understanding and good practice in this double 12 March 2007


Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

vi
Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

PART I:
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICE


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

SUMMARY

Background identifying and resolving typical areas of difficulty that

may be encountered during the conversion of a historic
The Historic Environment has a key role to play in
building. There is a risk, when attempting to satisfy the
regeneration. Conserved historic buildings can provide
requirements of the standards, that the introduction of
important points of focus for wider regeneration schemes,
improvements (in terms of the standards) may affect
adding character and preserving local distinctiveness
adversely the historic character of the building. This
and identity.† Through the conversion of buildings the
guide therefore sets out the principles that underpin
historic environment can play a key role in Scotland’s
the conservation of traditional buildings. By utilising
economic, social and cultural success.
the concepts inherent in the functional nature of the
Since the very beginnings of architecture, people have building standards it provides practical advice that will
adapted the buildings they have inherited so as to meet help the practitioner to reach acceptable solutions to
contemporary purposes. A new use could be a way of the often complex problems that may be encountered
asserting the primacy of a new religion or culture over during the conversion of these buildings.
the preceding one, or it could simply be a good way to
The book is divided into two parts. Part I is primarily
utilise existing property without going to the trouble
devoted to the identification of the conservation issues
of starting all over again. With acceptance of the value
that impinge on the conversion of traditional buildings.
of conservation in the later C19, and more so in the
Part II addresses the requirements of the individual
C20, has come a need to adapt buildings in ways that
standards that are likely to have the greatest potential
respect their character and that of their surroundings.
impact upon the historic character of a building and
The conversion of a building can be a catalyst for
suggests solutions. There is an element of overlap
change: a converted factory will often be in the advance
between the two parts because it is appreciated that, in
guard of regeneration in a run-down area. It can be a
a book of this type, readers will tend to directly consult
means of achieving development, such as rural housing
the standard or standards in question.
in a former farm steading, that would otherwise be
unwelcome. Conversion is also one of the triggers for
the application of building standards that seek to achieve Part I. Principles
a number of social benefits, ranging from better disabled
Part I sets out the rationale for the book.
access and egress to a reduced carbon footprint across
this small country. The terms ‘historic building, and ‘traditional building’
as they are applied here (see Section 1.1) define a
This guide aims to provide advice to practitioners,
building of traditional construction built before circa
developers, building owners and local authorities on
1919 – they include but are not confined to
issues surrounding the application of The Building
listed buildings or buildings within conservation
(Scotland) Regulations 2004 to the conversion of
areas.
traditional buildings. The 2004 Regulations are based
upon expanded functional standards, which set out In Chapter 2 the important conservation principles
what the building must achieve when in use. They thus are defined. Advice is given on what makes a building
permit greater flexibility in satisfying the standards, significant, and the identification of ‘character’. The
and allow the needs of traditional (historic) buildings focus of the book is on the standards that most often
to be met in a sympathetic manner. While the book apply in conversion. As it is often the case that repair
is focused on the application of the building standards and maintenance will be carried out at the same time,
within a Scottish context and to historic buildings, the general advice on traditional approaches to the repair of
underpinning principles may be applied to traditional historic buildings is included. This chapter also addresses
buildings everywhere. It does not address, nor seek to the importance of building surveys, the need to assess
constrain, the potential for creative interventions into cultural value and issues such as economic reuse and
historic buildings. suggests further reading.
The guide is not intended to be a technical handbook Chapters 3 to 6 concentrate on the performance of
covering all aspects of the building standards. Its traditional buildings and give an overview of most issues
function is to support the Technical Handbooks by likely to impact upon historic buildings as a result of
†
Scotland’s Historic Environment: Scottish Historic Environment Policy 1, Historic Scotland 2006.


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

conversion. The use of traditional materials and the Part II. Application of the Building Standards
dangers arising from the introduction of modern, non-
This part addresses the individual building standards
compatible materials and construction methods are
that are most likely to have an impact on the character
explained. As an example, the importance of windows
and fabric of the building. Schedule 6 of Regulation
and doors as a factor in determining the character of
12 governs the approach adopted, where the separation
a historic building is discussed, including the difficult
of the standards into those that are defined as essential
issue of achieving improvements to thermal insulation
standards and those where the conversion shall be
while retaining character.
improved to as close as is reasonably practicable inform the
The traditional building is an environmental system recommendations. However, each historic building is to
within which issues such as the control of moisture an extent unique, or will at least contain unique features,
and water vapour can have a major impact on the which means that the use of model solutions must be
performance of the building. A building can respond treated with caution. Each situation must be carefully
badly to the poorly informed use of modern moisture assessed so that the most appropriate solution, which
and vapour control systems, such as the insertion of meets the standard without compromising the historic
damp proof courses and vapour barriers. The complex character of the building, is achieved.
relationship between the need to achieve improvements
The arrangement of the sections within Part II reflects
to the thermal insulation of the building envelope and
the arrangement of the sections in the Technical
the protection of historic fabric is explored and the key
Handbook. Each of the standards is structured to a
problem areas identified. Upgrading of heating systems
standardised format which includes the following
is another area of difficulty: the need for the adoption
elements:
of a systematic and holistic approach to the design of
systems is promoted. • the text of the standard,
Fire protection of all buildings and sound insulation • classification into essential or reasonably practicable,
of domestic buildings are important considerations in
the design of conversions. However, the introduction • a commentary on the potential influences of the
of designs intended for use in new build, without standard on the conservation needs of historic
recognising the special needs of historic buildings, can buildings,
have serious consequences to both historic fabric and • a table that identifies the risks to the building from
character. Achieving a satisfactory balance between the application of the standard,
these competing factors is an important consideration
within these sections. • recommended approaches to meeting the
requirements of the standard and
Lastly, key legislation that may have an impact on the
conversion of historic buildings is covered, including • a list of other standards that may impact on the
issues such as statutory protection of historic buildings, the application of the standard in question.
application of the Building Regulations to conversions,
access (primarily the Disability Discrimination Act
1995) and health and safety legislation.


 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope of the Guide Guide provides examples of best practice in dealing with
these complex issues. Practical examples that illustrate
The conversion of traditional buildings presents
the satisfactory resolution of significant conflict-of-
significant challenges for practitioners (that is architects,
interest problems have been incorporated. These are not
surveyors, engineers, project managers), developers,
necessarily the only solutions in these scenarios but they
approved certifiers and local authorities who have to
illustrate a number of ways that meet the challenges and
prepare or approve designs that will accommodate
opportunities presented by adaptive reuse.
changes in the use and occupation of such buildings
while respecting their cultural and historical significance. It is not the intention of this guide to act as a technical
Not least of the problems faced is the need to meet the handbook for the building regulations. Rather, the
requirements of the building regulations, which prior to focus is on the identification of typical areas of difficulty
the Building (Scotland) Act 2003 did not recognise the where the influence of the regulations is likely to have
specific needs of historic buildings other than by specific the greatest potential impact on historic fabric, namely:
relaxations. The new system, however, acknowledges the
• fire safety,
fact that the conversion of existing buildings requires the
building regulations to be sufficiently flexible to allow • condensation,
the adoption of a sensitive approach to traditional and
historic buildings. • noise,

This guide aims to enable practitioners and building • access and

owners to apply The Building (Scotland) Regulations • energy conservation.
2004 to traditional buildings. The imposition of
contemporary standards, construction methods and Verifiers are expected to take this guidance into
materials on historic buildings has frequently resulted in account when assessing historic buildings of traditional
conflict between the conservation needs of the building construction. More generally, the guidance may be
and modern regulatory and environmental regimes. The relevant when assessing any traditionally constructed

Illus 1.1 Listed Category A Duff House was rescued from a disused state and converted into a country house gallery containing art works from
the National Galleries of Scotland (Photo: D Urquhart).


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

building where the guidance in the Technical Handbooks be over-emphasised. The total stock of C18 and C19
is appropriate to the existing structure. buildings is continually being eroded, in a few limited
cases through demolition. A larger and more pervasive
problem is when poor alteration to these buildings
1.2 Definitions
may badly harm their character. The conversion of
Historic building. The definition of a historic building, the existing building stock makes best viable use of
as set out in the Procedural Handbook, is: this resource but must ensure that all that is significant
is conserved and that good conservation practice is
employed. Even where a traditional building has no
Box 1.1
specific interest that marks it out from others of the
‘A building of architectural or historic interest or significance. type, if it is traditionally constructed it makes sense to
The interest or significance may be local or national, and employ best conservation practice in the application of
may be a consequence of, for example, the building’s age, the standards.
built form or location. It may result from its connection
Listed building. This and other statutory designations
with a person or persons, or with local or national events
are covered in Section 7.2. It should be noted that,
or industry; or from a combination of these or other
when a building is listed, listing covers both the interior
factors. A building does not have to be listed by Scottish
and the exterior of a building, regardless of the category
Ministers or lie within a conservation area to have interest
of listing. The term ‘listed building’ is here sometimes
or significance.’
used where statutory permissions, known as listed
building consent, for works affecting the character of
listed buildings are discussed. These include works to
As the term is not restricted to buildings that have
interiors that do not require planning permission and
statutory designation on cultural grounds, such a
which would not be required in the case of unlisted but
definition anticipates a highly-developed awareness
‘historic buildings’. In Scotland there are around 47,000
and understanding of historic buildings on owners,
listed buildings, representing less than one percent of the
designers, developers and contractors. Many of these
total building stock.
buildings will not benefit from the protection offered
by listed building legislation. There may then be
pressure to adopt solutions that, whilst offering the
cheapest or least ‘difficult’ solution to satisfying the
regulations, may compromise the interest the building
may possess. If there is no specific or area designation
in place, the advice in this guide may be recommended
as best practice for the health of the building and the
contribution it may make to the local scene.

Traditional Building: The advice in this guide is confined

to buildings of traditional construction as it applies to
Scotland. The term ‘traditional building’ is therefore
used to define a building of traditional construction
built before circa 1919, it is not confined to
listed buildings or buildings within conservation
areas. It is estimated that there are around 500,000
such buildings. A defining characteristic is that their
construction evolved over many years, adapting to the
climate to promote the dissipation of water vapour.
Their materials are breathable, and attempts to introduce
modern standards of impermeability are likely to have
unintended consequences. Much that is in this guide
then applies to all buildings of traditional construction,
whether or not they are considered to have special merit
Illus.1.2. An example of an unlisted former printing works that
as defined above or as confirmed by statutory designation, has been converted into apartments. Identically-sized windows have
such as listing.Where technical performance is discussed been installed in openings of variable dimensions below false ceilings
the text will usually refer to ‘traditional buildings’. fronted by an off-white infill. Fully-glazed openings might have been
preferred, with false ceilings set back from these, or even given a dark
The importance of traditional buildings to the nation’s
reflective finish, had the building been listed and/or advice requested
built environment, and therefore its identity, cannot from Historic Scotland (Photo: Historic Scotland).


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

A larger number of unlisted buildings contribute to regard to all the circumstances including the expense involved in
the character of conservation areas, and so do a few in carrying out the building work.’ This means that an existing
designed landscapes, world heritage sites, national parks, building will now have to be improved, even if meeting
areas of great landscape value and so on. There a case the full standard is not practically achievable.
may be made for taking special care, as if they were
Section 35 of the Act gives specific protection to certain
listed in their own right, not to harm the character
historic buildings in relation to statutory notices. For
of buildings through zealous application of building
purposes of enforcement under the Act, the following
standards. Buildings in conservation areas are considered
buildings are designated as historic buildings:
in Section 7.2.
• those included in the schedule of monuments
It should also be recognised that the term ‘historic
compiled under section 1 of the Ancient
building’ is not a simple definition of age. Some
Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1970
outstanding C20 buildings, built using contemporary
(c46),
materials and methods of construction, are listed: the
youngest listed building in Scotland is around twenty • listed buildings under section 1 of the Listed
years old. However, for the purposes of this guide, Buildings and Conservation Areas (Scotland) Act,
the advice will be confined to buildings of traditional
construction that were built in Scotland up to the early • buildings subject to Building Preservation Notices
C20. under Section 3 of the listed Building and
Conservation Areas (Scotland) Act and

1.3 The Building (Scotland) Act 2003 and its • those buildings in conservation areas subject to
application to historic buildings control of demolition under section 66 of the Listed
Buildings and Conservation Areas (Scotland) Act.
The new Act, together with the new Building
(Scotland) Regulations 2004, has had a fundamental In these cases, Scottish Ministers, the planning authority
impact on the methods for setting and enforcing – or such other persons as the local authority think
standards on building work in comparison to the fit – must be consulted prior to the service of notices,
previous Building (Scotland) Regulations 1990 and the such as a building warrant enforcement or a defective
Building Operations (Scotland) Regulation 1975. These building notice.
changes were necessary to permit European harmonised The Procedural Handbook, in addition, notes that
standards to be used in Scotland, as required under the ‘sympathetic consideration’ may be given to a wider
Construction Products Directive. range of buildings as defined by the term ‘historic
The 1990 Regulations could only be complied with by building’ in Section 1.2.
following the Technical Standards. It was this prescriptive
approach that led to the conflict between meeting the 1.3.1 Conversions to which regulations apply
standards and the needs of historic buildings. However,
the 2004 Regulations are based upon the use of 1. Changes in the occupation or use of a building to
expanded functional standards that define what the create a dwelling or dwellings or a part thereof.
building must achieve when in use. Functional standards,
2. Changes in the occupation or use of a building
rather than prescriptive standards:
ancillary to a dwelling to increase the area of
• permit greater flexibility for designers in achieving human occupation.
the minimum standards,
3. Changes in the occupation or use of a building
• cater more sympathetically to the needs of historic which alters the number of dwellings in the building.
buildings undergoing conversion.
4. Changes in the occupation or use of a domestic
Within the 2004 Regulations, the term ‘conversion’ building to any other type of building.
has been given a specific meaning and is restricted
5. Changes in the occupation or use of a residential
to prescribed changes of intended use or occupation.
building to any other type of building.
After a conversion, the regulations require a building
to comply with all the standards. However, there is an 6. Changes in the occupation or use of a residential
important qualification because few existing buildings building which involve a significant alteration of
can reasonably be expected to meet all aspects of the the characteristics of the persons who occupy,
standards. Therefore, for specific identified standards the or who will occupy, the building, or which
existing building is required to be improved ‘to as close to significantly increase the number of people
the full requirements as is reasonably practicable’.The Building occupying, or expected to occupy, the building.
Regulations define ‘reasonably practicable’ as ‘.....having


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

7. Changes in the occupation or use of a building so Alterations refer to work carried out on an existing
that it becomes a residential building. building where no change of occupation or use
is involved. In this case there are no qualifications;
8. Changes in the occupation or use of an exempt alterations attract the full current standards relevant to
building (in terms of Schedule 1) to a building alteration work. In addition, the whole building must
which is not so exempt. not, as a result of the alteration, fail to comply with
9. Changes in the occupation or use of a building to building regulations if it complied originally, or fail to a
allow access by the public where previously there greater degree if it failed to comply originally. However,
was none. alterations to an existing building that are part of a
conversion in terms of the Building (Scotland) Act 2003
10. Changes in the occupation or use of a building to are subject to a wider application of the regulations, so
accommodate parts in different occupation where that the building being converted complies more fully.
previously it was not so occupied.
Conversion can apply to part of a building as well as the 1.3.3 Extensions
whole building.
Extensions to existing buildings must be constructed
in such a way that the extension complies with all the
1.3.2 Alterations current standards that are relevant to the construction
Within the Building Regulations, the terms alteration and use of the extension. However, where the extension
and conversion must be clearly distinguished. Conversion, is to a historic building that is being converted, the
as defined in Section 1.3.1, is confined to situations standards that apply to the building, other than the
where the building is subject to a change in occupation extension, remain those that apply to a conversion of a
or use, and as such it falls within one of the classes in type set out in Schedule 2 of the Building Regulations
Schedule 2 of the Building Regulations. (see section 3.8.1).

Illus 1.3 Former lodging house converted to apartments with new extension on the left (Photo: D Urquhart).


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

1.3.4 Ruined buildings of regulatory requirements. While there is considerable

flexibility in meeting the functional standards contained
Some historic buildings are in a ruinous condition, but
within the regulations, there are important issues where
may still be proposed for conversion or alteration. It is
the interface between conservation and regulations
possible that some ruined buildings being considered for
can create uncertainty. In Section 0 of the Technical
conversion will be scheduled. Then, even if also listed,
Handbook, Schedule 6 of Regulation 12 makes some
scheduled monument consent rather than listed building
allowance for historic buildings, where it states ‘the
consent will be required. Consult Historic Scotland
classification of the building should influence the extent to
before carrying out work to a Scheduled Ancient
which improvement is required, depending on whether the
Monument: even works of repair require consent.
classification is for outside, the inside, all parts etc.’
When a ruin is being brought back into use, the way in
This requires interpretation. All of a listed building is
which the building regulations will apply depends on
listed, but on a case by case basis it may be established
the following circumstances:
that certain internal or external works will not affect the
a) If the past use of the building is known, then work character of that building and therefore improvements
on the ruin should be regarded as a conversion if it may have to be made to meet the standard. This can
falls within one of the classes in Schedule 2 of the only be ascertained in consultation with the council’s
Building Regulations (1.3.1 above). conservation officer, development control officer or
Historic Scotland, as the case may be. The category of
b) If the past use of the building is unknown, or is
listing and the detail that a list description may happen
outside these classes, it should be regarded as an
to contain does not provide the necessary guidance.
alteration. In this case, alterations attract the full
current standards relevant to the alteration work. For If a building is unlisted, but may be within a conservation
further guidance refer to the Procedural Handbook area, world heritage site, designed landscape, national
that accompanies the Building Regulations. scenic area, national park or other location in which
more than the usual environmental care must be
exercised, then it will be on the outside that special care
1.4 Balancing conversion and conservation must be taken.
A listed historic building may usually be converted Difficulties can arise where, in the conversion of a listed
provided that it does not compromise the character building into apartments for example, the resistance to
that is the special interest, significance or appearance sound transmission through a separating floor must be
of the building. Conversion of a building to change its improved to meet the requirements of the standard.This
occupation or use is often the only means of ensuring is a case where the full standard must be met and will
its retention and future viability. Achieving a proper require skilful handling by the designer where historic
balance between the development requirements of a fabric has to be retained. It may be that the character of
conversion, the building regulations and the special the interior, say containing a C17 painted ceiling, is so
needs of the historic building is a demanding task that important that it cannot be disrupted by conventional
requires specialist advice and negotiation with verifiers. deadening between floor boards. Another method must
A flexible approach to the issues is required.A willingness be chosen or the layout of the subdivision reconsidered
to imaginatively use the spaces that exist, rather than altogether.
attempt to alter them to impose standardised solutions, is In converting a historic building to a new use there
an essential prerequisite to achieving a proper balance. may be an archaeological dimension to consider, even
In a run-down area, the sympathetic conversion of a if it is not scheduled. Professional supervision may
historic building may act as a catalyst to promote the be required to investigate significant features both
regeneration of the area and encourage the movement of below ground level and within the upstanding fabric.
people and business back into the district. The skills and Information extracted in this way should enhance
creativity needed to make this economically sustainable understanding of the building and inform decisions
will be more demanding than replacing with new regarding its development and future management. The
buildings, but can have greater long-term advantages local authority conservation officer or archaeological
socially, environmentally, culturally and economically service may be able to advise on requirements.
(Civic Trust 2003).
1.5 Sustainable development
Balancing the architectural and historic importance of
a building, including where appropriate the internal A new objective in the 2003 Building Act is concerned
fabric and fixtures, with the requirements of the with furthering the achievement of sustainable
regulations needs understanding of the way in which development, responsibility for which, in terms of
a traditional building performs, and careful application the regulations, rests with the owners of buildings.


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Sustainable development is defined by the Brundtland conservation needs of the building.Yates (2006) attempts
Report 1987 as ‘development that meets the needs of the to define the point when the conservation limit has
present without compromising the ability of future generations been reached:
to meet their own needs’.
‘At some point the extent of the work will mean that the
The conversion of an existing building, instead of conservation limit will have been reached.This is defined
creating a completely new building, takes advantage as the point beyond which conservation principles and
of the energy embodied in the fabric of that building. good practice will become compromised if further changes
The energy expended in the manufacture of materials, are made to the building, for example the replacement of
transportation and construction of a new building is windows in a conservation area, the replacement of an
estimated to equal the energy necessary to heat, light historic roof with photo-voltaic panels, or the application
and ventilate or condition the building for between of an external rendering system.’
five and ten years. Therefore sustainability favours
While the regulatory system is designed to reduce
the retention of the existing building stock, as the
conflicts, there is nevertheless a vital need for constructive
Sustainable Development Commission (2005) sets out:
dialogue between all interested parties to ensure that
Existing buildings provide a major opportunity in the most appropriate balance is achieved. Such a
terms of creating sustainable communities. Existing balance should not compromise the historic character
communities must be sustained through repair and of the building nor increase the risk to its occupants.
maintenance of existing homes as well as identification Understanding the performance of traditional buildings
of appropriate infill sites for new homes. Improving and is the key to that balance.
maximising use of existing stock is the cheapest and
Often it will be the case in listed buildings that listed
lowest-impact solution to the provision of housing.
building consent is first obtained and then has to be
National Planning Policy Guideline: NPPG 18 subsequently modified once the details of complying
emphasises the reuse of existing buildings where it with the building standards are considered. Sometimes
states: local authorities will grant listed building consent with
multiple conditions anticipating that changes will later
‘Recycling existing buildings will minimise the
have to be made. To avoid this, early communication
consumption of materials and energy used in demolition
between owners, designers, certifiers of design, certifiers
and redevelopment. Traditional building materials and
of construction and verifiers is recommended in order
methods of construction are generally robust and can be
to achieve an acceptable solution.
more widely promoted on the basis that historic buildings
normally have a life span well in excess of modern An early dialogue between the designer of the conversion,
buildings.’ the verifier and the conservation officer of the local
authority is strongly recommended before applying for
The best viable use for a historic building should always
a building warrant. This discussion will also assist any
be the main objective within a proposal to convert such
approved certifier of design that may be used, who must
a building. NPPG 18, when considering sustainable
be familiar with and sympathetic to the needs of historic
development, makes the key point.
buildings if maximum advantage is to be gained from
the flexibility offered by the regulations. If, in future, the
verifier is not an employee of the local authority, such a
Box 1.2 Best viable use of historic buildings
discussion will be essential. Information on the role of
(NPPG 18)
verifiers and certifiers is given in Section 7.3.2.
The best viable use may not necessarily be the
most profitable use. The aim should be to find a
1.7 Risks to traditional and historic buildings
new economic use that is viable over the long
term with minimum impact upon the special Historic buildings and their component parts are a
architectural interest of the building or area. finite resource, which once lost cannot be replaced. The
Achieving best viable use may require adaptation process of converting a historic building to a new use,
of the fabric. This should be undertaken carefully or a change in occupation, has the potential to cause
and sensitively, having regard to its architectural irreversible damage to the building, through loss of
and historic interest, character and setting. character, of archaeological information and of historic
fabric if careful attention is not paid to the risks involved
in both the design and construction processes.Work that
1.6 Constructive dialogue
is not sympathetic to the nature of the building, can, for
Care must be taken in improving the existing stock, example, dramatically alter the moisture balance within
or sustainability becomes invalid. A balance should the fabric of the building and increase the moisture
be struck between the extent of the work and the content of vulnerable materials. There is a greater

10
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

attrition to historic buildings through dampness than Article 4

through any other mechanism, including fire. Appropriate measures, which do not compromise
Practitioners responsible for conversions must not cultural significance, should be taken, including
compromise the health and safety of the occupants or of through access, research, information and
the general public. The Technical Handbooks (Schedule education, to assist all people to enjoy, appreciate,
6 of Regulation 12), taking into account risk to learn from and understand Scotland’s built
occupants and users of the building, distinguish between heritage.
regulations that must be met and those that shall be Article 5
improved to as close to the requirement as possible. Conservation of Scotland’s built heritage should:
There are undoubtedly some historic buildings where
any work involved in the process of alteration would • be carried out in accordance with a conservation
cause damage to their character or special interest. plan.....
However, most historic buildings will be able to be • incur only the minimum degree of intervention.....
improved to satisfy the requirements of the regulations.
• use appropriate materials, skills and methods of
There is also some danger in the way products are working.
changing, in part to accommodate the EU Construction
Products Directive, which could lead to the use of Article 6
materials and techniques that may not be appropriate In relation to their respective roles, the relevant
to the character of the building (see 3.3.2 for further bodies and individuals should ensure that:
comment on this matter).
• full use is made of the statutory provision available
to protect the heritage,
1.8 Broad principles
• appropriate and effective systems are established
The broad principles for the conservation of historic for monitoring and recording the condition of the
buildings are set out in British Standard BS 7913; built heritage,
1998, Guide to the principles of the conservation of historic
buildings. In addition there are a range of international • suitable knowledge, skills, materials and
charters, conventions and recommendations that have a technologies are available.
bearing on how conversion work must be planned and
organised. Historic Scotland TAN 8 Guide to International 1.8.1 Criteria for alteration work
Conservation Charters lists 76 charters from 1937 to 1996. The criteria given in Box 1.4 are from BS 7913, Section
This list does not of course include the more recent 7.4.3, give practical guidance appropriate to works of
Stirling Charter, published by Historic Scotland in 2000, alteration, including conversion.
which derives from the corpus of earlier charters, and
others that have emerged or have been updated.
Box 1.4 Extract from BS 7913: 1998. Guide
to the Principles of the Conservation of Historic
Box 1.3 Selected extracts from the Buildings, 7.4.3
Stirling Charter
Criteria for alteration work:
Article 1
Actions taken in respect of Scotland’s built a) Sufficient survey, investigation, recording,
heritage should secure its conservation for the documentary research and analysis should
benefit and enjoyment of present and future be undertaken in advance of design work to
generations. ensure that the building is as well understood
as reasonably possible and that the risks
Article 2 of accidental damage, destruction, missed
There should be a general presumption in favour opportunities or unexpected discoveries are
of preservation: no element of the built heritage minimised.
should be lost without adequate and careful
b) Disturbance of significant existing fabric should
consideration of its significance and of all the
be avoided and any unsound work retained and
means available to conserve it.
repaired in association with alteration work
Article 3 wherever possible. The need for alterations
Scotland’s built heritage should be managed should not be used to justify avoidable damage
in a sustainable way, recognising that it is an or destruction. The level of intervention should
irreplaceable resource. be at the lowest appropriate level, and this should
be capable of being substantiated.

11
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

c) Some buildings or parts of buildings are of such may be appropriate for new work, even when it is
quality, importance or completeness that they not restoration according to an original or earlier
should not be altered at all except in the most design, to be carefully matched in materials,
exceptional circumstances. construction and details to existing work, subject
to appropriate identification and records.
d) The need for alteration can, nevertheless,
sometimes justify the removal of earlier work h) Consideration should always be given to the
which, though part of the history of the building, desirability of carrying out alterations in such a
is not of appropriate quality, is not well integrated way that they could be reversed quite easily; that
architecturally, and manifestly detracts from the is, new work could be removed and the building
overall quality of the architecture. reinstated to its previous state without further
significant damage to the pre-existing fabric.
e) The need for alteration can sometimes justify the This is particularly desirable in alterations like
restoration of the layout or of missing parts of the the installation of services, where the life of such
building according to an original or earlier design. services is likely to be short compared with that
f) Even materials now regarded as hazardous can be of the building as a whole.
of historical significance, and if so may best be left
undisturbed. 1.9 Summary of investigations and assessments
g) New work in alterations should always be of required for the conversion of historic buildings
appropriate quality, should not draw attention The investigations and assessments identified below
disproportionately, and should contribute to the are those undertaken to properly inform the feasibility
architectural integrity of the altered building as study for a conversion. Each is recommended at some
a whole. In many circumstances it is appropriate point within the guide. Clearly the scale, complexity
for new work to be different and distinguishable and historic value of the building and its site will
from pre-existing work and to be in a natural influence the scope and costs of these essential elements.
contemporary manner. In other circumstances it However, even conversions that are apparently simple

Illus 1.4 Category A listed Fort Augustus Abbey (1876) prior to its conversion into apartments (Photo: D Urquhart).

12
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

and straightforward may reveal, on further investigation, • assessment of thermal performance,

hidden features that are important for the sympathetic
conversion of the building. • fire risk assessment,

Before the feasibility study is finalised, it is strongly • sound insulation assessment (dwellings) – sound
recommended that a conservation plan for the building testing is normally required,
(and the site) be completed so that the development • access audit,
proposal for the building is properly informed. Important
features essential to the conservation of the building can • risk assessment for harmful and dangerous
thus be incorporated into the design brief and the cost substances,
implications of certain design approaches identified at
• archaeological evaluation and investigation (timed
an early stage.
to give best results before and during the works).
Investigations and assessments may include:
• assessment of cultural significance (the first stage in
a conservation plan),
It should be noted that, from May 2007, there
• assessment of construction, materials, elements and
will be changes to the wording of a number of the
features,
Building Standards. The detailed changes have not
• investigation of existing defects in the building and been available for incorporation into this guide.
assessment of repair needs, However, these changes are unlikely to have a
significant effect on the arguments and advice set
• assessment of structure on the basis of past use and out in the Guide. Readers should refer to the notes
likely future use. In some circumstances load tests included within the individual standards that are
may be required, affected by these changes.

Illus 1.5 Conversion of a redundant spinning mill to a small Business Gateway by Scottish Borders Enterprise. A conservation plan guided
the development (Photo: ©Crown Copyright, 2007, Historic Scotland Images).

13
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 1.6 Former brewery (1785), listed category B, converted to residential study centre. (Photo: D Urquhart).

Illus 1.7 New glazed opening formed below an existing

window in this gothic sandstone rubble church hall
(1898) listed Category C(S) converted to community
play group facility. (Photo: D Urquhart).

14
 2. CONSERVATION THROUGH CONVERSION

2.1 Assessment of significance The special architectural or historic interest of a small

minority of Scotland’s historic buildings is recognised
A statement of significance seeks to describe why a
by their inclusion in Historic Scotland’s Statutory
place is important. It explains the values and cultural
List. Although no count is possible of the number
significance of the place and their importance to the
of traditional buildings in Scotland, it is thought that
community, or to groups within the community. It
the 47,000 buildings in the Statutory List are likely to
may describe the aesthetic/architectural, technological,
represent less than 1% of the country’s entire building
historic or social value of a place including features that
stock. Unlisted traditional buildings are important
offer intangible value. It is an essential first step in the
components of Scotland’s 640 conservation areas, but
development of a conservation plan (or conservation
the majority of the country’s traditional building stock
management plan) a document that sets out ways to
are not protected through statutory designation.
protect the significance of the place. Setting out the
significant values of a place is central to the process Many unlisted traditional buildings will have much in
of protecting heritage, explaining how to manage it common with those which are identified as of special
appropriately and helping to explain its significance to interest through their inclusion in the Statutory List.
others. There will, for example, be C18 and early C19 buildings
around the country where the stonework has been cut
and polished by hand, or which retain their sash and case
2.1.1 Value of traditional construction
windows with crown glass, and yet are not included in
All historic buildings, large or small, complex or simple, the List.
make a contribution to our quality of life by informing us
In the second half of the C19 and early C20, Scotland
of our past and adding visual interest to the environment.
experienced building on an unprecedented scale.
Old buildings have historic interest because they reflect
Developments in technology increased the availability
the lives and achievements of our predecessors. Tangible
and choice of materials and economic prosperity and
elements that embody significance by association with
civic pride ensured that the quality of design and
specific events or persons, both on the exterior and
construction was maintained and improved. This period
interior, should as far as possible be preserved.
of expansion, which lasted until after the Great War (First
Traditional buildings are constructed from locally- World War), has left Scotland a rich heritage of good
sourced materials that are rarely used in the majority quality domestic and public buildings, most of which
of buildings constructed today. Although political, social were built with traditional materials and techniques.
and economic history has influenced the design, quality
Because the majority of these buildings have much in
and layout of our built environment, the main distinction
common with those on the Statutory List, Historic
between historic buildings and new-build is derived
Scotland’s criteria for the listing of buildings of
from the fact that labour was comparatively cheap in
architectural or historic interest provides a useful
the past and the transportation of materials difficult and
starting point for assessing the significance of all historic
expensive in comparison to today. Much of the practice
buildings (refer to Section 7.2.1 for factors influencing
of building in the past is now regarded as craftsmanship
listing).
practised by relatively few specialist contractors. With
the exception of large commercial and public projects,
modern building practice is largely standardised in its 2.2 Identification of character
use of materials, which are usually transported over large
The special architectural or historic interest of a listed
distances.
building or conservation area is encapsulated in the
This difference between traditional and modern term ‘character’. The requirement in the Planning
construction practice puts a value on all our historic (Historic Buildings and Conservation Areas) (Scotland)
buildings in terms of our cultural heritage, and as Act (1997) to preserve the character of listed buildings
an irreplaceable resource. The continued use of this and to preserve or enhance the character and appearance
resource through repair and conversion is therefore of conservation areas directs practitioners to base
clearly good practice in terms of sustainability. decisions on the special architectural or historic interest

15
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

of a building or settlement. Appendix 1 of Historic inspection, research and survey are essential – for further
Scotland’s Memorandum of Guidance on Listed Buildings guidance see Historic Scotland Guide for Practitioners
and Conservation Areas (1998) sets out guidelines in the 4 (2003).
appraisal of applications to alter listed buildings, and
The Memorandum provides detailed advice to inform
may be considered best practice for unlisted buildings
appraisal of proposed alterations to listed buildings that
in conservation areas and other traditional buildings. It
may be summarised under the following headings:
highlights the importance of understanding a building’s
character as the best way to inform sound decisions that Setting. A historic building may well be more
will preserve that interest whilst meeting the changing significant in the context of its setting than it would be
needs of its occupiers. on its own. Similarities of design and materials should
The interest of the fabric may be that it is original, or be noted where the building is part of a greater group
that it reflects the alterations arising from changes in the such as a terrace, planned village or town. A building
circumstances of their occupants. may have been conceived or altered in a manner that
is different from its neighbours, reflecting a particular
Appendix 1 of the Memorandum states that: point in its history. This individuality should not be
‘Most buildings have been altered to some degree over the overlooked in preference to uniformity, even in cases of
years to cater for the differing requirements of succeeding formal townscape. Buildings have a significant impact
occupants, and much of their interest may result from the on Scotland’s rural areas. The value of preserving the
manner in which their present form and layout reflect character and function of rural buildings will ensure
changing architectural and social aspirations. As a general that they continue to contribute positively to the
rule, therefore, buildings should be conserved as found. wider area. A historic building may be surrounded by
All original architectural detailing should be respected, ancillary structures such as barns and boundary walls.
as should later additions, embellishments or remodellings It is important that the character of these is preserved
of definite quality’. as much as possible so that the merit of the principal
building is not reduced.
The principle ‘conserve as found’ is not that a building
should never move forward. It directs practitioners, Design. Whether a building was originally conceived
wherever possible, to repair rather than alter back to by an architect or not, there is likely to be an overriding
some supposed previous form the surviving features and character to the design of its exterior. Many were
fabric of historic buildings. There are instances where deliberately built symmetrically or asymmetrically to
change could be beneficial, such as the introduction of reflect their status and/or inform of their function(s).
fire breaks, but restoration back to a notional previous Although some buildings may have distinctive elements
appearance is not usually encouraged. Not all of the such as a church’s tower and spire, the main elements
interest of a historic building may be immediately contributing to the design of a building are likely to
obvious:- be its walls and windows. The size and arrangement
of window openings will usually be key elements in
‘It is worth remembering that many buildings are more dating a building. Any alteration to the form of one or
interesting and valuable than they first appear to be, the other is bound to have a considerable impact upon
and much may be discovered in the course of alterations. the appearance of the building as a whole, and where
Blocked door and window openings with chamfered or inappropriate alteration work has been implemented
moulded arrises or surrounds may be found when old harl much of the quality and character of the building
or render is stripped off and moulded fireplaces revealed may be lost. The interest of buildings whether or not
when modern ones are removed. Timber panelling may designed by architects may be increased through being
survive beneath later wall coverings and good original conceived in an architectural style. These buildings are
ceilings lie hidden above later suspended ones. Particular very likely to have architectural features that are specific
care should always be taken with commercial premises as to that style and the building’s status.
early shop fronts and interiors may be concealed beneath
more recent work’. Materials. Materials, and the craftsmanship employed
in their use, may well be the most interesting element
The Memorandum highlights the importance of in a historic building. However, the choice of materials
understanding the character of a historic building and the way they are used in the construction of the
prior to alteration. Further information about building will provide an insight into the availability of
methods of determining the existence and nature of materials locally, and/or the prosperity of the area at the
concealed features will be found in Historic Scotland time. Some materials and methods may be significant in
Technical Advice Note Non-Destructive Investigation of demonstrating local traditions, whereas others may be
Standing Structures. To understand a historic building’s of interest because they have been specially imported
development, fabric, components and materials, careful from elsewhere.

16
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 2.1 Traditional Scottish slated roof. The Scottish slates laid in diminishing courses are an important aspect of the character of the roof
(Photo: D Urquhart).

Historic features. It is now widely accepted that the a conversion, but past uses should still be readable in
retention of a building’s historic/architectural features is the fabric.
key to the preservation of its character and these should
Roof. The roof profile of historic buildings is also
be retained in situ wherever possible. An assessment of
very important to their character. The pitch and eaves
the character of a building will inform whether features
detailing can be key elements in dating a historic
(such as fireplaces and chimneys), which may become
building. Plain roofs unencumbered by dormers may be
redundant during conversion, should still be retained.
a key part of the building’s character, to be respected in
Interiors. The interior can, in some cases, make as any conversion.
great a contribution to the understanding of a building’s
history as its exterior. The interest and merit of each
2.3 Retention of historic fabric and architectural
space, in whole or in part, must be carefully assessed
character
to determine to what extent the character of the space
may be affected. Importance may be attached to the Respect for a building’s character will inform decisions
completeness of features in a room, a suite of rooms, or on the viability of conversion. It is accepted that the
their inter-relationship. By preserving past alterations original use of a building is often the most appropriate
as well as original internal features, the building will one. It is therefore particularly important in cases
inform social and architectural history. The internal where the new use of a building will be significantly
structural system of some buildings may contribute different that the building’s character, and possible risks
significantly to their interest. Iron columns and purlin to it, are identified at an early stage through a thorough
roofs are examples of features to be preserved rather assessment of the surviving fabric. It is possible that in
than removed or obscured during conversion. The some cases the loss of character would be so extensive
practicality of maintaining the physical and visual that conversion to a certain function may not be
presence of internal structural features should be appropriate.
considered at the earliest opportunity.
Both the owner of a historic building and the planning
Plan form. Although often overlooked, the plan form authority that regulates works to it will seek the best
of a building will usually make a significant contribution viable re-use of a historic building. The viability of
to a historic building’s character, but there should be an a conversion is commonly considered in terms of
attempt to identify the principal spaces in all buildings costings, but should always be considered in terms of
and ensure that these are protected wherever possible. the character of the building. In the case of historic
Where the arrangement of the rooms has been altered, buildings, careful attention should be paid to whether
consideration could be given to the restoration of the the works will have an adverse effect on the historic
original plan form. Functions will of course change in character of the building in order to meet the practical

17
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

needs of the conversion. If the works will have a b) to set out a policy for the management of those
significant adverse effect on the character, the proposals attributes of the site that contribute to that
may be regarded as unacceptable. significance.
Proposals for the alteration of a historic building are The conservation plan should be prepared before, or
assessed on their own merits. Each building is different at least in parallel with, plans for the development of
in terms of its location, form, and how well it has the site. For some plans, further specialist reports and
survived to the present day. Some historic buildings detailed research may be required; this should be built
may have statutory protection, the effect of which will into both the cost and time required for the project
vary according to the importance of the building and work, or otherwise identified as a matter for subsequent
its relationship with other designations. Each historic further work.
building is also likely to have an owner with aspirations
that might be quite different from those of the owner of
a similar building, and these may in turn be influenced 2.5 Principles of repair and alteration
by an advisor producing proposals for its alteration or The conversion of a historic building will almost
conversion. Assessment of each case on its own merit inevitably lead to its alteration to some extent, and
ensures that the character of a building and the impact the need to satisfy the requirements of the building
of proposals for its alteration are not unduly influenced regulations will present additional challenges. For
by poor practice elsewhere. example, the conversion of a single-occupancy building
If in doubt, owners or their agents should always check into one of multiple occupancy will frequently require
with the local authority whether a building is subject alterations to access, both to and within the building,
to such designations as statutory listing, inclusion in a and improvements to fire and sound insulation.
conservation area, or by being sited within the curtilage Such alterations should be carried out in a way that
of a listed building (see Section 7.2). prevents loss of cultural significance and historic fabric
without increasing the risk to users and occupants. The
Where a historic building has been altered in the maintenance of a building’s fabric is essential, but so is
past, conversion may present the opportunity for protection of its cultural significance by conserving its
enhancement such as the restoration of features or physical elements in a way that does least damage to
spaces. Restoration should always be based upon firm its important qualities. These broad values are set out
evidence of the original or historic appearance of the above at section 1.8. Various conservation charters use
building. Photographic records in local museums and the concept of ‘integrity’ in this respect (Bell 1997).
libraries and at the National Monuments Record for Integrity may be grouped into five key components:
Scotland may provide the necessary information, as may
old Dean of Guild plans and previous planning and • structural and technological integrity,
warrant approvals. • social integrity,
• spatial integrity,
2.4 Conservation plans
• aesthetic integrity and
The conversion of a historic building would benefit
from preparation of a conservation plan that identifies • contextual integrity.
the cultural significance of the site and sets out policies
During the process of conversion it is almost certainly
that safeguard that significance. Such a plan will inform
the case that repairs to the building, where necessary,
the design process for development of the building, and
will be carried out at the same time. As with alterations,
will assist in the effective management of the whole
the repairs must recognise good conservation practice.
building and its setting, once the development has
Knight (1995) gives a helpful explanation of the purpose
been completed. Clearly, a conservation plan should be
of repair (Box 2.1).
tailored to the complexity of the site: the plan required
for a Category C(s) listed residential property will be
very different (and much shorter) document than that Box 2.1 The purpose of repair
required for a large or complex building. The structure
The primary purpose of repair is to restrain the
of a conservation plan is set out in A guide to the
process of decay without damaging the character of
preparation of Conservation Plans, published by Historic
the buildings or monuments, altering the features
Scotland.‡
which give them their historic or architectural
The objectives of a conservation plan are: importance, or unnecessarily disturbing or
destroying historic fabric.
a) to identify the cultural significance of the site, and

‡
See also James Semple Kerr 1996, the Conservation Plan, and Kate Clark 2000, Informed Conservation.

18
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

The guiding conservation principles when undertaking and authenticity of the building, and reduce its value as a
a conversion of a historic building are similar to those source of historical information. A prime example is the
used for repairs. These principles are set out in the replacement of original timber sash and case windows
conservation charters and are also identified in BS 7913, with modern PVCu frames. This entails a serious loss
1998. Works of repair should be the minimum necessary of authenticity, even when the replacement windows
to stabilise the element or feature to ensure its long- attempt to replicate the appearance of the original. Yet
term survival. In addition, the following points represent an honest repair of the original window could prolong
good conservation practice and should be built into any its life for many years.
conversion project:
Over time all elements of the building fabric undergo
decay, but the rate of deterioration will vary. Minimum
2.5.1 Proper assessment of the site. intervention applied to repair means that historic fabric
is replaced only where there has been a loss of function.
There is a need to understand the previous history
Any intervention should show respect for the existing
of the building if sympathetic repair or alteration is
fabric and involve the least possible loss of that which is
to be achieved. This can be a complex task in some
culturally significant.
situations and the time, effort and finance required
should not be underestimated. The analysis of the site Sometimes in altering or converting a building there can
may require specialised architectural and archaeological be justification for the removal of earlier work, which,
investigations; through both on-site and documentary though part of the history of the building, is not of
research (see below). Records of all elements of the site appropriate quality, is not well integrated architecturally,
assessment should be retained. and manifestly detracts from the overall quality of the
architecture (BS 7913: 1998). If the building is listed
prior advice should be obtained from the local planning
2.5.2 Understanding the causes of defects and decay
authority, who may consult Historic Scotland.
To proceed with alterations, conversion or repairs
without prior investigation of existing defects in the
2.5.4 Appropriate techniques and materials
building can lead to abortive work and a recurrence
of the problems. Moisture penetration, for example, Alterations and repairs should preserve the authenticity
is one of the most commonly misdiagnosed defects and historic integrity of the building. The techniques
leading to inappropriate repairs that damage historic and materials used should match or be compatible
fabric, and may result in a recurrence of the problem. with existing construction methods and materials.
In this context it is advisable to adopt a holistic,
environmental approach to the treatment of dampness
and associated fungal decay of timber. The Historic
Scotland publication, Palfreyman et al, TAN 24 (2002),
The Environmental Control of Dry Rot, gives practical
advice on this approach.

2.5.3 Unnecessary replacement and minimum

intervention
A historic building will contain features that are original
to it. There will almost certainly be later additions and
alterations representing different periods in the life of
the building. These later alterations and repairs may be
important features of the building and are part of its
history and character. Provided they do not seriously
disrupt the architectural design and aesthetic value of
the building, there will be a strong argument in favour
of retaining these later alterations or additions. If,
however, such work is considered for removal it should
only be done after the most careful consideration of all
implications, and the features to be removed and what
lies behind should be fully recorded.
Illus 2.2 Sandstone façade repaired with precast concrete synthetic
Replacement of historic fabric with alternative materials
stone instead of matching stone indents. Corrosion of steel
and components may adversely affect the appearance reinforcement has caused spalling of the block. (Photo: D Urquhart).

19
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Nevertheless, there will be pressure placed on designers 2.5.6 Missing features

and others to adopt modern materials and techniques
There will be occasions, in the conversion of a historic
because of a shortage of skills and expertise in the use
building, where it may be desirable to replace lost
of traditional materials, and a presumption that time or
elements of a building. Typical elements are stone
cost will be increased by their adoption. New materials,
pinnacles, balustrades and timber structural members.
methods and techniques should be used only where
The process of conversion may offer an opportunity
they have:
to replace or reinstate the missing elements, provided
• proved themselves over time, that there is evidence for accurate replacement and
• where traditional alternatives are no longer available appropriate consents have been obtained. It is sometimes
or the case that stone elements, including carved features,
are replaced with replicas formed from non-traditional
• where the use of modern materials enables an
materials, such as precast concrete (synthetic stone),
important feature to be retained.
plastics and glass fibre materials, coloured to match
the original elements. This approach is not normally
2.5.5 Hazardous materials accepted good practice for work on historic buildings.
Some materials present in historic buildings may not
be acceptable in modern usage for health and safety
reasons but can be of historical significance. Many
of these materials, for example lead paints, do not
present a hazard unless disturbed and may be best left
undisturbed. The same recommendation also applies
when asbestos is encountered during the conversion on
a historic building. The Health and Safety Executive’s
recommendation is that an asbestos-containing material
(ACM) should not be removed if it is in good condition,
but that steps should be taken to manage asbestos in
buildings, which should include the following key
stages:
• take all reasonable steps to determine the location
and condition of materials likely to contain asbestos;
• presume that materials contain asbestos unless there
Illus 2.3. An example of inappropriate replacement elements is
is strong evidence that they do not;
illustrated on this B listed building. Stone brackets supporting the
• make and keep an up-to-date record of the location stone cornice have been replaced with reinforced precast concrete
and condition of ACMs in the premises; brackets. The reinforcement is corroding creating a risk of falling
masonry. An original stone balustrade supported on the cornice has
• assess the risk of the likelihood of anyone being been removed. (Photo: D Urquhart).
exposed to fibres from these materials; Note: The sandstone façade has been subjected to inappropriate
intervention (chemical cleaning and plastic repair) with resultant
• prepare a plan setting out how the risks from the damage to the stone.
materials are to be managed;
• take the necessary steps to put the plan into action;
• review and monitor the plan periodically; and 2.6 Importance of building surveys
• provide information on the location and condition While designers, surveyors and other professionals
of the materials to anyone who is liable to work understand the need for detailed and accurate surveys
on or disturb them, ie workers undertaking the of existing buildings when undertaking works of
conversion, or maintenance workers when the conversion or alteration, it is occasionally the case that
conversion has been completed. surveys are conducted simply to record the physical
dimensions and features of the buildings. Such an
Clearly, considerable responsibility is placed upon the
approach to surveys and recording may not be adequate
persons involved in the survey of a historic building
for some historic buildings that can conceal surprises
prior to conversion to ensure that all hazardous materials
that should inform the design process.
that may be present have been identified and recorded.
Where the presence of hazardous materials is suspected, The need for comprehensive investigation, survey and
specialist advice should be sought. records to provide a complete picture of the cultural

20
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

value of the building, is a prerequisite to the development multiple occupancies, may have walls containing large
process. Clearly, the extent of any investigation of numbers of flues. In addition, buildings of traditional
evidence will vary considerably depending on the construction are well ventilated and require the presence
cultural significance, age, history, size and complexity of ventilation pathways within the construction to
of the building. When trying to assess cultural value, remove moisture. These buildings may have other
the way in which the building has evolved informs the hidden voids, for example where redundant spaces have
assessment of cultural value. Evolutionary factors to be been covered up. These factors make the survey a more
considered are: demanding exercise than in a more modern building.
Identification of all hidden voids during the survey is
• construction,
of vital importance when a building is to change its
• aesthetic, use. The presence of undetected voids offer routes for
the transfer of sound and spread of fire, or they may be
• previous use and associations, inadvertently sealed up and thus limit the ability of the
• context and structure to remove moisture from the construction.
The investigation of voids inaccessible to the naked
• present condition. eye can be carried out relatively simply by endoscopy,
in which it is necessary to drill a small diameter hole
Conservation charters, identified by Bell above, and BS
(normally less than 12mm) to gain access.
7913 give guidance on this issue.
All investigative methods used on historic buildings
must respect the historic fabric and, as far as possible,
Box 2.2 Assessment of cultural value avoid damage to the fabric. Some historic buildings may
1. Charters demand a survey that will be outside conventional skills
and expertise of practitioners using traditional survey
a) Any work on a site must be preceded methods. The special demands of recording a historic
by professionally prepared studies of the building are explained in the Historic Scotland Guide for
physical, documentary and other evidence of Practitioners 4. A number of non-invasive investigation
cultural value, including where relevant an and recording methods (TAN 23, 2001) can be grouped
archaeological analysis of the ground. into three main categories:
b) Its condition should be assessed and all causes • Electro-magnetic methods (impulse radar,
of decay and other defects should be diagnosed. thermography, metal detection, free electro-
magnetic radiation),
c) The gathering of information should not
destroy any more evidence than is necessary • Nuclear methods (radiography),
for the protectional or scientific objectives of
the investigation. Non-destructive techniques • Mechanical methods (ultrasonic pulse velocity,
should be encouraged. impact-echo).
In most cases the investigations should be carried
out by a specialist surveyor, with the assistance of an
2. BS 7913: 1998: Criteria for alteration work archaeologist experienced in the recording of standing
buildings or an architectural historian who supports and
Sufficient survey, investigation, recording,
interprets the results of the main building survey (Wood
documentary research and analysis should be taken in
1994), and may feed them into a conservation plan.
advance of design work, to ensure that the building
is as well understood as is reasonably possible
and the risks of accidental damage, destruction, 2.7 The economic reuse of existing buildings
missed opportunities or unexpected discoveries are
Almost all buildings are capable of use that will be
minimised.
beneficial to society. Apart from buildings scheduled
as ancient monuments, where their existence can be
justified on cultural grounds alone, the existence of
Many historic buildings are not entirely predictable in buildings depends on their economic value to society:
their form or construction. Rooms and spaces may not they must ‘earn their keep’. Perhaps inevitably, the
be symmetrical, wall thickness can vary, construction judgement of the ability of a building to earn its keep
methods and materials can change with alterations to is often too narrowly focused on the short-term return
the building over time and parts of the building or on invested capital.Whole-life cost of a historic building
historic features may be covered up. Large buildings is rarely considered in a development to convert the
and those that previously were or are currently in building to another use.

21
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

One of the principal differences between a new Some historic buildings are in areas of economic
building and the conversion of an existing one is that and social decline. These areas tend to provide a high
the selection of materials, constructional forms and proportion of the buildings identified in buildings-at-
techniques may be limited in the latter, whereas in new- risk registers‡. Local authorities and Historic Scotland
build the choice is wide and limited mostly by cost. In will be keen to ensure that these become vehicles for
conversion work, each project is unique and experience regeneration. The rotation of buildings on the register
on one building, especially relating to cost data, can serves in part as an indicator of economic health as well
not always be transferred directly to another building. as of the energy devoted locally to regeneration through
The room to manoeuvre may seem to be less than with heritage.
new-build, as options relating to choice of materials
For buildings within many conservation areas, there is
or construction methods may be limited to those that
a view among estate agents that the security provided
will perform well in conjunction with existing fabric. A
by a conservation area may have the effect of increasing
large part of the success or failure of a development may
the value of an individual property. Being within a
be attributed to initial decisions, but at each stage of the
conservation area means that there is stability in the area.
process it is necessary to consider what effect changes to
Development must enhance or preserve the character
the building will have on ultimate value, both financial
of that area, and the freedom of surrounding property
and cultural.
owners to adversely change the quality of the built
When comparing the cost-in-use, the advantage of a and natural environment is curtailed (PAN 71,2004
modern well-insulated building in terms of heating Management of Conservation Areas).
costs might seem clear. While a converted building
Historic buildings that are in good condition help to
of traditional construction can be improved – indeed,
make the surrounding environment more secure. By
will have to be improved to meet the new regulations
reusing existing buildings and bringing them up to
– it is unlikely to match the energy efficiency of a
modern standards, the environment is improved and
new building. Yet this ignores the significant amount
maintained, and economic activity stimulated. For
of embedded energy contained within the fabric of an
office and retail premises, owners or occupiers may pay
existing building. It will usually be difficult to insulate an
higher rents for buildings they perceive to be of high
existing building to the same standard as a new building
architectural merit and cultural significance.
without adversely affecting historic fabric. However,
most buildings of traditional construction are more The argument for reuse, as opposed to demolition
easily maintained over long periods than their modern followed by new build, is further reinforced by the
counterparts; major repairs to the external fabric are less use of appropriate traditional skills in conversion
likely. The occupancy cost of most converted buildings or rehabilitation. Conservation is generally labour-
may exceed that of a purpose-built modern building intensive and demands higher skills in using locally-
due, for example, to more generous space standards such sourced and sustainable materials. The use of traditional
as ceiling heights and common landings presented by the skills in such circumstances promotes local employment
existing building. On the other hand, these restrictions opportunities and encourages training.
are often balanced by the prestige of the building and
its environment. A large house divided into a number
2.8 Financial considerations: Value Added Tax
of smaller ones gives some of the newly created flats the
opportunity to have extraordinary living rooms with A factor that has a significant effect on the decision
proportions and finishes unimaginable in a newly built to convert a historic building is the additional cost of
house of similar cost. They can, then, hold their value Value Added Tax (VAT). The current standard VAT rate
well. of 17.5% is applied to most work to existing buildings,
unless it can be charged at either a reduced rate of five
It is sometimes thought that listed buildings can be
percent or is ‘zero-rated’. The legislation surrounding
more difficult to sell or lease, because it is perceived
VAT is very complex, and developers should seek advice
by prospective purchasers or developers that the fact
from HM Revenue and Customs before any work is
that it is listed imposes a constraint. It may alternatively
undertaken regarding the position of each individual
be argued that a listed building presents an unmatched
building with respect to the application of the reduced
opportunity to the right developer. There is also the
rate or the zero-rate of VAT. The VAT legislation,
poorly-founded argument that historic buildings are
unfortunately, does not offer any general relief for
more difficult and expensive to maintain. This view
historic and listed buildings. Any relief is dictated by the
tends to ignore the financial, social, cultural and
individual circumstances of each project.
environmental costs of frequent replacement of, usually,
poor quality, short-life buildings. The reduced five-percent rate applies to conversions
carried out in the circumstances outlined in Box 2.3.

‡
see http://www.buildingsatrisk.org.uk/

22
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Box 2.3 Application of reduced rate VAT to that the work may actually enhance its character. BS
conversions in the following circumstances; 7913:1998 provides more detailed information on the
criteria for alteration work. Some of the key points are
1. Conversion of a dwelling resulting in a change in identified below:
the number of dwellings.
a) Some buildings or parts of buildings are of
2. Conversion of a dwelling into a multiple such quality, importance or completeness that
occupation dwelling. they should not be altered, except in the most
exceptional circumstances.
3. Converting a non-residential property into
a single household dwelling or number of b) Consideration should be given to the desirability
dwellings. of being able to reverse changes to the building.
That is, the ability for new work to be removed
4. Conversion of a dwelling or multiple occupation
without damaging the pre-existing fabric. The
dwelling to a building intended for ‘relevant
building shown in Illus 2.4 is a former Category A
residential purposes’ (see definition below).
listed spinning mill (circa 1793), within which the
Relevant residential purpose: a home providing unique construction of flagstone floors on a grid
residential accommodation, student accommodation of I-section cast-iron joists and beams has been
or personal care, including army accommodation, preserved. New floors and ceilings formed for the
hospices or any institution which is the sole main conversion to apartments encase the historic floors,
residence of 90% of its residents. which, although hidden from view, are retained in
place with all the original construction intact.

For a building to be ‘zero-rated’ the following conditions c) Disturbance to significant existing fabric should
must apply: be avoided. The need for alterations should not
justify the removal or destruction of material of
a) The work must be to a ‘protected building’, which architectural or cultural significance.
includes listed buildings or scheduled monuments,
and be identified as indicated in either (b) or (c).
b) It is an ‘approved alteration’. Approved alterations
are alterations that cannot be carried out without
Listed Building Consent and have received such
consent (these do not include repairs or ‘incidental
alteration’, which are carried out as a result of the
need to repair the structure of the building).
c) It is a ‘substantial reconstruction’. A ‘substantial
reconstruction’ is where no more than the external
walls of the building remain, and/or the total cost
of the approved alterations (excluding repairs)
represents 60% or more of the total cost of the
work.
In addition, the refurbished building must be used as
either a dwelling for a ‘relevant residential purpose’
(see Box 2.3) or for a ‘relevant charitable purpose’. A
‘relevant charitable purpose’ is use by a charity for non-
business activities or to provide social or recreational
activities for a local community.

2.9 Appropriate solutions in the conversion of

historic buildings
To reach the most acceptable solution in the conversion
Illus 2.4 Former spinning mill (listed Category A) converted into
of a historic building, due regard must be paid to the
apartments. An important issue in the conversion was the unique
form, structure and internal arrangement of spaces. It cast-iron structural system. The extension to the side with large
therefore follows that, when a conversion is proposed, glazed areas is a restaurant cut back from a bigger shed. The glass
the building should be as well understood as possible belvedere replaced a long-missing cupola for a water tank and bell
so that the risks to the building are minimised and so (Photo: D Urquhart).

23
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

d) Where an addition to the building forms part of the The identification of existing compartmentation within
development, the addition should be blended with the building can inform the design process with respect
existing work and not viewed in isolation. It should to the provision of fire resistance. The creation of new
have architectural integrity as a whole and with its spaces that result in the alteration of existing spaces
setting. In some cases this will mean it should match and the destruction of fire resisting compartments may
the existing. However, it is sometimes appropriate create added difficulties in achieving the necessary fire
for an addition to be different and distinguishable resistance. In addition, the creation of new spaces can
from the existing building, but the new materials have a destructive impact on the character of a historic
should be carefully matched. interior.
It is sometimes the case that, to ensure the economic
viability of a development, the developer will decide
to convert a building to a use that will adversely
affect internal spatial arrangements. Illustration 2.5
provides an example where a specific number of two-
bedroom apartments were required by the development
brief, which resulted in a major alteration of the
existing spaces and consequent destruction of much
of the internal finishes. A more flexible specification
of accommodation provision may have been more
sympathetic to the existing internal spaces, and avoided
the loss of historic fabric such as internal lath and
plaster, plaster cornicing and flooring.

Illus 2.5 This early C19 listed Category B, former bank building,
has been disrupted internally to accommodate conversion into two-
bedroom apartments (Photo: D Urquhart).

Illus 2.6b Innovative conversion of a sandstone

and iron-framed building (exterior view).

Illus 2.6a Innovative conversion of a sandstone and iron-framed building now part of a business and retail park (interior view). While
the conversion of the building results in a modern, practical and economically viable development, the important historic features have been
retained, as can be seen from the sandstone façade and the internal structural arrangement of columns, beams and floors. Historic columns and
beams are retained behind a new façade cut across a very deep-plan yarn store. (Photographs ©Historic Scotland Photo Library).

24
 3. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS:
MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

3.1 Understanding Scottish traditional buildings* 3.1.1 Stone masonry construction

Historic buildings, built using traditional materials and Traditional materials and methods of construction cover
methods, form a significant proportion of the total a vast range, but many materials and methods can be
building stock of Scotland and so should be familiar to confined to specific geographical areas because they
all who work on them as either designers or as builders. were sourced from their immediate locality. Distinctive
Unfortunately, this assumed familiarity does not always buildings resulted from this diversity of methods.
hold good, as the skills necessary to fully understand However, a common feature of most traditional buildings
such buildings, and to carry out repairs and alterations, is that they contain soft, weak or permeable materials,
no longer reside within the knowledge and experience such as lime mortars, plasters, renders and paints. The
of some generalists working in the construction industry. resulting building fabric is permeable to the passage
It has become an area for the specialist, whether of moisture and water vapour. The response of these
designer or contractor. However, as existing traditional buildings to environmental conditions and structural,
buildings form a large percentage of the total building thermal and moisture movement is quite different from
stock, it is likely that practitioners who do not possess that of more modern buildings that use hard, strong and
all the requisite knowledge and skills will be engaged often impervious materials and membranes.
to carry out works of conversion and rehabilitation.
There is a considerable diversity of materials and
The development and expansion of the ‘do-it-yourself ’
methods found in historic buildings. In addition to the
market poses a risk to historic buildings. Components
most common forms of structures, where stone walls
and materials supplied to meet this demand are not
built in lime mortar with slate covered pitched roofs
generally compatible with existing historic materials and
are seen as the principal Scottish building method, there
may compromise the historic character and long-term
are other forms of structures, including earth structures.
health of the building.
Earth structures are quite common in Scotland where
they can occur as houses (mainly cottages), agricultural
Box 3.1 Building warrant buildings, civil engineering works and the like. More
A conversion will require a building warrant. information on earth construction can be found in
Windows, doors and rooflights will be included as Walker et al Technical Advice Note 6 (1996).
part of the insulation of the envelope, in which case An example of tempered-earth construction is contained
the building envelope will be improved to as close to in the Category A listed Foulis Castle (Illus 3.1). The
the standards as reasonably practicable. wall construction is timber standards with horizontal

Illus 3.1 Foulis Castle, Evanton, Ross and Cromarty (Photo: D Urquhart).
*
Today, the term traditional building is misleadingly used to mean the techniques and materials employed to build concrete blockwork, apply
cement rendering and erect plasterboard sheeting, for example. Applying this level of knowledge and experience to historic buildings can cause
them additional stress leading to loss of authenticity, and often to accelerated decay.

25
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.2 Sympathetic conversion of former storage building at Foulis Castle into a family home with rubble walls lime harled, with sandstone
facings to openings (Photo: D Urquhart).

Illus 3.3 Clay and bool cottages (C(S) Listed), Morayshire. Unfortunately, now rendered with a hard cement mortar Note: boulder base
course and modern slated roof, which replaces the original traditional ‘clay thatch’. (Photo: D Urquhart).

26
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.4 Example of a clay and bool wall, Morayshire Illus 3.5 Despite its traditional appearance, this C(S) listed building
(Photo: S Montgomery, Historic Scotland). (Waverley Buildings, Stornoway) is constructed from concrete.
(Photo: Andrew Wright).

rails enclosed in a tempered-earth mortar (a blend of from local brick and tile works where the main output
soil particles). Perhaps the key point is that the external was clay pipes for field drainage. These local bricks were
appearance of the building is superficially similar to sometimes soft and of poor quality for building work,
rendered rubble wall construction and, should any work and as a result would not always perform well in the
be proposed to the building, the way in which an earth Scottish climate. Many C18 granite buildings in the
wall performs must be fully understood if permanent
damage to the wall is to be avoided.
With the development of Portland cement in the early
C19 came the introduction of mass concrete as a walling
material; there was a proliferation of mass-concrete
buildings in parts of Scotland in the 1870s, particularly
in the Perth and Dundee areas. It is therefore important
to understand the nature of the walling material, as the
superficial appearance of these buildings may be not
dissimilar to the more usual forms of masonry-wall
construction (Illus 3.5).
Historic buildings are particularly susceptible to
dampness when hard cement renders have been applied
as an external finish, without a full understanding of
the way in which such walls function. Hard external
rendering, intended to keep the rain out, frequently has
the opposite effect. The hard and relatively impervious
mortar restricts the rate of evaporation from the wall and
the wall remains wetter for longer. Also, hard mortars are
prone to cracking, which directs rainwater run-off into
the wall and traps the water behind the render.

3.1.2 Brickwork Illus 3.6. Brick-built flax warehouse on a reinforced concrete frame,
built in 1912, converted to up-market apartments. New rectangular
Although the use of brick as a traditional construction windows have been cut through beside the original arched loading
material in Scotland dates back to at least the mid-C17, it doorways that were accessed from external steel landings
was not in common use.The brick tended to be sourced (Photo: D Urquhart).

27
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Aberdeen area have brick chimney flues and stacks, and other masonry buildings apply to brick buildings.
brick is found in most parts of Scotland in C19 internal
walls, rear and side elevations. Many urban stone-fronted 3.1.3 Timber construction
commercial buildings employed brickwork on lesser
elevations, such as the glazed brick used in lightwells. Single-skin timber-framed buildings are also a traditional
By the second half of the C19 the brick used was of a form of construction in Scotland. They mostly occur as
higher standard, and may be as robust as stone. houses, cottages, farm buildings, small railway stations,
village halls and the like, which sometimes undergo
Most entirely brick buildings are built from 1860 conversion. Unfortunately, to reduce maintenance costs
or later, for industrial, commercial, agricultural and or occasionally to attract a mortgage from a bank or
military purposes. A number of brick buildings might
building society, such buildings were sometimes clad
be suggested for conversion: usually large industrial or
externally with brick or concrete block, or covered with
warehouse buildings, perhaps in polychrome brick. The
a cement render on metal lathing in an attempt to make
classic example is Templeton’s carpet factory in Glasgow
them look like conventional masonry buildings. These
Green, where the brick has weathered better than its
‘improvements’, whilst destructive to the character and
stone details. After development as a business centre by
the Scottish Development Agency in the 1980s, some of appearance of timber buildings, are also likely to be
the buildings are now switching function to residential damaging to the timber structure, the timber cladding
uses, demonstrating the versatility of the building type. and also the interior finishes. Hard cement-based
An example of a conversion of a large brick-built renders are unable to accommodate movement of the
flax warehouse is shown in Illus 3.6. This has non- timber structure, and are likely to crack and admit
traditional reinforced concrete floors, relatively early for rainwater into the structure. Moisture trapped in the
its construction date, 1912. structure cannot readily evaporate through the render,
or any applied impervious paint films, and can lead to
The performance of buildings in brick is very similar the rapid development of fungal decay in the timber.
to sandstone. Brick, like sandstone, is a porous material
that is permeable to the passage of moisture, except However, when properly maintained, such buildings
where hard, dense engineering-quality bricks have been have a long life and are a valuable cultural resource; they
used. The normal rules that apply to the conservation of should not be lost through ill-informed alterations.

Illus 3.7 Well-maintained, single-skin timber framed house (Photo: D Urquhart).

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.8 Category B listed former Victorian railway station converted to a variety of uses, including tearoom, shop and tourist information
centre (Photo: D Urquhart).

3.1.4 Other structural systems Most changes of use are from the more usual masonry-
clad buildings constructed from loadbearing stone walls.
Other structural materials encountered in historic
They may be framed buildings with frames formed from
buildings are:
cast iron, wrought iron, mild steel (or a combination of
• cast-iron beams, commonly early to late C19, these) or reinforced concrete beneath a stone or brick
cladding. These often respond well to changes of use
• cast-iron columns, commonly late C18 to early
in which non-traditional approaches to some elements
C20,
may be appropriate (Swailes 2006).
• wrought iron, commonly mid to late C19,
• mild steel, late C19 onwards, 3.2 Traditional materials and components

• filler-joist floors, late C19 to early C20,

3.2.1 Stone walls
• flitch beams combining timber and iron, late C18 to
The traditional wall in Scotland is of rubble because it
mid C19,
was the cheapest local material available for building
• reinforced concrete. masonry walls of all kinds. For more important buildings
or façades, ashlar masonry was used, which may have a
Many C20 buildings were constructed of reinforced polished, stugged, droved or broached finish.
concrete and a relatively small number of these are listed
as of architectural or historic interest. Unfortunately, A comparison of typical traditional and modern wall
reinforcement corrosion is common, principally construction methods is shown in Illus 3.10 and 3.11,
associated with carbonation, which causes substantial and the principal differences are summarised in Table 1.
spalling of the concrete. Dealing with this problem is Traditional construction in the table refers to sandstone
outside the scope of this book and specialist advice and similar porous stones. Walls constructed from stones
should be sought. that are non-porous, such as granite and whinstone,

29
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.9 Traditional Scottish sandstone rubble wall. Conversion of former hemp works (Photo: D Urquhart).

Illus 3.10 Typical traditional Scottish masonry wall with internal Illus 3.11. Typical modern masonry wall construction.
dry lining.

are common in parts of Scotland. The stones have a where there are fine cracks in the joints – the
significant impact on the ability of the wall to react impervious nature of the stone encourages significant
to changes in moisture content. In a wall constructed volumes of water to enter the wall through the
of non-porous stone, moisture may not evaporate so joints, because no water is retained by the stone itself.
quickly from the core of the wall as it will from a wall Evaporation of moisture from the core of the wall
with more porous stones. Such a wall relies on the can only take place towards the inside face where the
permeability of the mortar to effect evaporation, so that mortar joints are much wider, and if air is stagnant at
once the mortar becomes saturated it will remain wetter this face any timber that is in contact will be vulnerable
for longer. to the dry rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans). During the
conversion of these buildings it is important to assess
A granite wall, with an ashlar facing and fine joints,
fully the moisture condition of the walls and ensure that
can be highly water resistant when the pointing is in
adequate ventilation of internal surfaces is maintained.
good condition: but when the joints are open – or even

30
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Table 1 Comparison of traditional masonry wall and modern masonry wall constructions.

Traditional masonry wall Modern masonry wall

• Massive construction, thick walls • Relatively slender construction

• Porous, highly permeable construction • Porous materials but low permeability finishes

• Large volume of absorbent materials (porous stone • Limited ability to absorb moisture
and mortar)
• Moisture can penetrate into and evaporate easily from • Moisture within the wall not easily evaporated
the wall. This helps stabilise moisture levels in rooms

• Modern levels of insulation may not be achievable • Insulation materials may be adversely affected by
moisture
• Construction can absorb small thermal and moisture • Well insulated construction
movements
• Prone to cracking due to hard, brittle materials

• Cracks in external finishes permit water

penetration into construction

• Air movement required behind dry lining to prevent • Ventilation of cavities not required
raised moisture content of timbers

• Damp-proof course not normally installed • Damp-proof course essential

• No vapour checks or barriers • Vapour checks integrated into construction

It will be clear from Table 1 that the traditional soft, repairs to stone are needed as part of the conversion of
porous finishes should not be replaced with harder and the building, the opportunity should be taken to repair
less permeable finishes used in modern construction. decayed stone with appropriate replacement stone
The use of strong, modern cements in place of lime indents. If past plastic repairs are accelerating decay of
mortar in renders and in stonework will adversely affect adjoining stone they should similarly be replaced by
the performance and long-term health of the wall. If any natural stone indents.
alterations or repairs are required they should be carried
out in materials that ultimately match the composition
3.2.2 Plasterwork
and strength of what exists already. New work should
never be stronger or denser than the original, as this can Most historic buildings employed lime plaster as the
promote deterioration of the original fabric. A wall of internal finish. The earliest lime plaster was applied ‘on
traditional construction is unlikely to be able to tolerate the hard’, that is it was applied directly to the masonry
much change without affecting its moisture balance, or background of stone and lime mortar, usually in three
without the increased risk of decay of timber elements coats, giving a total thickness of 11-13mm. Timber lath
in contact with the wall. as a background material was introduced at the end of
the C16, and allowed plaster to be applied to both walls
A building warrant is not required for repairs, provided
and ceilings. This became the standard background for
that ‘the work, service, fitting or equipment is to a standard no
plasterwork until the 1930s. Hair was added to the mix
worse than present.’ Further information on repairs and
to increase the tensile strength of the plaster, which had
building warrant implications is contained in Section
to be self-supporting between the timber laths. From
3.4.
the 1940s lime plasters were largely abandoned for new
Where the stone in a façade is ashlar, past repairs to work, to be replaced by cement-gauged coarse stuff or
decayed stone frequently take the form of ‘plastic’ repairs, by gypsum plasters or lime/gypsum plasters for all coats.
often in a cement-based mortar or proprietary mortar. If More information on historic plasterwork is given in

31
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Technical Advice Note 2 (Simpson and Brown 2002). buildings. The development of Portland cement in the
C19 also meant that some buildings were coated with
Historic plaster is vulnerable to damp conditions. The
early forms of cement, for which a number of recipes
unwanted presence of moisture is the most common
were patented. These early Portland cements and
cause of problems. Dampness dissolves and mobilises
mortars do not have the strength of modern cements
salts that may be present in contaminants in the plaster
and are thus less damaging to historic fabric. A variety of
or in adjoining construction.Where the salts are allowed
lime coatings were used, and are described in Technical
to crystallise on the surface, they can be brushed off, but
Advice Note 15 (The Scottish Lime Centre 2001), the
where they form behind an impervious paint film, for
most common being:
example, they can weaken the plaster by expansion of the
• lime harling,
crystals leading to spalling and surface breakdown. Only
• lime renders,
vapour-permeable paints and other surface treatments
should be applied to traditional lime plasters. • modelled and decorative surfaces,
• sneck harling and
3.2.3 External coatings and renders
• coloured limewash.
A traditional masonry wall is porous: it has the ability
to absorb and release (transpire) water and water vapour Wherever possible, the original finish should be
without deleterious consequences. Lime coatings were respected during the conversion of a historic building.
the traditional means of finishing walls, to provide Later coatings, using harder cement mortars, should be
both a decorative finish and a sacrificial coating as removed if causing harm to the character or fabric of the
protection to the rubble wall. Clay, either on its own or building, and the surface reinstated with an appropriate
in combination with lime, was also used on vernacular lime-mortar coating. It is common to find that historic

Illus 3.12(a) Recent lime coating showing exceptionally high moisture loading in the wall due to water penetration at roof level and to
moisture from the ground. (Photo: D Urquhart).
Note: Prior reduction of moisture in the wall is required to ensure that new lime coatings will not fail. In this case repairs to skews and
chimneys, a lower ground level and installation of drainage is recommended.

32
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.12(b) Good example of recent lime coating on a restored Category A listed building. (Photo: D Urquhart).
Note the new DPC below the garden wall cope.

wall below, which is subsequently pointed up in hard

cement mortar, reduces the weather-resisting properties
of the wall and also adversely affects its character.
There are a number of C19 and early C20 rubble-built
buildings where sometimes the whole of principal
elevations may have been modelled in a smooth cement
render, permanently achieving what could only be
transient in lime. In Stornoway, dressed lintels and the
like often prove to be of concrete. As this forms part of
the architectural character of the building this should
not be removed or tampered with unless proven to be
damaging the structure.
Illus 3.13 Typical failure of hard cement render on a soft mortar
rubble wall. (Photo: D Urquhart). 3.2.4 Roof coverings
Pitched roofs are traditionally covered with slates, stone
buildings have been coated with incompatible materials slates and flags, clay tiles (including pantiles), and thatch.
during C20 repairs. All too often this has resulted in In order to retain the patina and historic character that
the decay of stone and lime mortar, due to entrapped they possess, and to be sustainable, every effort should
moisture behind the render and differences in the be made to retain as much of the original material as is
permeability characteristics of the hard cement mortar possible during conversion or refurbishment. Sometimes
and the stone. The common practice of removing a decision is made to replace the original slates on the
traditional rendered finishes to leave exposed the rubble basis that the roof has failed. However, failure of a slate

33
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

or tile roof is more often due to corrosion of the nails

fixing the slates or tiles to sarking or battens, or to the
decay of timber roof elements, than to deterioration of
the slates or tiles themselves. These traditional materials
are an essential feature of the character of the property
and their replacement with modern, substitute roof
coverings can lead to a permanent loss of that character.
A careful assessment of the existing roof slates or tiles
should be carried out before a decision is made to
replace them.
Often there are insufficient existing slates to complete
the work, so it may in some circumstances be acceptable
to ensure that the existing sound slates are laid together Illus 3.14 Early C20 listed Category B apartment building with
on visible slopes, with new natural slates used on less steel windows. (Photo: Historic Scotland).
prominent slopes. They should as far as possible match
in terms of thickness, colour and surface texture, where
appropriate graded at diminishing lengths and varying
widths (as is normal practice with Scottish slates laid on frames that were strong, slim and non-combustible.
sarking). Unfortunately, many such windows have been poorly
Other roof features, such as ridges, hips, verges and maintained, are prone to condensation problems and
valleys, should, where necessary, be replaced in their suffer from corrosion. Nevertheless, such windows may
original form. Features such as ornamental ridge tiles of be historically important to the character of the building
clay, lead or iron are particularly valuable and are often and, wherever possible, should be preserved.
capable of reuse. If they cannot be reused or repaired, The most common reason given for window replacement
they should be replaced with features of matching during a conversion is to conserve energy by replacing
design and material. single-glazed windows with double-glazed windows. It
These traditional roofs are to a large degree permeable: is frequently claimed that replacing timber windows with
roof voids are well ventilated and slating felts or underlays PVCu or anodised aluminium-framed windows will
are permeable to water vapour. The construction reduce maintenance costs, but this will not necessarily
therefore helped to maintain the moisture balance reduce the whole-life costs of windows when the short
within the building. life of PVCu windows, for example, is considered. Listed
buildings and buildings within a conservation area have
some measure of protection through the need for listed
3.2.5 Windows building consent and planning permission. Unprotected
Windows play a vital role in determining the character historic or traditional buildings, however, are at very high
of a building and, as a general rule, their design, materials risk of damage to their appearance from the installation
and detail should not be altered as part of a building of inappropriate windows. The new 2004 Regulations
conversion. Where it is possible existing windows allow the whole building envelope to be considered as
should be retained and repaired when necessary. Guide an insulating system, which requires that the building
for Practitioners 3 (Newsom 2002) gives guidance on envelope be improved to as close to the requirement
the conservation of timber sash and case windows. as reasonably practicable. The unique qualities of the
The traditional timber sash and case window, when historic windows may not need to be compromised
properly maintained, is a long-lived asset and is capable as energy savings can be achieved elsewhere in the
of repair that will significantly prolong its life. Where envelope, or by other measures.
new windows have to be installed, or existing windows
Schedule 3 of the Building Regulations does not require
replaced, the design of the original windows should
a building warrant for the replacement of windows and
be respected, and features such as the depth of reveal
doors when the replacement meets the standards; but
greatly affect the character of a building. New openings
where it is not a complete replacement, but a repair,
should therefore be designed to conform to the original
the repaired window or door should be no worse than
design of openings so that the ‘texture’ and character can
at present. However, a conversion requires a warrant,
be maintained.
which will be required for the conversion and will
Metal windows are encountered in historic buildings, include the windows and doors. For energy purposes
in industrial and institutional buildings, and in housing. the regulations require the insulation of the envelope
The mass production of hot-rolled steel windows in the (including windows and doors) to be improved to as
C20 provided the opportunity to introduce window close as is reasonably practicable, and in a way that is

34
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.15(a), (b) Replacement PVCu double glazed sash and case window (bottom window in exposed rubble wall). While resembling the
timber sash and case window above, the wider frame and glazing bars detract from the character of this Category B listed building (1790)
converted into apartments. (Photo: D Urquhart).

suitable for a historic building. Annex 6N3 of Section quality is affected, and the air supply to combustion
3 of the Technical Handbooks, Conversion of historic appliances compromised.
buildings, offers considerable flexibility as to how this
Many historic buildings still retain their original timber
issue may be addressed. It is likely that the insulation of
shutters, which can be brought back into use to provide
the window may not have to be improved to the level
useful night-time thermal insulation. They also add an
defined by current standards. However, other approaches
additional security dimension to a window. In many
to energy conservation should be incorporated within
cases, roller blinds or heavy curtains can also provide
the building where these do not adversely affect the
significant reductions in night-time heat loss. Typical
historic character of the building.
thermal transmittance values are shown in Box 3.2
In the case of a conversion, windows, doors and (English Heritage 2002):
rooflights will form part of the insulation envelope.
For more detailed information on complying with the
standard, reference should be made to Part II, Section
6.2.4 Windows and doors. Box 3.2 Indicative U-values for vertical
windows
The energy efficiency of timber sash and case windows
can be improved by draught-proofing, which will have Single-glazed window U≈ 4.8 w/m2K
a significant effect on air leakage and sound transmission
Double-glazed Low{ glass U≈2.0 w/m2K
and improve the perceived comfort of occupants. In
well-made timber sash and case windows there will Secondary glazing U≈2.9-3.4 w/m2K
always be some degree of air penetration between the
Single-glazed plus curtains U≈3.6 w/m2K
window elements, and this small amount of ventilation
is beneficial to the fabric of traditional buildings. Care Single-glazed plus night shutters U≈3.0 w/m2K
has to be taken, when draught-stripping is applied, that
air leakage is not reduced to the extent that indoor air

35
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

3.2.6 Dealing with replacement windows in historic • loft insulation or other means of improving thermal
buildings efficiency of the building.
During a conversion there may arise a situation where 2. In cases where historically there were no astragals,
an existing component, such as a window or door, is or where the astragal is of more than 25mm
itself a replacement for the original. The replacement thickness, the use of replacement windows, with
may be a contemporary design constructed with new double-glazed units and low-emissivity glass
materials and, although complying with the building coatings, can meet the performance standard
standards, may conflict with the original character of required. These are commonly described as ‘one
the building. In the case of a historic building, there will over one’ or ‘two over two’-paned windows. Even
often be a desire, or indeed policy, to return the building the best replacements may not exactly replicate
to its historic appearance by removing discordant the original windows due to the frame thickness
components and replacing them with ones that better required to accommodate the glazing unit and the
respect the character of the building. Unless it is part additional spacer bar. Double-glazed timber sash and
of a conversion, a replacement component such as a case windows will normally require a spiral balance
window does not require a building warrant. system, rather than weights, due to the weight of
A typical example of this situation is where original the glass. They will still be expected to open in a
single-glazed, timber sash and case windows have been traditional manner when fitted in listed buildings.
replaced with modern PVCu or aluminium double- Further guidance on the importance of window details
glazed units. If these are recent windows, a U-value and the circumstances for evaluating proposed changes
of 2.0 W/m2K or less is possible. Replacing the plastic to windows is obtainable from the Memorandum of
windows with traditional single-glazed timber sash and Guidance on Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas
case windows will result in windows that are of a lower (1998), 1.2.4 - 1.2.11.
thermal standard than was previously the case. Even
with the benefits offered to historic buildings by the
2004 Building Regulations, this will, as a rule, result 3.2.7 Doors
in a failure to meet Energy Standard 6.2. However, the Doors and door openings, like windows, are key
installation of windows that do not exactly replicate the elements in defining the character of a historic building,
original will usually have a significant impact on historic and their replacement with doors of modern design
character. Finding a suitable solution to this situation or materials should be avoided (note the comments in
may involve compromise. The options that may be Section 3.2.5, Windows, with respect to replacement
appropriate are: doors and windows). Doors in historic buildings are
1. Where the historic importance and character of the predominately of timber construction, which means
building is such that only the use of replacement that most are capable of repair and refurbishment that
single-glazed windows with narrow astragals will retain their historic value, and external doors can
(window bars of 18-22mm width) will protect usually be draughtproofed with little difficulty. The two
this character, then improvements to the energy main regulatory requirements for doors that can create
efficiency of the conversion must be achieved by significant difficulties in compliance are access and fire
other means. It is likely that this will apply to many protection. These issues are discussed in more detail in
listed buildings and buildings in conservation areas. Chapter 6.
Even in these cases, it will be required to ensure
that the thermal performance of the window is 3.2.8 Environmental considerations
improved. Recommended methods are:
One of the primary objectives of the building regulations
• draughtproofing around window frames, while is to reduce the environmental impact of a building,
ensuring that ventilation is maintained and strength including its construction and use, over its lifetime. A
is not compromised; useful reference on this aspect is the Green Guide to
Housing Specification (Anderson and Howard 2000), which
• refurbishing and bringing back into use any existing
gives the environmental rating to over 250 construction
wooden shutters, and installing insulating blinds for
products. In the conversion of historic buildings, where
improved night-time thermal performance;
insulation of the envelope may have to be improved in
• secondary glazing (100mm air gap is recommended) appropriate situations, the environmental impact of the
will improve thermal and sound insulation and can insulation materials should be considered. For example,
be relatively unobtrusive, although narrow window the use of materials associated with ozone depletion
cills and the presence of internal shutters may or climate change, such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons
prohibit their use. See HS Practitioners’ Guide 3, (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) should be
Chapter 5; avoided. Renewable and recycled materials, including

36
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.16(a) The door on the left is an inappropriate modern replacement plastic door in this traditional 1914 building (Photo: D Urquhart).

Illus 3.16(b) The door on the right is an acceptable modern timber door in a building (circa 1904) converted to apartments and replaces a
door that was not original to the building (Photo: D Urquhart).

recycled cellulose, cork, sheep’s wool and low-density 3.3 Use of modern materials and methods
mineral and glass wool all score well in the Green
Guide. 3.3.1 Avoiding unnecessary damage

The environmental impact of windows and doors In many situations, the process of converting a historic
contributes 5 – 10% of the embodied environmental building will require decisions to be made about the
impact of a house. The Energy Saving Trust (2004) choice of materials and methods to be employed. Of
refers to the poor environmental rating of PVCu and course, the first priority is to preserve as much of
aluminium when used for the manufacture of doors the historic fabric as possible. Nevertheless, there will
and windows. Timber windows and doors, which are inevitably arise situations where new materials and
normally more compatible with historic buildings, do components must be employed to meet the needs of
not require much energy in their manufacture and score the conversion.
particularly well.

37
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Before any decision is made to replace existing materials appropriate materials and components to be used.
and elements, it is essential to conduct a full appraisal A balance has to be struck between the economic
of their condition, and structural capabilities where viability of the development, the degree of benefit
appropriate. Too often, the easy decision to replace to the building in the future and the damage that
existing with new is made because a lack of knowledge may be caused to its historic character. In reaching a
and understanding of historic materials has resulted in decision, the historic importance of the building must
uncertainty about their capabilities. Proper investigation be taken into account. An unlisted building that is in
and appraisal may show that either the existing elements a conservation area, where the external appearance is
will meet the new requirements or, with a little ingenuity, the most important feature, is unlikely to require the
can be sympathetically adapted or strengthened to meet same degree of attention to internal features as a listed
the new situation. For example, existing timber joists building where the interior forms part of the listing and
or beams may be strengthened by the use of steel flitch may be a key element in its character.
plates, or by the insertion of additional timber members
alongside the existing ones. Methods such as these
3.3.2 Impact of the Construction Products Directive
may avoid the need to use deeper joists or additional
(CPD)
supporting beams that will be destructive to existing
finishes. The Construction Products Directive (CPD) has an
important influence on the materials available for use
Where timber, or indeed any other traditional material,
in the conversion of historic buildings. The purpose of
has to be repaired the repairs should be carried out
the CPD is to remove the technical barriers to trade
using traditional materials and methods, ensuring that
in the area of construction materials and products. The
all sound material is retained, and replacing only
CPD replaces existing national standards (such as British
what is essential to ensure proper function. The use
Standards) with a single set of harmonised European
of recycled materials; for example, second-hand slates,
Standards for construction products, including the
stone, timber and timber components will minimise
testing methods to be applied.All products manufactured
the consumption of materials and energy required for
to these European standards may be given a CE Mark.
demolition and redevelopment. However, the stripping
out of historic materials from old buildings that are Member States are allowed, in their national building
capable of viable reuse should be avoided. New natural regulations, to choose ‘levels and classes’ of performance
materials are preferred to second-hand material of of products, in their national building regulations so
doubtful provenance. as to reflect their particular geographic and climatic
conditions, but must specify the requirements in the
Wherever possible, new materials should be matched to
terms of the European Standards where these have been
or be compatible with existing materials and methods
issued. The national standards, such as British Standards,
of construction. The insertion of new materials and
must be withdrawn after a short period of co-existence.
methods, which do not respect the original construction,
In the UK, all British Standards that are prefixed ‘BS
can have an adverse effect on the appearance and
EN’ are European standards. Box 3.3 identifies the
integrity of a historic building. For example, in the
application of the CPD.
division of a room into two compartments, the use of
modern plasterboard with taped joints is unlikely to
be compatible with the traditional finishes in the rest Box 3.3 Application of the CPD
of the room. New methods should only be used where The CPD applies to products produced for
traditional alternatives cannot be identified or sourced, incorporation in a permanent manner in works
or where they enable traditional features to be retained. where:
Sometimes even the use of a traditional material can • at least one of the ‘essential requirements’ must
be a problem if its compatibility with the existing is apply to the product in use, and
not carefully considered. An example of this situation is
• the ‘works’ in which the product is intended to
where new sandstone has to be inserted into an existing
be used must be ‘subject to regulations’ (eg the
façade. Matching stone has typically been selected
building regulations).
on the basis of best colour match with the existing,
but recent research (Hyslop 2004) has established Essential requirements are:
that unless the stone has been matched using a wider
• mechanical resistance and stability,
range of petrographic and other physical and chemical
• safety in case of fire,
characteristics, new stone that is incompatible with the
• hygiene, health and environment,
existing can accelerate decay of the adjoining stone.
• safety in use,
Clearly the economics of the development will be • protection against noise, and
of considerable importance in arriving at the most • energy economy and heat retention.

38
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.17 New entrance to an upper floor apartment listed Category B former hotel. The new wall is in imported granite (as is the new
building to the left) rather than the rock-faced Kemnay granite of the original wall. (Photo: D Urquhart).

It is then clear from the information in Box 3.3 that requirements (eg fire tests) based on prior experience
most materials available in future will be covered by – for example if they are accepted as ‘non combustible’.
the CPD. There are two important qualifications to Second, while the Commission and most Member
this. First, some traditional materials are being excluded States consider the Directive means that any products
from the testing regimes, either where they are deemed or materials placed on the market must be CE marked,
to play a minor part with respect to health and safety the United Kingdom and certain other states have never
and where it is considered that their qualities are well accepted this interpretation, and it remains possible for
enough established, or by being accepted as meeting the unmarked products to be sold in the UK. Thus specialist

39
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 3.18 View of the main entrance elevation of the conversion shown in Illus 3.17. (Photo: D Urquhart).

materials and products, produced in very small quantities for repairs, on condition that they in ‘all respects and/or
to match the needs of historic fabric, and which full in the manner of their fitting meet any relevant requirements of
testing to EC standards might be uneconomic, should the regulations’. This includes a door, window or rooflight
remain available while the UK position is maintained. when the work includes replacing the frame. This
Nevertheless, care must be taken in specifying materials implies that, when a window or door is replaced, the
by reference to standards, as changes in the make-up of replacement must meet the insulation standards set out
products, to meet different tests, can be expected. in the regulations; thus risking specification of unsuitable
replacements, as far as conservation of the building is
concerned. Part B of Schedule 3 does not except doors,
3.4 Repairs
windows and rooflights from the condition that ‘the work
When dealing with repairs to buildings and the impact is to a standard no worse than at present’. However, any work
of the regulations, the reader is advised to note the to a window, door or rooflight, including glazing, which
implications of Schedule 3 of The Building (Scotland) is less than a complete replacement of it and its frame,
Regulations 2004. In Schedule 3, no warrant is required need only be to a standard no worse than at present.

40
 4. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS:
THE BUILDING AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM

4.1 The systems approach since each is influenced by the other and they interact
together. The BRE publication, Thermal insulation:
When converting a historic building, it is important to
avoiding risks (Stirling 2002), while primarily concerned
think of the building as an integrated environmental
with new-build, does offer guidance that is relevant to
system and not as an amalgam of separate elements
existing buildings.
that operate independently of each other. The nature,
mass, moisture-transfer characteristics and thermal Most available technical publications in relation to energy
performance of the fabric must be assessed to determine conservation issues, while recognising the problems
the most advantageous approach to heating, ventilation, associated with moisture production within traditional
insulation and energy efficiency. Thermal insulation, buildings, are aimed at new or modern construction
heating and ventilation must be considered together, methods. In many cases where historic buildings have

Illus 4.1(a) Moisture, air movement and thermal behaviour of a traditional building.

41
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Illus 4.1(b) Moisture, air movement and thermal behaviour of a modern building.

been upgraded, applying modern standards of insulation water vapour penetrating into the fabric through the
and internal climate control has often proved to be use of impermeable barriers (DPCs, rain screens, vapour
detrimental to the fabric of the building. Historic barriers etc). Elimination of uncontrolled ventilation
buildings do not lend themselves to easy adoption through gaps in the construction at floors, windows and
of modern systems, and the difficulties in achieving other locations is a further objective. Thus the poorly-
modern standards are recognised within the new understood introduction of modern materials and
regulations. techniques during work to a historic building may cause
longer-term problems, promote moisture build-up and
The differences in the behaviour of buildings of
fabric deterioration. There is no predetermined formula
traditional and of modern construction are shown in
that can be applied to a historic building to arrive at
Illus 4.1. The essential difference is that the fabric of
the most appropriate solutions. Each building and its
most traditional buildings is porous and permeable,
requirements must be evaluated separately.
which allows moisture and water vapour to transfer to
and from the fabric with relative ease. High levels of
ventilation are achieved through fortuitous air-leakage 4.2 Air quality
paths, which, in turn, maintain air movement within
The move towards ever increasing improvements
hidden voids and spaces to preserve the moisture
in the insulation of the building envelope and the
balance of the fabric. Through this mechanism excessive
reduction in levels of ventilation through reduction
levels of moisture in the fabric are prevented, unless
in air leakage needs to be set against the potential to
there is a defect arising from inadequate repair and
create an unhealthy indoor climate. The greatly reduced
maintenance. In the case of a building of modern
ventilation rates in modern buildings is thought to be
construction, the objective is to prevent moisture and
a significant contributor to the dramatic increases in

42
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

respiratory health problems, such as asthma, exacerbated drawing moisture upwards, gravitational forces acting
by mould and chemical contaminants from modern downwards and the rate of evaporation from the wall
materials and furnishings, and allergies brought on by govern the height of moisture movement. Equilibrium
airborne bacteria and chemical contamination. There is reached when the transfer from the ground (and
are numerous papers reporting such evidence, for downward flow of rain water within the wall) is
example Zock et al (2002). Well-ventilated buildings balanced by evaporation losses. Therefore, maintaining
of traditional construction can, when sympathetically a flow of air across the surface will help to reduce the
improved in terms of energy efficiency, provide a moisture content of the pores adjacent to the exposed
comfortable and healthy environment for occupants. surface. This is the principle underlying the need to
provide ventilation of air spaces. Illus 4.2 represents the
effects of air movement on the critical moisture content
4.3 Moisture and water vapour
of a porous masonry wall.
Traditional masonry buildings are not generally
4.3.1 Moisture from the ground
constructed with damp-proof courses in walls or damp-
Most historic buildings of masonry construction rely on proof membranes below ground floors; they rely on
the combination of mass of masonry and air movement the mass of porous masonry to absorb moisture, control
to counteract the effects of moisture transfer from the rising damp and disperse salts from the ground, together
ground. This transfer of moisture can be both vertical with adequate air movement to prevent deleterious
and horizontal. The ability of a wall to transport effects on construction materials. In many cases, remedial
moisture depends on the pore size and structure of action to prevent rising damp in thick masonry walls
the material, which influences the capillary forces by the insertion of moisture barriers (DPCs, chemical
acting to draw moisture into the wall. Capillary forces injection, electro osmosis and the like) does not provide

Illus 4.2 Representation of the effects of air movement on the critical moisture content of a porous masonry wall. The installation of a French drain
can reduce the moisture take-up by the wall. (Adapted from an illustration in TAN 24).

43
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

a satisfactory solution. The barriers may be ineffective result in collapse of the wall. Dealing with dampness
and, by concentrating moisture and salts, can restrict in such walls is outside the scope of this book and
moisture movement and hence drying, resulting in specialist advice should be sought. However, it is always
decay of porous stone and mortar. Illus 4.3 demonstrates the case that where an earth wall has no brick or rubble
this effect. Often it is a sufficient alternative to reduce footing walls, a damp-proof course, which provides a
external ground levels and install perimeter drainage to barrier, should not be used. A damp-proof course in
control the effects of rising damp. this situation will stop drying of the part of the wall
below the DPC by preventing moisture dissipation and
In some situations, for example where a solid ground
evaporation from above, and thus may raise its moisture
floor slab is in place, it may be difficult to ventilate spaces
content above the critical level. Usually the most
behind lath and plaster. Where this is the case, good
important action that can be taken in this case is by
building repair and maintenance must be rigorously
improving the land drainage around the building.
enforced to ensure that walls are kept dry. Water from
gutters and downpipes must not be allowed to enter
the wall and joints and pointing should be maintained 4.3.2 Ventilation and water vapour
in sound condition. It is also likely that some fortuitous
As shown in Illus 4.1, the traditional building technology
air leakage will occur at openings in the external wall,
did not tightly seal buildings. High ventilation rates
which will help to prevent stagnation in hidden voids.
achieved through openable windows, gaps at skirtings,
The installation of a damp-proof membrane below a ill-fitting doors and open fireplaces with flues, mean
new concrete floor in place of a suspended floor, or there are usually only small differences between vapour
when a breathable stone-flag floor is lifted and re-laid, pressure levels inside and outside the building. In
can actually increase levels of moisture within a wall. general, the greater the difference between internal and
The new impermeable membrane below the floor external vapour pressures, the greater the potential for
allows moisture to accumulate below the slab, and condensation to occur, both as surface and interstitial
encourages the migration of moisture to the sides of the condensation.
slab and into the base of the wall (Illus 4.3).
Converting or rehabilitating a historic building to new
In the case of earth walls, their strength is proportional use will often result in a reduction in overall ventilation
to their moisture content and high moisture levels may rates as flues are sealed up and air leakage reduced.

Illus 4.3 Concentration of moisture and salts as a result of DPC and DPM installations in existing building.

44
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Greater water-vapour production, which is a feature The above default value, which is also applied to most
of modern living in dwellings, means that mechanical construction types up to 1975, may not fully recognise
methods of humidity control must be considered to the composite nature of traditional stone walls with
reduce internal vapour pressures. Failure to recognise their high proportion of lime mortar (of lower density
and address the problem of increased vapour pressure than stone) and thus underestimate the insulation value
can encourage interstitial condensation on masonry of the wall. However, based on the material density
behind historic plaster finishes, raising the moisture and thermal conductivity values that are available, it is
content of adjacent timbers. Installing effective vapour possible to provide some additional guidance (Table 2)
barriers in historic surfaces is difficult and often results on typical thermal transmission values.
in the destruction of historic materials. In addition,
high internal vapour pressures may cause increased Table 2 Typical thermal transmission values for traditional
condensation on single glazed windows, promoting Scottish masonry walls.
decay of timber frames and corrosion of steel and Assumptions:
iron elements, and cause dampness within soft plasters.
Creating barriers to water vapour penetration in one • Total wall thickness 650mm
place will simply encourage moisture migration to • 600mm composite stone and mortar, ashlar stone
other vulnerable areas. finish externally
The introduction of vapour barriers as part of a • ventilated air space behind lath and plaster
programme of thermal insulation grants in Finland • lined internally with 25mm lath and plaster
have proved to dramatically shorten the lives of the • moderate exposure
traditional timber buildings in which they were installed,
introducing rot where previously the walls thawed and Wall type μ value (W/m2K)
dried naturally (Panu Kaila 2000).
Granite (density 2650 kg/m3) 1.40
Sandstone (density 2400 kg/m ) 3
1.33
4.4 Thermal insulation
Upgrading the thermal insulation value of construction
during conversion of a building is common, however, Whether the default value or the calculated value is
introducing additional insulation can cause problems adopted, the thermal transmission values for traditional
within the construction. wall constructions therefore far exceed the standard
specified in the Building Standards Amendment
(Scotland) Regulations 2001, the latest regulations to
Box 4.1 Inappropriate construction precede the 2004 Regulations. In the 2001 Amendment
techniques (Stirling 2002) Regulations, the maximum U-values for the solid area
Increased levels of thermal insulation may lead to the of an external wall is 0.30 W/m2K where a gas or oil
inappropriate adaptation of traditional construction SEDBUK boiler is used, or 0.27 W/m2K for other
technology, eg multi-layer loft insulation leading to systems. These values are, of course, those expected in
ineffective ventilation or thermal bridge at eaves. new-build walls. There is thus considerable pressure to
try to improve the insulation value of a traditional wall
and, as a result, historic finishes are sometimes removed
In addressing the issue of thermal insulation it is necessary to allow increased levels of insulation to be installed.
to consider the thermal transmission values of typical However, the purpose of the new regulations is not to
Scottish masonry wall constructions. Unfortunately, there force the destruction of historic fabric by undertaking
is no definitive guidance on the values to be adopted: unnecessary intervention. Upgrading is required only
the information that is provided in the various guides where this is reasonably practicable, and it is essential to
and codes of practice refers mainly to new construction, balance the loss of existing fabric against any potential
modern brick or block cavity walls, solid brick (one thermal efficiency gains. In the examples cited above,
brick) walls or timber-framed wall elements.The Energy where the wall is in its original state, it is inappropriate
Saving Trust (2004), in their publication series Energy to add insulation to either the external or internal
Efficiency Best Practice in Housing, Scotland: Assessing surfaces, or to inject insulation into the spaces behind
U-values of existing housing, recommend a default value the lath and plaster. Under these circumstances an
of 1.7 W/m2K for pre-1919 traditional sandstone (or assessment of the construction and thermal performance
granite) dwellings with solid stone walls with thickness of the whole building fabric should be undertaken. This
typically 600mm and an internal lath and plaster finish. will identify situations where it may be practicable to
However, no research information is available to provide introduce some thermal upgrading, provided this does
measured values for traditional Scottish masonry walls. not introduce technical risks (see Box 4.1). For example,

45
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

it may be possible to add insulation at roof level and that is sometimes assumed:
below suspended ground floors.
a) The introduction of high levels of insulation, while
There are potential risks associated with the thermal improving internal comfort conditions, lowers the
upgrading of a historic building. The assessment of the temperature of the original walls and therefore
building needs to adopt an integrated approach which reduces their role in stabilising internal humidity
looks at the building in a holistic way, as recommended conditions. The balancing effect of their high
in Thermal Insulation: Avoiding risks (Stirling 2002). thermal capacity is lost to some degree.
However, even when this approach is adopted it is
essential to recognise that, with some historic buildings, b) Adding insulation to the internal surfaces of
the recommendations may not be achievable for the external walls will have a significant effect on the
following reasons: size of internal spaces, and may be unacceptable.

a) Adding insulation may result in raised vapour c) In adding insulation it is difficult to ensure that all
pressures and increased condensation can result, thermal bridges have been eliminated, especially
for example, at window lintols and ingoes where at window and door openings, junctions between
thermal bridges may be present. floors and walls, and hidden internal voids.

b) A historic building may have unheated or poorly d) Air movement within the construction may be
heated rooms and hidden voids. These colder spaces eliminated or reduced, which can result in increased
will encourage vapour movement from heated moisture.
spaces, again resulting in condensation. e) Where existing features still survive, such as wooden
c) Adequate ventilation of moisture-laden air by window shutters, panelling, skirtings, dados, cornices
passive or mechanical means may be difficult to and the like, the dimensional changes resulting from
achieve, especially from hidden voids. In addition, the added insulation may not be compatible with
the installation of mechanical ventilation systems the retention of these historic features.
may be destructive to historic fabric and, unlike f) Adding insulation to the external surfaces of walls
modern buildings, the building itself may be a will destroy the historic character of the building.
source of moisture.
d) Thermally upgrading a single-glazed window 4.6 Heating
to a high-efficiency double-glazed window can
virtually eliminate surface condensation on the
glass, but creates an increased risk of transferring the 4.6.1 Systematic approach
condensation to hidden, less well-insulated areas of Traditional buildings were not generally designed to
construction. be heated to the temperatures that are recommended
e) Introducing insulation at ceiling level, or for modern buildings. Heating was either by open
increasing its thickness, significantly reduces the fires or by relatively inefficient low-pressure hot water
air temperature in the roof space. This, in turn, central heating systems using cast iron radiators and
increases moisture-related problems in the roof piping. Today’s occupiers will, however, expect modern
space. However, the type of roof, and whether it standards of comfort. Heating historic buildings to
incorporates ventilated or unventilated roof spaces, currently accepted standards poses a risk to historic
will influence the nature of the risk and possible fabric. The fabric of traditional buildings has usually
solutions. Some potential solutions for introducing reached a stable moisture balance and moisture
added insulation to the roofs of historic buildings content that reflect the low level of heating normally
are detailed in the English Heritage publication encountered. When the heating system is upgraded
Building Regulations and Historic Buildings (2002). and high output heat emitters installed, the fabric of
the building, especially the finishes, adjusts quickly to
the changed environment, resulting in a rapid loss of
4.5 Improving thermal insulation moisture from the porous materials (plaster, paint and
timber). The resulting shrinkage and cracking can be
There will occur situations where the existing finishes
very disruptive to finishes.
have been removed in previous alterations, or where
complete replastering is required: especially in situations It is thus necessary for the designer of a conversion
where little or nothing of the original historic fabric to fully consider how the internal climate of the
remains. In such cases it may be appropriate to building will be controlled, and the complexity of
upgrade the thermal insulation of the building envelope. choices available means that a systematic approach is
Nevertheless, this is not the straightforward operation required. However, no matter what system is installed,

46
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

a change in internal environmental conditions will 4.6.2 Alternative energy solutions

result. To accommodate this change the fabric must be
As it is unlikely that a historic building conversion
allowed to heat up slowly, with a slow adjustment of its
will be able to be insulated to the full requirement
moisture content, to control the thermal and moisture
of the standards, it is necessary to improve the energy
movements that will occur. This change will influence
efficiency of heating systems or use systems that have a
how the historic materials in the building perform. It
zero carbon dioxide emission.
is desirable to set up a monitoring system that reports
regularly on the effect on the fabric. Unfortunately, the Currently, the most practical and economically viable of
pressures of modern development procedures mean that the alternative energy solutions tend to be wood chip
time is always at a premium and rapid completion of or pellet-burning boilers serving a ‘wet’ central heating
the project is of primary concern to developers, which system (ie one with radiators and/or under-floor
does not allow the fabric time to adjust to changed heating), with water heating assisted by solar panels. In
conditions. a substantial building with a single owner such as an
office or school, these techniques can be viable. This
A systematic approach, such as that promoted by Park
viability may be improved further if the building is in
(1991), should consider the following points:
a rural location, where there is no access to natural gas
a) The use of the building (commercial, residential, but there is access to an economic and reliable source
assembly, retail or display – for example a museum) of biomass. There are however a number of practical
will influence the choice of system. Whether considerations. These installations are typically more
the building will be occupied continuously or expensive than conventional installations, and they
intermittently will also have a major impact on the can also cost more to run. They require much more
choice of system. New systems should be able to be attendance and maintenance than simple oil or gas
installed with minimum damage to existing fabric fired boiler installations. The flue arrangements for the
and should be aesthetically compatible with the boilers require careful design to ensure that they comply
spaces in which they occur. A proposed use that will with legislation and the combustion products do not
require a major alteration of the internal spaces may cause a nuisance to building occupiers or neighbours.
not be appropriate for a historic building. Requirements for this are set out in Standards 3.19
and 3.20, and are generally more onerous for solid fuel
b) The design and specification of the heating system, appliances than for oil, which are in turn more onerous
and other environmental control systems, should than those for gas.
be the responsibility of persons familiar with the
needs of historic buildings. They should be familiar In domestic installations, a wood burning stove with a
with the principles of conservation, understand back boiler serving radiators and domestic hot water
how historic fabric must be respected within the heating can be a practical solution, but there can be
design, and be aware that some modern installations difficulties with the detailed design of such installations
will be disruptive – physically, aesthetically and due to the uncontrolled nature of the heat source. It is
culturally – to internal historic spaces. The design of essential to consider features such as by-pass dampers
the new system should take account of any energy to reduce the heat input to the back boiler when it is
conservation measures that will be incorporated, not needed, while a means of dissipating the excess heat
such as roof insulation, draught stripping and use from the back boiler is also required when there is little
of night-time window shutters, so that the design or no demand for space heating or water heating.
capacity of the new system is kept to a minimum. In general, it must be emphasised that installations
The new system should be designed to work within incorporating biomass-burning boilers are not a ‘low
the physical constraints of the building. tech’ solution. They require careful design by those with
c) The condition of existing systems should be suitable qualifications and experience. Solid fuel systems
assessed: there may be a case for their integration have not been much used in the last 25 years and many
into the new system. of the skills associated with the effective design of these
have been lost from the industry. There will be a period
d) The culturally and architecturally significant spaces of re-learning before the majority of engineers are fully
should be identified, evaluated and prioritised so conversant with the design of such installations again.
that existing important features, such as cast iron Users of such installations must also appreciate that
radiators, elaborate radiator covers and decorative features of oil and gas fired heating systems to which
grilles, are retained. It is also important to identify they have become accustomed will not be available from
less significant spaces where larger items of a typical solid fuel installation. For example, automatic
equipment can be placed, and where pipes and frost protection cannot be provided by a heating system
ducts can be distributed horizontally and vertically served by a wood-burning stove.
without disruption to important historic fabric.

47
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Wind power and photovoltaic cells, while rarely cost be taken to reduce lengths of pipe runs, improve
effective unless the capital cost of the equipment is levels of pipework insulation and install high-
heavily subsidised, do provide low carbon dioxide performance hot-water cylinders.
emission sources of power.
• Offsetting the limitations of the less efficient fabric
by installing an energy-efficient heating system,
4.7 Thermal efficiency of historic buildings correctly sized to meet the demands of space
The thermal efficiency of a historic building, even heating and, where appropriate, hot water supply.
after its conversion, is unlikely to match that of a Over-sizing should be avoided as this will lead to
new building designed to current standards, even if inefficient operation. In a conversion to be used for
the existing building were reduced to a shell and a housing this will almost certainly require the use of
new insulating skin inserted internally or externally. a new SEDBUK boiler efficiency of at least Bands
Essentially, this then becomes the creation of a new A to C and ideally a condensing boiler.
building that performs in a non-traditional way. Where • The effectiveness of radiators can be improved by
it is necessary to preserve the character of a building, placing a reflective insulant on the wall behind the
it may not be appropriate to try to bring the thermal radiator and by fitting temperature control valves
efficiency of the converted building up to the standards (TRVs) to control the temperature of individual
that will be achieved by a new building. rooms.
In addition to upgrading insulation standards where • The heating of larger properties should be split
appropriate, there are other steps that can be taken into two or more zones, each with its own controls,
to improve the thermal performance of a historic which should recognise the impact of solar gains
building without adversely affecting the existing fabric and other heat gain sources in the building.
and historic character of the building. These measures
include: • High-efficiency lighting can offer energy-saving
opportunities, and are particularly suitable in
• Draught stripping windows and doors and reducing high-usage areas such as living rooms, halls and
excessive levels of air infiltration. community areas. Compact fluorescent lamps
• Installing energy-efficient hot water systems in place (CFLs) are available in a range of types and lighting
of the sometimes sprawling, ad hoc systems found outputs. However, the design of these fittings may
in large historic buildings. The opportunity should not always be appropriate for use in historic spaces.

48
 5. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS:
STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE

Most buildings being considered for a change of use to this date, buildings were constructed with different
may be assumed to have been structurally suited to their degrees of understanding of structural design largely
previous use, though as a matter of course this should be based on traditional rules of thumb. A common feature
confirmed. Changing the use of a building will require of traditional buildings is the large number of fireplaces,
a thorough assessment of its structural configuration and resultant flues, in gable and cross-walls. When
and condition in order to assess its ability to support considering structural interventions it is necessary to
the changes in loading that are likely to be imposed as ensure that any new openings or bearings introduced
a result of the proposed change of use. Reference to a recognise the presence of existing voids and whether
structural engineer experienced in this type of work there is a need for viable flues. Failure to recognise the
would be advised. Most buildings do not go through presence of flues can lead to instability of the walls.
their life without alteration at some time. The quality of Another cause of instability is when floors have not been
these alterations may not be of the standard set by the properly tied into walls, a structural concept that was not
original building, or changes may not have recognised always properly addressed at the time of construction,
the original structural configuration. The building and has sometimes been overlooked in the insertion of
may have been adversely affected by the activities of new stairs etc across floors that tie the building together.
subsequent builders, users or designers, their work then This is particularly relevant in C19 jack-arch floors
being concealed behind finishes or within floors. where the load bearing capacity is dependent on both
adjacent the horizontal structure and the deadweight of
When assessing a historic building’s suitability for a new
walls over for stability.
use, the structural form, the constructional elements
(walls, foundations, framework, beams, lintels, floors, The structural issue that creates the greatest difficulty
access stairs and roof structure) and the condition and and has most potential to influence the viability of use
suitability of materials must be assessed against the of a historic building, is when a change of use imposes
structural needs of the converted building. As part of the greater floor loadings; for example, where there is a
decision about the suitability for a new use for a building, change from domestic to office floor loadings. While
a structural assessment will have a major influence on the the British Standard, BS 6399 Part 1: 1996, Loading
project brief. The structural appraisal should highlight for buildings – Code of Practice for dead and imposed loads
the limits of additional loadings (or changes in loading provides recommended floor loads for various categories
conditions) that can be imposed on a historic building of occupation, very careful thought has to be given to
before major structural intervention becomes necessary. how the spaces actually will be used. English Heritage
A significantly increased loading, particularly to floors, (1994) has produced a useful guidance note on office
will inevitably require structural enhancement, which loadings in Historic Buildings. For example, in the case
may be both expensive and destructive to historic fabric. of an office building, the recommended design floor
When major structural intervention is necessary to loading of 5.0kN/m2 for filing and storage spaces will
produce a building capable of accommodating its new represent the maximum loading in these areas. It may
use, the whole viability of the project and the suitability be unnecessary to strengthen the whole area of the
of the projected use for that historic building must be floor to accommodate this loading as the designated
questioned. The fact that many structural elements may design loading for general office use is half that figure
be hidden does not mean that they are not important (2.5kN/m2). Should storage be required for heavy files
to the special character and historic importance of the and the like, the design of the conversion may be able
building.Where ‘opening-up’ of historic fabric, to inspect to accommodate file storage at ground or basement
floors and other elements, is required for structural level, where such a loading may be more easily dealt
assessment purposes, it may be necessary to obtain advice with without the need for structural strengthening of
from the Council’s conservation officer. Comprehensive upper floors. It is important that the client is aware of
information on the structure of traditional buildings and these limitations that may be imposed in the design
how to deal with any structural interventions is provided and, ideally, for the preservation of original material, the
by CIRIA Report 111 (1986). engineer should actively offer guidance on areas of the
building where higher loadings can be appropriately
The first Code of Practice, Structural recommendations for
accommodated.
loadbearing walls, was not published until 1948. Prior

49
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Estimating the strength of a timber floor may not be incorporated, and services drawings may show only
be a straightforward task as the strength and elastic a diagrammatic services layout of pipework, cables and
modulus of old timbers are often greater than those ducts. Important decisions on the exact positions and
specified in current codes of practice. Codes of practice how they will be installed within structural elements,
and British standards have changed over the last 50 such as floors, is often left to the discretion of the
years, and it may be appropriate to consider the use tradesperson on site. Usually the most serious impact
of contemporaneous guidance to establish the original on structural stability is when services are required to
loading capacity. However, it is not simply the timber run within and across the joists in a timber floor. The
strengths, sizes, and spans that should be assessed, increase in loading on the floor must be considered.The
because a major weakness in an old floor may be the ill-considered cutting of notches for cables and pipes in
joints and connections between the timber members, joists and beams can significantly affect the performance
and between other structural elements. It should also of the floor. There is a tendency for holes and notches
be noted that servicing requirements may have changed to be oversized to make installation easier.When dealing
greatly since the building was originally constructed, with the design of a conversion, it is recommended
and it is all too easy to notch and cut timbers to that detailed drawings are available that show clearly
accommodate services, thereby introducing isolated the location and maximum dimensions of all holes
weaknesses into the structural elements. CIRIA Report and notches that have to be formed to accommodate
111 recommends that the following information should services, and to design them to run parallel to joists.
be collected:
• identification of the species and quality of the
timber (including the extent of any infestation or
decay),
• determination of member sizes, and their overall
geometrical relationship,
• examination of joints and connections and
• existing deformations.
If there is still doubt about the suitability of the floor to
withstand the proposed floor loads, a load test may be
required. Often a load test of an element of structure can
show that, despite simple calculations to the contrary,
the element is capable of sustaining the new loading
conditions. Load testing should not be considered in
isolation to provide a quick solution to prove suitability;
the interaction of more complex structural elements
may offer false security if the structural behaviour
cannot be justified qualitatively.
There are other structural elements where it is almost
impossible to determine their structural strength using
design calculations. A particular example is when
cantilevered or pencheck stairs are encountered. This
particular form of stair, which is often circular, relies
on its strength through stone, or sometimes timber,
treads being built into a masonry wall and detailed to
interact to form a series of cantilever or torsional beams.
Alternatively, stair flights can be supported on projecting
cantilevered landings. The quality and condition of Illus 5.1 Structural support for this stair in Duff House would be
the stone needs to be assessed, and a load test may be difficult to determine using current design criteria (Photo: D Urquhart).
required to provide the necessary proof of structural
strength for the proposed loads.
The installation of modern services into a historic
building can be very intrusive and can have an
adverse effect on the structural stability of the building.
Frequently, little attention is paid to how services will

50
 6. PERFORMANCE OF TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS:
FIRE, SOUND AND ACCESS

6.1 Performance in fire • timber-framed internal loadbearing partitions,

• timber built into masonry walls,
6.1.1 Factors influencing fire risk
• presence of interconnected flues and voids within
Each historic building is unique and its performance the construction that permit rapid spread of smoke
in fire, as with other performance criteria, cannot be and fire,
compared directly with any other building: there are
huge variations in the scale, complexity, construction, • combustible linings,
materials, fire load and fire risk between buildings. • large, interlinked roof voids,
However, the construction technology of most historic
buildings dictated that the spans of floors and beams • complex timber support structures to create vaults
were relatively small in relation to modern buildings. and domes,
This, in turn, means that many of these buildings have
• timber doors offering inadequate resistance to
a cellular floor plan arrangement, with thick masonry
passage of fire and smoke,
separating walls that can have a confining effect on fire
spread. The advantage of a cellular plan arrangement is, • obsolete electrical wiring,
however, offset by other features that increase the fire
risk in historic buildings, such as: • unprotected iron and steel supporting structures.

• timber floors, An examination of almost every building will show it to

have its own particular lines of compartmentation, which
• timber staircases, can be utilised in a conversion to provide separation
• walls lined with plaster on timber laths, elements that, with a little attention, are capable of
providing at least thirty minutes of fire protection, and

Illus 6.1 Illustration of a typical cellular floor plan arrangement at Newhailes House. (Historic Scotland Guide for Practitioners 4: Survey by
LD&N, overlays by JRA).

51
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

often provide an hour or more. An assessment of the 6.1.3 Fire engineering approach
existing compartments should thus form an important
Previous approaches to fire safety relied heavily on
part of the fire protection strategy for the building.
prescriptive fire-safety standards, with an emphasis on
The design for a historic building conversion should
passive means of protection. For escape routes, this
respect these natural compartments, as their removal
entails the provision of fire doors in corridors, the
or alteration could have a serious impact on fire safety,
enclosure of staircases and corridors, and the use of non-
development economics and, not least, historic fabric. It
combustible materials. Upgrading a historic building to
follows that, when deciding on a compartment strategy
meet these requirements can mean significant cultural
for the building, a full understanding of the location
loss to the building.
of all the hidden voids should be available to those
responsible for the decisions. To achieve a balance between the functional standards
– where there may be a presumption that the only
In addition, the majority of historic buildings have been
way to achieve the necessary standards of fire safety is
altered over their life, and these changes and additions
by improving the passive resistance of the fabric – and
may further increase the fire risk. Poorly executed work
the conservation of the building, a fire engineering
can create openings that will encourage the spread
approach can provide the optimum balance. A fire
of fire, especially openings into hidden voids. This is
engineering approach will take the total fire safety needs
particularly true as a result of the haphazard installation
of the building into account and will recognise the use,
of services, where little attention has been paid to
complexity and historic value of the building. It can
the resultant impact on fire risk. Classic examples of
provide a more holistic and economic solution than
this phenomenon are the fires at Windsor Castle and
can be achieved by a more prescriptive approach. The
Hampton Court Palace, which were spread more rapidly
principal stages in a fire safety engineering approach are
by the presence of hidden voids. The vulnerability of
provided in TAN 11(1997), and are summarised below:
historic buildings to fire is explained more fully in
Technical Advice Note 11 (Allwinkle et al, 1997) and • a qualitative assessment to produce a brief with
in Technical Advice Note 28. (Kidd 2005). design criteria specific to the building and the fire
risks;
6.1.2 Regulatory principles • a quantitative analysis, which provides the data
The conversion of a historic building poses the most to establish design criteria and suggests available
difficult of challenges to the designer, because the options;
need to satisfy the fire safety requirements of the • recommendations arising from the analysis, which
building regulations (and other legislation) has the are assessed against the criteria; and
greatest potential impact on historic fabric. The two
fundamental issues that must be considered are the • the presentation of the analysis and
protection of persons, whether living, working or recommendations to the decision-making group.
visiting the premises, and the protection of the building A fire engineering approach, when used within the
and its contents. The legislation is designed around the context of fire-safety standards, permits the engineer
principle of protection of life and not the protection of to test the various components against each other,
property. or in combination, which has significant advantages
With respect to the 2004 Regulations, the essential over a prescriptive and less structured assessment. The
standards that must be met relate directly to life safety key element in a fire engineering approach is the risk
and adequate means of escape. Other standards, which assessment, where each risk can be assessed individually
require the building to be improved to as close to and each building treated as a unique entity. For example,
the standard as is reasonably practicable, include the for a building that is to be converted for the storage of
inhibition of fire and smoke spread beyond the point important and irreplaceable artefacts, the protection of
of origin, and fire spread within concealed spaces. these artefacts will form an important feature of the fire
Prior to the introduction of the 2004 Regulations, strategy for the building.
the inflexible application of the Technical Standards It is common for inherent weaknesses in fire integrity
to historic buildings sometimes meant either forcing to occur: compartments may be incomplete, boundaries
disruptive changes to the fabric or seeking relaxations between elements (such as floors and walls) may not
from the standards. The move away from prescriptive be sealed and openings in compartment walls may
to performance-based standards in the new regulations have doors with less than 30 minutes of fire resistance
means that a more flexible approach to fire safety can capability. While it may be possible to improve the
now be implemented, and the potential disruptive effect passive fire performance of specific elements, there is
on historic fabric reduced. The need for relaxations, likely to be a point beyond which the conservation
therefore, does not form part of the new standards. needs of the building are compromised. In such

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

situations, the use of an engineered approach can offer Fire wardens and others tasked with carrying out salvage
an effective compromise through the use of active work should have received formal training, adequate
fire protection measures, which can compensate for protection and be fully briefed about the health and
deficiencies in passive measures. Active measures should safety risk assessment carried out to identify the dangers
be part of the fire safety management system developed associated with this activity.
for the particular building, which will place emphasis on
measures that will allow the occupants sufficient time to 6.1.5 Performance of critical elements
evacuate the building. These measures are:
Floors
a) Fire detection – the earlier a fire can be detected
the more time there is available for evacuation and Many floors in historic buildings are of timber
activities to suppress the fire. The choice of system construction, which can have a very variable period
should reflect the nature of the building and the of fire resistance, ranging from slight resistance for a
risk posed to occupants, the value of historic fabric boarded floor without an applied ceiling to a separating
and contents. Automatic fire detection (AFD) can floor with ash or sand pugging on boards and a lath
reduce the vital time between fire initiation and its and plaster ceiling, which can provide significant fire
detection. Installation should be in accordance with resistance. As with all historic elements, it is essential
the recommendations of British Standard, BS 5839 to assess the actual fire resistance of a floor. Timber
2002: Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings. floors are classified as combustible construction, and any
upgraded floor must prevent fire from spreading from
b) Fire suppression – the use of systems designed one floor to another. In essence, the protection offered
to inhibit the growth of fire (refer to TAN 11). by a floor to a fire from below depends on the plaster
The systems can range from the use of hose reels ceiling, as the age and condition of the plaster and the
and hand-operated or portable fire extinguishers strength of its key to the plaster lath will greatly affect
(operated by properly trained personnel) to its ability to perform in fire.
automatic suppression systems, such as sprinkler
systems. However, the installation of pipework and Although timber is a combustible material, the structural
sprinkler heads can be very disruptive to historic timbers in many historic buildings tend to be generously
fabric; careful design, selection and installation of sized in relation to the spans and imposed loads. The
the system will be required to best suit individual fire resistance of a timber section can be predicted
circumstances. and is based on the rate of charring: timber suffers
no appreciable loss of strength until charring occurs.
c) Smoke control – this concerns the concept of An oversized timber beam can achieve a significant
smoke containment and release. Smoke control level of fire protection, as charring of the outer surface
methods include containment by smoke filling, will reduce air supply for combustion below the
containment by construction, active pressurisation, char layer and thus inhibit the rate of loss of strength
natural-release ventilation, release cross-ventilation of the beam. Treating the timber elements with an
and fire suppression. intumescent coating will increase further their fire
resisting capabilities.
Should the design and nature of the historic building
preclude the introduction of conventional fire safety Upgrading the fire resistance of a floor can be a difficult
features (see also Part II; Section 2.12.4), it will be task, which may result in some loss of historic fabric. A
necessary to manage the building in such a way that: number of recognised methods of upgrading the fire
resistance of floors is given in TAN 11 and reproduced
• it limits the number of occupants, either staff or here:
members of the public, inside the building;
• limits activities in the building; and • consolidate any deficiencies in the original
construction,
• provides adequate supervision within the building.
• introduce mineral fibre quilt supported between or
below the joists,
6.1.4 Emergency Planning
• insert intumescent sheet material over or under
An important consideration for many owners is the existing surfaces,
protection of valuable artefacts and paintings from the
• insert intumescent material at the perimeter of the
effects of fire. However, the efficient evacuation of all
floor to close the link with the wall cavities in the
occupants takes precedence over procedures for limiting
event of a fire [author’s italics],
damage to property and contents. Salvage work should
be limited to those parts of the building not directly • apply intumescent coatings to ceilings,
affected by fire. • apply additional layers of fire resistant boards to
ceilings.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Doors makes alteration unacceptable. In the latter situation,

Upgrading the fire resistance of doors is a substantial the doors might be removed and placed in storage
topic in its own right and the subject of extensive debate keeping the doors safely in a controlled environment to
and advice. Doors that have gaps in their construction, prevent damage or distortion, preferably in the building
or contain glazing, may allow fire to spread beyond the itself. Listed building consent may be required in the
compartment of origin. As a result of recent research case of listed buildings, and it may be found that some
we now have a better understanding of the actual alternative use, or the blocking of the side that is of
performance of doors in fire, which permits a more lesser importance behind doors that are fixed shut, offer
realistic assessment of historic doors in these situations, a more sustainable outcome.
leading to solutions that can retain them in place. There
are a number of techniques that can be employed to Roof voids
improve the fire resistance of a door, including: Roof voids are an important feature of the fire
resistance characteristics of any building, making their
• facing the door with non-combustible boards,
investigation an important aspect of the fire risk
which can be removed at a later date with
assessment. Many compartment walls do not continue
minimum damage,
up into the roof void, thus permitting the unhindered
• sealing all cracks and gaps with an intumescent and rapid spread of fire along the roof space. Also, roof
paste, voids have a tendency to be used as storage space, which
may pose an additional fire hazard due to the presence
• fitting proprietary intumescent strips and flexible of combustible materials and debris. Compartmentation
cold smoke seals. of the roof void is an essential element of upgrading
the fire performance of the building, but installing
fire-insulating barriers that do not line up with the
compartment lines in the accommodation below will
undermine the fire integrity of the structure.

6.2 Sound transmission

6.2.1 Impact of sound transmission on historic

buildings
The impact on the fabric of a historic building by the
introduction of noise reduction measures can be similar
to that of fire: there is the potential to destroy important
historic surfaces in order to achieve the optimum level
of sound insulation. Unlike protection from fire, which
has an impact on all types of buildings, the new building
standards for sound transmission levels apply only to
dwellings. Of course, this does not mean that the impact
of sound on the design and construction of other
types of conversion can be ignored, but it may be that
solutions can be adopted that have a reduced potential to
cause damage to historic fabric. Further information for
buildings other than dwellings is provided in Planning
and Advice Note, PAN 56: Planning and Noise 1999.
Detailed guidance on improving the sound insulation
of dwellings is provided in the Napier University report,
Smith et al, 2005, Improving sound insulation in dwellings.
Illus 6.2 Historic (secret) door with upgraded fire resistance, in listed
Category A building. A large percentage of conversions of historic buildings
involve a change of use to buildings in multiple
occupancy incorporating dwellings, usually separate
Further information on improving the fire resistance of apartments on a number of floors. It is thus extremely
doors can be found in Technical Advice Note 11 (1997). difficult to assess the likely performance of a building, in
There may be some situations where it is not practical its existing state, and to extrapolate this to the converted
to improve the fire resistance of a door, either because of building, especially when a primary objective is to
its method of construction or because its intrinsic value retain as much of the historic fabric as possible. Each

54
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

building is unique, which with its particular design of sound-resisting construction for separating floors and
and construction challenges the designer to arrive at separating walls. These are:
solutions that provide the optimum sound insulation
a) Specified construction approaches are specifications that
whilst preserving historic fabric.
use common construction techniques and materials
to achieve protection from sound transmission.
6.2.2 Mandatory regulations This approach must be treated with caution when
dealing with historic buildings because the adoption
A building converted into multiple dwellings will require
of these specified constructions will almost certainly
to be upgraded to ensure that the transmission of noise
mean the disturbance or loss of existing fabric. For
is contained within a level that will not threaten the health
example, in the case of a separating floor it may
of occupants or transmit noise that is not in excess of that from
require the use of a new floor base that incorporates
normal domestic activities (Building Regulations Standard 5.1).
a floating layer. The floating layer may use the
The conversion must also recognise that factors such as
existing floor boards if these have been carefully
structure, fire and energy can have a significant impact
dismantled – preserving the tongues and grooves
on the performance of sound-resisting construction,
– and re-laid on resilient strips on top of existing
and must be considered in a holistic way, along with
joists. This will mean raising the floor level with
sound transmission. The Technical Handbooks give
consequential disturbance to doors, skirtings and
guidance on three alternative approaches to the design
existing floors. The existing ceiling may also have

Illus 6.3 Sound transmission pathways in traditional timber floor construction.

55
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

to be upgraded, which could lead to the loss of is retrospective to the conversion of the building
original lath and plaster. means that, should the construction fail to meet the
minimum values, it will be expensive and difficult
Unfortunately, implementing the recommendations (even impossible) to increase the levels of sound
contained within specified construction will usually insulation. This means that a thorough assessment
mean loss or disruption of original features. It is of the existing construction must be carried out
therefore essential to have conducted a thorough before the development brief is finalised, so that
assessment of these features and finishes as part of the full implications of upgrading sound insulation
the conservation plan for the building, before the on historic fabric are determined. It is therefore
detail of the conversion is finalised. In this way the advisable to obtain advice from an acoustic
importance of the fabric, and the potential impact consultant at the design stage.
of the conversion on the fabric and on development
costs, can be properly judged in the light of good c) Scheme operated by Robust Details Ltd. This scheme
conservation practice. does not cover alterations or conversions.

b) Performance testing. This sets out recommended 6.2.3 Achieving balance between sound insulation and
minimum values for airborne and impact sound conservation
insulation that must be achieved after conversion.
As with fire, it is necessary to assess the existing
The performance testing approach is particularly
compartmentation of the building so that the design of
suitable for conversions where flanking transmission
the conversion makes best use of compartment divisions
may be significant. However, the fact that testing

Resilient flooring system

Existing flooring re-laid or

replaced with plyboard

Sound deafening

Existing ceiling

Notes: Effects on existing construction are:

• Existing floor boards lifted and re-laid or replaced,

• Floor level raised, which affects:
Historic doors and architraves
Height of skirtings or panelling
Height to window cills
Floor to ceiling height
• Sound deafening at floor perimeter affects ventilation of voids behind lath
and plaster

Illus 6.4 Implications of introducing a raised floor to improve sound insulation.

56
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

to achieve optimum sound insulation, with least damage • penetration of separating floors by vertical service
to the building. soil pipes that are inadequately insulated;
In the case of some conversions, it may not be feasible • flanking sound transmission at wall-to-floor
to improve the sound insulation to the recommended junctions can make the ventilation of voids behind
performance level without the loss of a number of the wall linings much more difficult while, with
special characteristics of the historic building. Where it some specifications, the use of dense pugging can
is not practically possible to improve sound insulation overload existing joists, beams and connections.
to the recommended level and where the health of
the occupants of a dwelling is threatened or where Separating walls
the inconvenience is likely to be unacceptable, the
Separating and flanking walls in traditional masonry
proposed conversion of the building into dwellings may
construction will normally have sufficient mass to
not be the most appropriate form of conversion. In
provide adequate sound insulating properties, but some
arriving at an appropriate balance between conserving
features may cause problems:
a historic building and improving sound insulation, it
will be necessary to employ the services of an acoustic • flues within walls acting as a sound transmission
consultant and seek the advice of the local planning route,
authority’s conservation officer at an early stage in the
• back-to-back fireplaces and built-in hearths having
design process. Smith, et al, (2005) recommend ‘...
inadequate separating mass,
that anyone considering converting an existing building to
residential use, or sub-dividing a larger property, has the acoustic • the presence of recessed cupboards in a party wall,
condition of the building assessed prior to commencing with the sometimes back-to-back,
conversion.These sound insulation measurements are commonly
termed “deterministic sound testing” or “pre-conversion sound • floor joists and beams built into separating walls,
testing”’. By instructing such testing prior to the final • junction of party wall with thin flanking walls,
design of the building, any problems inherent in the
building will be identified at an early stage and will • position of window openings in flanking walls,
allow them to be dealt with during the design, rather
• walls that have been penetrated by previous
than engaging in expensive remedial works after the
alterations, such as the installation of service pipes
construction has been completed. Also, testing at this
and ducts, may not have been adequately sealed,
early stage will determine whether the existing structure
already meets the required standard and will thus not • breakdown of lath and plaster finish, eg due to
require expensive and potentially disruptive upgrading. occupants removing wallpaper and tiles,
• junction between a separating wall and roof within
6.2.4 Summary of risks associated with improving a ceiling or roof space may be difficult to insulate
sound insulation in historic buildings adequately (will also be necessary for fire resistance).
Dealing with sound transmission and upgrading sound
insulation in buildings where the internal fabric is 6.3 Access issues
of significant cultural value can result in either the
direct loss or longer-term degradation of fabric due to Most historic buildings were not designed to be readily
changed environmental conditions. Some of the key accessible to people with disabilities. Over the past few
factors that must be taken into consideration, and which years the introduction of legislation, most notably the
may have an influence on the design of the conversion, Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA), now means
are given below. that people with disabilities should be able to have
dignified and easy access to and within historic buildings.
Floors Where the building is used to provide a service, the
DDA has from October 2004 required service providers
Raised floor levels to accommodate a resilient layer to
to assess obstacles to access and make reasonable
reduce impact sound transmission, can result in:
adjustments to the physical features of their premises
• loss of floor finish, such as tongued and grooved to overcome physical barriers to access. The Disability
boards and sometimes decorative floor finishes; Discrimination Act, the new Building Regulations and
other guidance, such as BS Code of Practice 8300:
• unacceptable alterations to skirtings, architraves,
2001, Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the
dados and panelling;
needs of disabled people, underscore the complex issue of
• loss of original ceilings and associated decorative providing accessibility to historic properties.
features; Physical features are defined as:

57
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

• anything on the premises arising from a building’s • decorative and ornamental door furniture,
design or construction or from an approach to, exit
from or access to a building; • narrow corridors,

• fixtures, fittings, furnishings, equipment or materials; • inaccessible toilet facilities,

• any other physical element or quality of land in the • internal steps and stairs,
premises. • missing or unsuitable handrails.
The conversion of a historic building has to recognise In addition to the requirements of the building
that ‘the building must be designed and constructed in such regulations, other legislation, such as controlling the
a way that all occupants and visitors are provided with safe, workplace and providing access to services for people
convenient and unassisted means of access to the building’ with disabilities may impose further obligations.
(Building Standard 4.1). Building Standard 4.2 requires
that ‘access within a dwelling should provide a “visitability As part of the information gathering process for the
standard”, where persons with reduced mobility – be it development of the design brief for the conversion, it
through age, permanent disability or temporary incapacitation will normally be necessary to conduct an access audit
– may, if visiting a dwelling, make reasonable use of facilities of the existing building, to be read in conjunction with
within.’ As these standards are within the group where the conservation plan. The access audit will identify
improvement of the existing building is expected where all features of the building – not just physical features
it is reasonably practicable, access will have to be improved – that may need to be addressed to make the building
even if meeting the full standard is not practically accessible once it has been converted to its new use.
achievable. Often it is the distinguishing features of a The building regulations provide only a minimum
historic building that pose barriers to disabled people, standard of accessibility: they are not intended to
particularly those with ambulatory difficulties. Problem meet the needs of individual disabled people. In the
features, which may need to be improved, include: design of a conversion of a historic building it is good
practice to anticipate the needs of disabled people, but
• main access storey well above adjacent ground level, where physical barriers cannot be overcome without
sometimes with a basement and light well that destructive or damaging alterations to the building,
separates the pavement from the entrance, alternative solutions that provide that service should be
• historically or architecturally important entrance explored. The service may be able to be provided in a
steps and thresholds, different way, or an alternative route into the building
that is available to all users (not just disabled people)
• narrow door openings in both external and internal may be possible.
walls,
• heavy doors,

58
 7. LEGISLATION

7.1 Introduction • distinctive achievement or regional variations in

design and use of materials,
The legislation identified in this section is not intended
to be a complete list of all legislation that may apply • good examples within individual building types and
to the conversion of a historic building. The aim is to
draw attention to the key elements of legislation that • technological innovation.
support or are supplementary to the Building (Scotland) The term ‘building’ is broadly defined in the legislation
Regulations 2004, and which may have an impact on the and can include (for example) non-habitable structures
cultural or historic importance of the building. Much of such as walls, fountains, sundials, statues, bridges,
the legislation is, however, incorporated into the building bandstands and telephone boxes. The address of the
standards, and where the standards have been satisfied property is the statutory element. The description
the other legislation may have been also addressed. attached helps to identify the building and some of its
For example, obligations pertaining to means of fire elements of special architectural or historic interest. It
detection and escape as set out in the Fire (Scotland) Act should be noted that this information is advisory, as
2005 and Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006, may the protection afforded by listing extends to the whole
have been met during the conversion by the application building at the address given, including both its interior
of the building regulations in these areas, as these are and exterior.
essential standards. However, other legislation, such as
the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA), may In Scotland there are approximately 47,000 listed
require more careful consideration by designers and buildings (as at 2006), about 7.5% of which are listed
developers because the building standards allow rather at category, A, 56% at category B, and the remainder
more flexibility in terms of access to buildings (these at category C(S). The category does not directly read
are standards that must be applied where it is reasonably across to levels of control that may be applied, and
practicable) than may be the case with the DDA. simply reflects approximate levels of importance.
Statutory protection may extend to structures within
7.2 Historic buildings and statutory protection the curtilage of the main subject of listing. It is the
responsibility of the planning authority to decide on
The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation the extent of curtilage and therefore whether a building
Areas) (Scotland) Act 1997 requires Scottish Ministers or other structure is listed. Determination as to whether
to compile lists of buildings of special architectural or a particular building, structure or object lies within the
historic interest.The Act also directs councils as planning curtilage of a listed building may ultimately rest with
authorities to designate as conservation areas those parts the Courts.
of their district which are identified as having special
architectural or historic interest. Alterations to the character of a listed building require
listed building consent from the planning authority. The
Act also directs planning authorities, in considering
7.2.1 Listed buildings whether to grant planning permission for a development
The buildings in the statutory list are chosen on the which affects a listed building or its setting, to have special
basis of a number of criteria‡ . These may be subject to regard to the desirability of preserving the building, or
change from time to time, but have included to date: its setting, or any features of special architectural or
historic interest which it possesses.
• planned streets, villages or burghs,
• buildings clearly associated with nationally famous 7.2.2 Conservation Areas
people or events,
Planning authorities have a duty to identify and designate
• special examples of buildings connected with social areas of historic or architectural interest and to ensure
and industrial history and the development of that development preserves or enhances the character of
communications,

‡
For current information see http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/index/historicbuildings.htm

59
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

those areas. Conservation areas are not only a means of This NPPG also demonstrates how action to achieve
applying increased levels of control to an area, but are conservation objectives can yield wider social, economic
one of the measures available to councils in raising the and environmental benefits and be consistent with the
quality of the built environment. There are over 600 principles of sustainable development. This is now
conservation areas in Scotland. These can cover historic supplemented by a series of Scottish Historic Environment
land, battlefields, public parks or designed landscapes, Policy Statements issued for consultation by Historic
but most contain groups of buildings extending over Scotland from 2006 onwards.
areas of a village, town or city.
The primary source of guidance on Scottish Ministers
Most works to the outside of a building or structure interests and responsibilities in relation to listed buildings
within a conservation area will require planning and conservation areas is provided in the Memorandum
permission. The Act directs planning authorities, when of Guidance on Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas
considering applications for planning permission within (1998).The Memorandum sets out the duties of Scottish
those areas, to pay special attention to the desirability of Ministers and planning authorities in respect of listed
preserving or enhancing the character or appearance of buildings, conservation areas and designed landscapes,
that area. Additional controls may be applied to changes and provides advice to assist planning authorities in their
within conservation areas where Article 4 Directions consideration of applications for conservation area and
apply.These are promoted by the planning authority but listed building consent.
usually require to be confirmed by Scottish Ministers.
Since it is possible that some buildings being converted
Conservation Area Consent is normally required in
will be scheduled monuments, scheduled monument
cases of demolition of unlisted buildings within a
consent rather than listed building consent will be
conservation area.
required. Such consent is included within the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979.
7.2.3 Scheduled Ancient Monuments
Where a building is a scheduled ancient monument,
7.3 Building regulations
included under the Ancient Monuments and
Archaeological Areas Act 1979, scheduled monument
consent rather than listed building consent will be 7.3.1 Application to historic buildings
required for changes to it, including repairs. Once The intention of the building regulations is that there
a monument is scheduled, it becomes an offence is no prescribed method of meeting the standards.
to carry out, without the prior written consent of The regulations, which are expressed in terms of
Scottish Ministers any works which would have the ‘functional standards’, permit a variety of ways of
effect of demolishing, destroying, damaging, removing, complying. Comprehensive advice on the application
repairing, altering, adding to, flooding or covering up of the Building (Scotland) Act 2003 and the Building
the monument. As the presumption is that a scheduled (Scotland) Procedure Regulations 2004 is contained in
monument be preserved in the manner that it has come the Procedural Handbook. This section will therefore
down to us, it is less likely to be converted to another summarise only some of the key points that relate to
use than would be a listed building. However, there have work on historic buildings.
been instances where this has been permitted, in the best
interests of the preservation of the monument. Should Conversion of a building, if it is of a type set out
the conversion be to a residential or ecclesiastical use, in Schedule 2 of the Building (Scotland) Regulations
the building would then be descheduled. 2004, requires that after conversion the building
must comply with all the standards. However, few
existing buildings can reasonably be altered to meet all
7.2.4 Government policy and guidance aspects of current standards; therefore, for the standards
Government policy on the built heritage is set out in identified in Schedule 6 of the Building Regulations,
National Planning Policy Guideline NPPG 18 Planning the requirement is for existing buildings to be improved
and the Historic Environment (1999). It sets out the ‘to as close to the full requirement as is reasonably practicable’.
policies for planning and development in the historic It will only be in exceptional circumstances that taking
environment with a view to its continued protection, no action will be acceptable, although it is recognised
conservation and enhancement. It recognises the value that the full requirement will not be met for many of
of the historic environment, even where this does not the identified standards.
have statutory protection through listing or inclusion For historic buildings (see 1.2 for the definitions),
in a conservation area. NPPG 18 advocates a positive Schedule 6 has specific relevance. The particular matter
approach and emphasises the need to find ways in that is significant or important should inform the
which the active life of historic buildings and areas can application of the functional standards. In applying the
be extended.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

standards, rather than adopting the methods and materials specialisms to be included as well. Approved certifiers of
promoted by the Technical Handbooks – which assume design may be responsible for either:
current materials and construction techniques – the
• specified aspects of the building design (such as the
construction and materials of the historic building must
structure, energy design or fire safety), or
be recognised and retained where they are significant to
the character or historic value of the building. • specific parts of a building (such as a space heating
The change in occupation or use of a historic building, system or a sprinkler system).
where this does not fall under the definition of If the approved certifier is satisfied that the proposed
conversion, does not attract application of the standards, design meets the relevant standard or standards, a
unless there is alteration or extension to the building, certificate may be issued for submission with the
in which case the full standards apply. However, in such application for building warrant. The certificate is taken
cases, other legislation may have to be satisfied, which as proof that the standards have been met for those
may itself have a potential impact on historic fabric, for aspects of the design that are relevant; the verifier will
example houses in multiple occupation and disability not check the design against these standards.
discrimination legislation.
Approved certifiers of construction are responsible for
the construction or installation of specified parts of
7.3.2 Verifiers and Approved Certifiers
a building, such as the structural frame, the electrical
A major difference between the previous regulations installation or a combustion appliance. As with the
and the Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004 is the design certificate, the certificate of construction is
change in the roles, duties and responsibilities of the taken as proof that the construction complies with the
various bodies charged with the implementation of full range of relevant requirements. The verifier will
the standards. The system is overseen by the Scottish not check the elements covered by the certificate of
Building Standards Agency, which is an integral part of construction.
the Scottish Executive. Enforcement of the regulations
In the case of historic buildings, it is possible that an
is by local authorities, but the responsibility for checking
approved certifier may not have a full understanding
compliance, and certification of design and construction,
or experience of design and construction associated
rests with two new groups of people, verifiers and
with conversion of these buildings. Clients or their
approved certifiers respectively.
professional advisors are strongly advised to ensure
that the approved certifiers, who are employed for
Verifiers
design and construction certification purposes, have the
While the Act provides for other bodies to act as necessary skills and experience to interpret and apply
verifiers, the only appointed verifiers to date are the the standards sympathetically to historic buildings, and
Scottish local authorities, who will be responsible for to recognise that what is appropriate for new build
their own areas. Verifiers are appointed by Scottish may be detrimental to the performance and historical
Ministers. It is the role of the verifier to protect the integrity of a historic building.
public interest by providing an independent check of
applications for building warrants. The verifier will issue For further information on the certification process,
a building warrant. reference should be made to the SBSA website (http://
www.sbsa.gov.uk/current_standards/cert.htm), in particular
Approved Certifiers the certification handbook.
In the Act, two roles are established, certifiers of design
and certifiers of construction. This permits suitably 7.4 Houses in multiple occupation
qualified people, businesses or other bodies – who have
Under the terms of The Civic Government (Scotland) Act
to be approved by Scottish Ministers – to certify that
1982 (Licensing of Houses in Multiple Occupation) Order
certain design or construction work complies with
2000, all local authorities are required to introduce
the building regulations. Detailed information on the
a licensing system for houses in multiple occupation
appointment and role of verifiers and approved certifiers
(HMO). Houses in multiple occupation include
is found in the Procedural Handbook that accompanies
shared flats and houses, bed-sits, lodgings, communal
the Building (Procedure) (Scotland) Regulations.
accommodation such as student residences and hostels.
The certification of design is at the warrant application A property needs to be licensed if:
stage and allows certifiers of design to certify to
• it is the only or main home of three or more
verifiers that prescribed aspects of the design meet
residents and
the requirements of the regulations. This replaces the
process of self-certification of structures under the • the residents are members of more than two
old regulations, and has the potential to permit other families.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

The essential requirements, in so far as they affect the 7.4.1 Fire safety
conversion of historic buildings, are identified below and
The fire safety regime in the Fire (Scotland) Act 2005
listed under the main headings of the building standards.
applies to HMOs that require a licence and therefore
In most cases, compliance with the building standards
fire safety will no longer be addressed as part of the
will also ensure compliance with HMO standards.
licensing process. It is, however, expected that the Fire
However, this cannot be guaranteed as, for a higher
and Rescue Authorities will continue to co-ordinate
occupancy HMO, additional provision in some areas
their work with licensing authorities and to use the
may be required. The requirement for listed building
Benchmark standards as a guide to appropriate fire
consent, where appropriate, will also apply to any works
safety measures in HMOs.
required to bring the property up to HMO standards.
HMO legislation requires local authorities to be satisfied An important aspect of fire safety is the protection
that the premises are suitable for use as an HMO. The of escape routes, and self-closing doors will often be
HMO Benchmark Standards are set out in terms of recommended. Traditional timber panelled doors are
guidance and it is stressed that these are reference not considered capable of providing thirty minutes of
points for an ‘average’ HMO, they should be applied fire resistance without upgrading (refer to section 6.1.4).
flexibly in relation to the individual circumstances The advice offered by local authorities may be that
of each property, and consideration should be given when the fire resistance of doors has to be improved,
to alternative approaches. This flexibility of approach a tested and proven proprietary system should be
should include recognition of the need to protect selected. However, the use of an approved proprietary
historic buildings, in the same way that the building door in place of a door that forms part of the character
regulations require a standard to be achieved to ‘as close of a listed building is unlikely to be acceptable in such
as is reasonably practicable’. circumstances. Agreement will have to be reached
regarding the most appropriate method of achieving the
necessary period of fire resistance, while maintaining the
Box 7.1 Relationship (of HMOs) to
historic character of the door.
compliance with the Building Regulations
Extract from ‘Mandatory Licensing of Houses in Multiple
7.4.2 Environment
Occupancy for Licensing Authorities’ (2004).
The building standards do not specify the minimum
The Benchmark Standards included in this guidance
floor areas for apartments, but do stipulate the minimum
cover a range of issues, many of which are also
space requirements for activities and furniture. However,
addressed by Building Regulations, with guidance
the HMO guidance gives advice in the Benchmark
given in the new Technical Handbooks. However,
Standards for space in bedrooms and communal living
these apply only to new buildings, to existing
rooms, expressed in terms of square metres. Designers
buildings when they are altered or converted, and
should crosscheck room sizes against the minimum
to extensions. Conversions include certain types
requirements for HMOs, as, for example, the HMO
of change of use, and significant alterations in the
requirements for sanitary facilities may impose a need
type and the number of expected occupants. Often,
for more toilets and baths or showers than would be
it would be impractical to apply the same level of
necessary to satisfy the building standards and should be
requirements to older properties if they are not
accommodated when possible.
undertaking such alteration or conversion. The
Benchmark Standards have therefore been compiled, Fully meeting the relevant minimum building standards
in some cases from the requirements of Building will satisfy the lighting and ventilation requirements for
Regulations, but also from existing practice in other HMOs. As with the building standards, there is flexibility
areas such as Environmental Health. in the HMO requirements and thus the need to increase
the glazed areas of windows in historic buildings may
Newly-built or converted HMOs must of course be relaxed where the character of the historic building
meet the level of requirements applicable under would be adversely affected.
the Building Regulations. However, even buildings
that meet the Building Regulations requirements
may require additional work to make the property 7.4.3 Safety
suitable for use as an HMO rather than, for In a conversion, the common area between HMO
example, a family home. In many cases, a building guidance and the building standards concerns electrical
warrant will be required for such work, or if a safety. In this respect, a conversion that complies with
warrant is not required, the work may still have the building standards will also satisfy HMO standards
to meet Building Regulations. Advice should be for electrical safety and the minimum requirement for
sought from building standards officers. socket outlets.

62
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

7.4.4 Noise considered to be domestic premises.

Many HMOs are in flatted buildings, and a key concern Fire safety measures are measures in premises for:
of the licensing regime is to minimise disturbance
• reducing the risk of fire and the spread of fire,
to neighbours resulting from increased occupancy.
Licensing authorities will therefore seek to ensure that • means of escape,
flooring, door closer systems, extract fans and other
• ensuring that means of escape can be safely and
items reduce noise as far as possible. Again a balance may
effectively used,
need to be struck between licensing requirements and
maintaining the historic character of the property. • fighting fires,
• detecting fires and giving warning in the event of
7.4.5 Energy fire,
HMO legislation is not concerned with energy related • action to be taken in the event of fire (including
problems. measures for the instruction and training of
employees and for the mitigation of the effects of
fire) and
7.5 Fire
• such other measures in relation to premises as may
As a result of architectural and archaeological be prescribed by regulations.
considerations, work to improve the fire safety of historic
buildings needs to be carried out with sensitivity so as Further information on the fire safety regime is available
not to damage the building’s historic interest. Alternative at www.infoscotland.com/firelaw, including guidance on
means of improving safety (where it is necessary to do dutyholder’s responsibilities and fire safety measures.
so), without making structural changes to the building
or by keeping changes to an absolute minimum, should 7.5.2 The Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006
be implemented.
The Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006 state the
The application of the building standards will incorporate requirements for means of fighting fire, means of giving
those elements which also sit within the fire legislation warning in the event of fire and also means of escape.
and that may require changes to the fabric and fittings These aspects of the regulations impose requirements
of the building. Other aspects of the fire legislation, such that may impact on the fabric of the building, such
as those relating to fire safety risk assessment, preventing as emergency exits and routes and emergency-route
fires, maintenance, management, staff training and use doors. A conversion that satisfies the building standards
of the premises are, of course, outwith the scope of the will also meet the requirements of the fire regulations.
building regulations. However, the fire regulations impose a responsibility on
the person with duties under Section 53 or 54 of the
7.5.1 Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 Act to ensure that a suitable system of maintenance of
facilities, equipment and devices is in place and that they
The legislation currently in force is the Fire (Scotland) are maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working
Act 2005 and its related legislation, the Fire Safety order and in good repair.
(Scotland) Regulations 2006. This legislation supersedes
the Fire Precautions Act 1971 and the Fire Precautions These regulations are a fundamental part of the fire
(Workplace) Regulations 1997/1999. However, as with safety regime and must be considered along with the
the previous legislation, the impact of the new act is general fire safety duties contained in Part 3 of the Fire
not likely to impose significant additional requirements (Scotland) Act 2005. Whereby the act contains general
to those that are required by the building standards in fire safety requirements, the regulations contain more
connection with the design and specification of the specific requirements in terms of fire safety measures for
conversion of a historic building. non-domestic premises.
Part 3 of the Act introduces a fire safety regime for The regulations also contain a provision that extends
non-domestic premises, based on the principles of to domestic premises. Facilities and fittings provided
risk assessment. Dutyholders who may be employers, in the communal parts of domestic premises, by virtue
owners, occupiers, tenants, contractors and any other of an enactment (this includes building regulations),
person who has control of non-domestic premises, are for the use or protection of fire-fighters, require to
requires to carry out a fire safety risk assessment and be maintained in efficient working order and in good
take such fire safety measures as are necessary to ensure repair.
the safety of persons in, or in the immediate vicinity of The 2005 Act and the 2006 Regulations place a
premises. For the purposes of the regime, HMOs are not considerable burden of duty on the employer with

63
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

regard to the safety of employees and the fire precaution • any fixture, fittings, furnishings, furniture, equipment
measures in their place of work. Under the previous or materials on such premises;
Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations, all building
owners were required to undertake a fire risk assessment • any fixtures, fittings, furnishings, furniture,
of their buildings and to maintain them in an efficient equipment or materials brought onto the premises
manner – even where a Fire Certificate exists for (other than those occupied by or on behalf of
the building. In October 2006 the new Fire Safety the service provider) in the course of (and for the
Regulatory Reform Order (RRO) became law. Under purpose of) providing services to the public;
this Order, Fire Certificates for a building will no longer • any other physical element or quality of land
be issued and the ‘Responsible Person’ will be personally comprised in the premises occupied by the service
accountable for fire safety. It is therefore important that provider.
the work of conversion of a historic building includes
a fire safety manual, with supporting drawings, to While the building standards encompass the concept
allow the ‘Responsible Person’ to undertake a fire risk of an accessible environment, designers, clients and
assessment. developers should be aware that the DDA might impose
additional requirements on the design of access to, and
within, the conversion. The building standards relating
7.6 Access to access to and within buildings are standards that have
In addition to the building regulations, the key legislation to be met as closely as is reasonably practicable. Part III
concerning access is the Disability Discrimination Act of the Act requires service providers to make ‘reasonable
1995 (DDA), which applies generally, with some limited adjustments’ in relation to their premises to overcome
exclusions, to all non-domestic buildings. There are physical barriers to access. Unfortunately, the Act does
many different parts of the Act but the most important, not give guidance on what might constitute ‘reasonable
as far as their impact on historic buildings is concerned, adjustments’ to physical features. No specific allowance
are Parts III and IV. Part III imposes specific duties on is made for historic buildings. It is recommended that
service providers and may compel owners and service reference is made to the Code of Practice: Rights of Access:
providers to make physical changes to their buildings to Goods, Facilities, Services and Premises (1999).
make them accessible to disabled people. Part IV of the Where a physical feature places a disabled person
Act applies to places of education. at a disadvantage, the Act imposes a duty to take all
• from October 1999, service providers have had to reasonable steps to remedy the situation. Amongst the
make ‘reasonable adjustments’ such as providing options to consider would be the alteration or removal
extra help or making changes in the way they of such physical features. However, these may not be
provide services; realistic options where alteration or removal would
have an adverse effect on a historic building. The
• from October 2004, service providers also have requirement of the building standards to have a clear
to ‘make reasonable adjustments’ to the physical opening width for an entrance door to a non-domestic
features of their premises to overcome physical building of 800mm would not be universally achievable
barriers to access. in all historic building conversions. What is reasonable
The Secondary Education Needs and Disability Act depends on a number of factors, in particular the size
2001 (SEDA), which also includes historic buildings and resources of the organisation; for example, where the
used for higher education, has been incorporated into conversion is to form a large retail development this will
Part IV of the DDA. have different requirements to a small shop conversion.
Installing a lift or new toilets may be inappropriate for
It is not the intention here to discuss the detailed the small shop but essential for the large development.
content and application of the DDA, as such information
is available elsewhere. However, in the design and When considering the requirements of the DDA, it is
development of a conversion to a historic building, a desirable to conduct an access audit‡ of the building that
physical feature is defined by the Act as including: is to be converted and to link this to the conservation
plan. The audit should identify all the areas in the
• any feature arising from the design or construction building where it may not meet the aim of providing
of a building on the premises occupied by a service independent access for most disabled people. This will
provider; then inform the design of the conversion and ensure
that the needs of both disabled persons and the historic
• any feature on those premises of any approach to,
building are met. A properly qualified and experienced
exit from or access to such a building;
consultant, who is, ideally, a member of the National

‡
The Planning Bill proposes that a statement on ways that issues relating to access for the disabled have been dealt with shall be included
with certain Listed Building Consent and Planning application. The access audit and conservation plan would be a way to achieve this.

64
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

Register of Access Consultants, should carry out an access • to eliminate hazards where feasible (eg if specifying
audit of the whole building. Disability organisations and rooflights, specify non-fragile materials);
local authority access officers can also offer valuable
advice. Clearly, it is much easier to deal with a problem • to reduce risks from those hazards that cannot
at the early design stage than at a later date when the be eliminated (eg specify designs and coatings
building is brought into use, when alternative solutions for materials that reduce the need/frequency for
may not be so easily implemented. Experience indicates replacement, cleaning and re-painting);
that most buildings can be successfully and effectively • to provide information on residual risks if they
altered, but to do this successfully requires a sound are significant (eg if a set sequence of assembly or
understanding of both the needs of disabled persons and demolition is necessary to maintain stability).
historic building conservation.
Detailed guidance for designers is to be found in the
Health and Safety Executive’s publication ‘Designing for
7.7 Health and safety
health and safety in construction’.
7.7.1 Construction (Design and Management) The CDM regulations are due to change in April 2007.
Regulations 1994 The regulations described above will be substituted by
a set of key construction regulations, mainly revising,
The Construction (Design and Management)
simplifying and consolidating the Construction (Design
Regulations 1994 (the CDM Regulations) impose
& Management) (CDM) Regulations 1994 and the
duties on clients (except domestic clients where no
Construction (Health, Safety & Welfare) (CHSW)
developer has been appointed), developers and designers
Regulations 1996.
as regards good design and good safety management of
construction projects. The regulations apply to building
and construction work including: 7.7.2 Other safety legislation
• new building and installation of new services; Other legislation that may influence the design and
development of the conversion of a historic building
• alteration, maintenance and renovation of a
include:
building, including services;
• site clearance; Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
1998
• demolition and dismantling of structures;
These make explicit what is required of employers
• temporary works. under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, and
place duties on employers, employees and the self-
Under these regulations, clients must appoint a employed to carry out risk assessments and implement
competent Planning Supervisor for their construction risk controls, as well as setting out a framework for
project and ensure they are competent and have ensuring health and safety is managed in a systematic
sufficient information relevant to the health and safety and organised way.
of the project.
The regulations also apply to all design work carried Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992
out for construction. With respect to the conversion The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations
of historic buildings, additional responsibilities and 1992 cover the key issues for inspection and enforcement
specific duties to those imposed by the Building by local authorities on matters relating to the physical
(Scotland) Regulations 2004 are placed directly on characteristics of the workplace such as temperature,
designers, developers and owners. These duties can lighting, cleanliness and sanitary conveniences. In
influence the choice of materials to be used in the addition, these regulations have been amended by the
conversion and might, as a result, affect the character insertion of Regulation 4A. Regulation 4A imposes a
of the historic building if the CDM Regulations are duty on an employer to ensure that the stability and
not sympathetically applied. CDM does not require solidity of the workplace, where it is in a building, are
the elimination of attractive or historic features that are appropriate to the nature and use of the workplace.
important to the building, such as cupolas, nor does it
require designers to take into account unforeseeable Control of Work at Height Regulations 2005
hazards. These require risks from all work at height (any distance
CDM, however, does place certain specific duties where a person could fall and be injured) to be assessed
directly on designers (CDM – Dos and Don’ts, Health and, where practical, eliminated by working from
and Safety Executive, http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/ the ground or using barriers to prevent falls. Where
designers/do.htm), namely: temporary or permanent safety barriers cannot be

65
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 1: Principles and Practice

installed, a safe system of work to minimise the risks is The Electrical Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations
needed. 2002
The Electrical Safety,Quality and Continuity Regulations
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 defines the duties of any party supplying electricity
2002 to the premises with regard to matters such as supply,
Sets out the eight basic measures which employers must equipment, protection and provision of earthing.
take to assess the risks from, and implement measures
to control, exposure to hazardous substances. Wherever The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
possible exposure to hazardous substances should be The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 defines the
eliminated; for example by the use of a safer substance, duties of an employer to ensure and maintain a safe
or by enclosing the process. Precautions will need to be working environment with respect to any electrical
in place and maintained if significant risks remain. installation within a building.

Control of Lead at Work Regulations 2002 The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998
These require employers to assess and control the The Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998
risks to staff from exposure to lead, and where this require that any person who installs, services, maintains,
is potentially significant to apply specific controls as or repairs gas fittings must be competent. It covers not
detailed by the regulations. only materials, workmanship, safety precautions and
testing of gas fittings but also the safe installation of all
Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations 2002 aspects of gas-fired combustion appliance installations.
These require employers and those responsible for the
maintenance of non-domestic premises to manage the
risks to their staff, contractors or others arising from
that asbestos. Where work with asbestos is carried out
by contractors they must be licensed under the Asbestos
(Licencing) Regulations 1983.

66
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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British Standards Institution, BS 5839 Part 1:2002, Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings. Code of Practice for system
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British Standards Institution, 1996, BS 6399 Part 1: 1996, Loading for buildings – Code of Practice for dead and imposed
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British Standards Institution 1998, BS 7913: 1998, Guide to The principles of the conservation of historic buildings, BSI
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Civic Trust, 2003, Submission to O.D.P.M. Select Committee Inquiry into the Role of Historic Buildings in Urban
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Clark, Kate 2000, Informed Conservation.

Dallas, Ross (Ed), 2003, Guide for Practitioners 4, Measured Survey and Building Recording for Historic Buildings and
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Energy Saving Trust, 2004, Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing: Refurbishing dwellings with solid walls,
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Energy Saving Trust, 2004, Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing, Scotland: Assessing U-values of existing housing.
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English Heritage, 2002, Building Regulations and Historic Buildings: Balancing the needs for energy conservation with those
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 6

Guide

Guide
Guide

for
for

for
Practitioners

Practitioners

Practitioners
Conversion of
Traditional
Buildings
Application of
the Scottish
Building

Conversion
Standards

PART 2
Application

Conversion

of Traditional
of Traditional

Buildings Application of the Scottish Building Standards

Buildings Application of the Scottish Building Standards
TECHNICAL
CONSERVATION,
RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION
GROUP
PART 2

ISBN: 978-1-904966-47-0
PART 2

THE HOUSE 2/07 PRODUCED ON SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL 9 781904 966470

 6
Guide for
Practitioners

Conversion of
Traditional
Buildings
Application of
the Scottish
Building
Standards

part 2
Application

Editor
and Principal Author
Dennis Urquhart

Published by
Historic Scotland
© Crown copyright

ISBN 978 1 904966 47 0

Edinburgh 2007

Commissioned by
TECHNICAL
CONSERVATION
RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION
group
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

GUIDE FOR PRACTITIONERS

Conversion of Traditional Buildings
Application of the Building Standards

Editor and Principal Author

Dennis Urquhart

Contributing Authors*
Mark Anderson, Stewart Brown, Iain Cram, Jocelyn Cunliffe, Ian Gough, Lyndall Leet,
Stuart MacPherson, Simon Montgomery, Mark Watson
*
Refer to Acknowledgements for information on the designations of the contributing authors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Editor and authors of this guide recognise that without the support and guidance of a large number of
individuals and organisations they would not have been able to undertake a work of this magnitude and complexity.
To help focus the structure and content of the guide, a Steering Group was set up by Historic Scotland to provide
the necessary support and to represent the interests of the two main stakeholders; namely Historic Scotland (who
funded the project) and the Scottish Building Standards Agency. The Steering Group has been instrumental in
ensuring that the two main strands of the book, the conservation of historic buildings and the application of the
new Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004, have been targeted appropriately towards its principal audience.
Members of the Steering Group included: Ingval Maxwell OBE, Director of TCRE, Historic Scotland; Janet Kleboe,
TCRE, Historic Scotland; Simon Montgomery, Inspector of Historic Buildings, Historic Scotland; Jane Robertson,
Manager, Historic Scotland Conservation Bureau; Jeff Carter, Assistant Chief Executive, Scottish Building Standards
Agency; Dennis Urquhart, Urquhart Consultancy Services and Mark Watson, Historic Scotland.
In addition to the Steering Group, an Advisory Panel met periodically to review and comment on work in progress.
The Editor and contributing authors – many of whom were members of the panel – are extremely grateful for the
time, effort and invaluable expertise given unstintingly by busy practitioners. In addition to members of the Steering
Group, the following individuals also served on the Panel at some time: John Addison, Structural Engineer,Waterman
Group; Mark Anderson, Building Control Manager, Midlothian Council; Stewart Brown, Simpson and Brown
Architects; Iain Cram, Architect, Bell Ingram Design; Jocelyn Cunliffe, Conservation Architect, Gray, Marshall and
Associates; John Duncan, Conservation Officer, Highland Council; Ian Gough, Fire Safety Consultant; Lyndall Leet,
Architect (retd), The Leet Rodgers Practice; Stuart MacPherson, Principal, Irons Foulner Consulting Engineers;
David Narro, Structural Engineer, David Narro Associates; Elaine Richardson, Midlothian Council; Andrew Wright,
Historic Environment Advisory Council for Scotland; Ian Young, Conservation Officer, Midlothian Council.
The Editor would also like to thank the following for their valuable contributions, in the form of detailed drawings,
written comments, or in meetings with the Editor or Project Manager: Mike Coull, Grampian Fire and Rescue
Service: Richard Fawcett, Historic Scotland; Douglas Forrest, Architect; Paul Harding, Mark Hopton, LDN
Architects; Stewart Kidd, British Automatic Sprinkler Association; Hugh Ross, Matheson Mackenzie Ross, Architects;
Linda Sheridan, Scottish Building Standards Agency; Benjamin Tindall Architects; Steven Torrie, Deputy Firemaster,
Lothian and Borders Fire Brigade and Mark Watson, Historic Scotland, for his rigorous review of Part I.
Special thanks are due to Janet Kleboe for her support during the project, to Ingval Maxwell for wise counsel and
leadership of the Steering Group and to Jeff Carter for his advice on the interpretation of the Building Standards.

ii
 CONTENTS

FOREWORD vii 2.3 Structural protection 31

2.3.1 Type of standard 31

APPLICATION OF THE BUILDING 2.3.2 Commentary 31

STANDARDS 1
2.3.3 Issues to be considered 32

2.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 32

INTRODUCTION 3
2.3.5 Related standards 33
1 The Building Standards 3
2.4 Cavities 33
2 Voids in historic fabric 4
2.4.1 Type of standard 33
3 Preserving lath and plaster finishes 5
2.4.2 Commentary 34

2.4.3 Issues to be considered 35

1. STRUCTURE 9
2.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 35
1.1 Structure and 1.2 Disproportionate collapse 9
2.4.5 Related standards 36
1.1.1 Type of Standard 9
2.5 Internal linings 36
1.1.2 Commentary 9
2.5.1 Type of standard 36
1.1.3 Issues to be considered 11
2.5.2 Commentary 36
1.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 12
2.5.3 Issues to be considered 37
1.1.5 Related standards 20
2.5.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 37

2.5.5 Related standards 38

2 FIRE 21
2.9 Escape 38
Preface to Fire Standards 21
2.9.1 Type of standard 38
2.1 Compartmentation 22
2.9.2 Commentary 38
2.1.1 Type of standard 22
2.9.3 Issues to be considered 39
2.1.2 Commentary 22
2.9.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 40
2.1.3 Issues to be considered 23
2.9.5 Related standards 42
2.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 24
2.10 Escape lighting 42
2.1.5 Related standards 24
2.10.1 Type of standard 42
2.2 Separation 25
2.10.2 Commentary 42
2.2.1 Type of standard 25
2.10.3 Issues to be considered 42
2.2.2 Commentary 25
2.10.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 43
2.2.3 Issues to be considered 26
2.10.5 Related standards 43
2.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 26
2.11 Communication 44
2.2.5 Related standards 31
2.11.1 Type of standard 44

iii
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.11.2 Commentary 44 3.2.1 Type of standard 61

2.11.3 Issues to be considered 44 3.2.2 Commentary 62

2.11.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 44 3.2.3 Issues to be considered 62

2.11.5 Related standards 46 3.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 62

2.12. Fire service access 47 3.2.5 Related standards 64

2.12.1 Type of standard 47 3.4 Moisture from the ground 64

2.12.2 Commentary 47 3.4.1 Type of standard 64

2.12.3 Issues to be considered 48 3.4.2 Commentary 64

2.12.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 48 3.4.3 Issues to be considered 66

2.12.5 Related standards 49 3.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 66

2.13 Fire service water supply 49 3.4.5 Related standards 70

2.13.1 Type of standard 49 3.6 Surface water drainage 70

2.13.2 Commentary 49 3.6.1 Type of standard 70

2.13.3 Issues to be considered 50 3.6.2 Commentary 71

2.13.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 51 3.6.3 Issues to be considered 71

2.13.5 Related standards 51 3.6.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 72

2.14. Fire service facilities 52 3.6.5 Related standards 73

2.14.1 Type of standard 52 3.11 Facilities in a dwelling 74

2.14.2 Commentary 52 3.11.1 Type of standard 74

2.14.3 Issues to be considered 54 3.11.2 Commentary 74

2.14.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 54 3.11.3 Issues to be considered 74

2.14.5 Related standards 55 3.11.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 74

2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems 55 3.11.5 Related standards 75

2.15.1 Type of standard 56 3.12 Sanitary facilities 75

2.15.2 Commentary 56 3.12.1 Type of standard 75

2.15.3 Issues to be considered 56 3.12.2 Commentary 75

2.15.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 57 3.12.3 Issues to be considered 76

2.15.5 Related standards 58 3.12.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 76

3.12.5 Related standards 77

3. ENVIRONMENT 59 3.13 Heating 78

3.1 Site preparation: 3.13.1 Type of standard 78

Harmful and dangerous substances 59
3.13.2 Commentary 78
3.1.1 Type of Standard 59
3.13.3 Issues to be considered 78
3.1.2 Commentary 59
3.13.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 78
3.1.3 Issues to be considered 60
3.13.5 Related standards 79
3.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 60
3.14 Ventilation 79
3.1.5 Related standards 61
3.14.1 Type of standard 79
3.2 Site preparation – protection from radon gas 61

iv
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

3.14.2 Commentary 79 4. SAFETY 105

3.14.3 Issues to be considered 80 4.1 Access to buildings 105

3.14.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 80 4.1.1 Type of standard 105

3.14.5 Related standards 85 4.1.2 Commentary 105

3.15 Condensation 86 4.1.3 Issues to be considered 106

3.15.1 Type of standard 86 4.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 106

3.15.2 Commentary 86 4.1.5 Related standards 111

3.15.3 Issues to be considered 87 4.2 Access within buildings 112

3.15.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 87 4.2.1 Type of standard 112

3.15.5 Related standards 94 4.2.2 Commentary 112

3.16 Natural lighting 94 4.2.3 Issues to be considered 114

3.16.1 Type of standard 94 4.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 114

3.16.2 Commentary 94 4.2.5 Related standards 115

3.16.3 Issues to be considered 95 4.3 Stairs and ramps 116

3.16.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 95 4.3.1 Type of standard 116

3.16.5 Related standards 95 4.3.2 Commentary 116

Preface to Standards 3.18, 3.19 and 3.20: 4.3.3 Issues to be considered 116
Combustion appliances 96
4.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 117
3.18 Combustion appliances – protection from
products of combustion 96 4.3.5 Related standards 118

3.18.1 Type of standard 96 4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers 119

3.18.2 Commentary 96 4.4.1 Type of standard 119

3.18.3 Issues to be considered 97 4.4.2 Commentary 119

3.18.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 98 4.4.3 Issues to be considered 119

3.18.5 Related standards 98 4.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 119

3.19 Combustion appliances – relationship to 4.4.5 Related standards 120

combustible materials 98
4.8 Danger from accidents 121
3.19.1 Type of standard 98
4.8.1 Type of standard 121
3.19.2 Commentary 99
4.8.2 Commentary 121
3.19.3 Issues to be considered 101
4.8.3 Issues to be considered 122
3.19.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 101
4.8.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 122
3.19.5 Related standards 102
4.8.5 Related standards 124
3.20 Combustion appliances – removal of products
of combustion 102

3.20.1 Type of standard 102 5. NOISE 125

3.20.2 Commentary 102 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission 125

3.20.3 Issues to be considered 103 5.1.1 Type of standard 125

3.20.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 103 5.1.2 Commentary 125

3.20.5 Related standards 104 5.1.3 Issues to be considered 126


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

5.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 127 6.4 Insulation of pipes ducts and vessels 151

5.1.5 Related standards 134 6.4.1 Type of standard 151

6.4.2 Commentary 152

6. ENERGY 135 6.4.3 Issues to be considered 152

6.1 Policy 135 6.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 152

6.1.1 Type of standard 135 6.4.5 Related standards 152

6.1.2 Commentary 135 6.5 Artificial and display lighting 153

6.1.3 Related standards 136 6.5.1 Type of standard 153

6.2 Building envelope insulation 137 6.5.2 Commentary 153

6.2.1 Type of standard 137 6.5.3 Issues to be considered 154

6.2.2 Commentary 137 6.5.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 154

6.2.3 Issues to be considered 139 6.5.5 Related standards 154

6.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 141 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning 155

6.2.5 Related standards 147 6.6.1 Type of standard 155

6.3 Heating systems 148 6.6.2 Commentary 155

6.3.1 Type of standard 148 6.6.3 Issues to be considered 156

6.3.2 Commentary 148 6.6.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 156

6.3.3 Issues to be considered 149 6.6.5 Related standards 157

6.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard 150 Draft amended standard 6.10 and new Regulation 17 158

6.3.5 Related standards 151

BIBLIOGRAPHY 159

vi
 FOREWORD

The successful conversion of existing buildings is volume. Part 1 of the Guide emerges as a platform for
something to be celebrated. When it occurs it may bring raising awareness on how the traditionally constructed
a new lease of life to a depressed neighbourhood or the built environment embodies the skills, energies and
appropriate reuse for a redundant farm steading. From knowledge of our ancestors. Whilst Part 2 reveals how,
the first pioneer occupation of lofts in Manhattan, or with appropriate care and consideration, the relevant
for that matter in Glasgow's Merchant City, converted standards can be accommodated in a way that will permit
factories and warehouses spearheaded the renewal of the effective conversion of a traditional building so that it
districts. As a catalyst for change, the sensitive conversion can be successfully retained for future use.
of a building can be the first sign of recovery, indicating The presented information is the direct result of
that an area has turned the corner and is looking forward discussion and agreement between two government
to a new lease of life yet without rejecting its origins.The agencies; Historic Scotland and the Scottish Buildings
reuse of empty mills and warehouses, for example, can be Standards Agency. Historic Scotland has the over-arching
a major element in delivering high-density urban living responsibility for the protection of the built heritage in
in a quality environment; a counter to suburban sprawl Scotland, whilst the Scottish Building Standards Agency
eating up the countryside. A reused church can continue has lead responsibility for the legislative functions relating
to give a community meaning even if it is no longer a to the building standards system. Both organisations have
place of worship. The embodied energy that went into a remit which inevitably overlaps in places. Consequently
the original construction, using materials that would now there was an inescapable logic for both bodies to consider
be difficult to source make conversions inherently more the production of a joint publication to offer a more
sustainable than the equivalent built anew. Adaptive integrated and comprehensive approach to practitioners
reuse is already delivering the sustainability agenda. involved in the conversion and adaptation of traditional
This Guide for Practitioners is specifically concerned buildings.
with the conversion of Scotland’s traditionally constructed This guidance therefore draws together the responsibilities
built heritage. It has been prepared to provide those and legislative viewpoint of both Agencies. Its primary
involved with its design, development and rehabilitation aim is to assist in the finding of sensitive and applicable
with relevant information on the application of the reuses for a large part of Scotland’s built heritage.
Building Standards.
The authorship of this ambitious work was a considerable
The introduction of The Building (Scotland) Regulations task as questions concerning conservation, relevant
2004 is significant because, together with the supporting legislation and practice constantly needed to be balanced.
Technical Handbooks, they allow judgement to be made As a result, bringing together the two seemingly opposing
on how successfully an existing traditional building issues of retaining, conserving and repairing the historic
can be converted to meet the requirements of the new environment with the need to address the mechanisms
functional standards. Retaining the historic integrity which often have to consider proposed radical changes
of the existing built heritage and meeting the standards to that same environment, has been successfully achieved.
presents a challenge which frequently requires dialogue The result is a unique “text book” which “reinterprets’
to resolve. It is intended that this Guide assists with the Scottish Building Standards.
that dialogue. It does this by outlining the construction,
materials and performance of traditional buildings and, It is hoped that by being comprehensive, the Guide
by addressing the relevant functional standards that are does not intimidate by its size and range of issues that
applicable, illustrates how their successful survival and are covered. It was written to be used as a “reference
reuse might be achieved. It also draws attention to the manual”, rather than a technical publication to be read
legislation governing traditional buildings. from cover to cover. It aspires to provide confidence to
retain older fabric, and help create a sustained future for
As the attached formal letter from the Chief Executive it, whilst meeting, as far as possible, present day needs.
of the Scottish Buildings Standards Agency intimates, this
Guide legally sits alongside other documents that have In conjunction with other published technical material
been prepared for the purpose of providing practical that has emanated from Historic Scotland’s Technical
guidance with respect to the building regulations. Conservation, Research and Education Group over
the years, the Guide aims to inform good practice
The task of producing the Guide was overseen by a and contribute to the awareness, understanding and
Steering Group consisting of officials from Historic appreciation of Scotland’s traditionally constructed
Scotland and the Scottish Building Standards Agency, building stock and its adaptation to new uses.
together with a range of practitioners well versed in the
field.
The Managing Editor and lead author, Dennis Ingval Maxwell, OBE
Urquhart, with support from a number of contributing Director TCRE
conservation practitioners, has brought together a wealth Edinburgh
of understanding and good practice in this double 12 March 2007

vii
Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

viii
 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

PART II:
APPLICATION OF THE
BUILDING STANDARDS


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

INTRODUCTION

1 The Building Standards

Part II deals with the application of the Building Standards to the conversion of historic buildings. It is not intended
to address every standard, but will offer advice on how best to satisfy those functional standards that are most likely
to have the greatest potential impact on the character of historic buildings. However, it must be borne in mind
that each historic building is unique, or will at least contain unique features, which means that the use of model
solutions to meet the requirements of the standards must be treated with caution. Each situation must be carefully
assessed so that the most appropriate solution, which meets the standard without compromising the historic
character of the building, is achieved.
The advice provided in this section is based on best practice for the situations described. It is
designed to meet the requirements of the Building Standards and provide the greatest protection
to the character of historic buildings. The examples of solutions offered have been approved by the
Scottish Building Standards Agency and Historic Scotland as generic examples of how to satisfy
the relevant functional standards. However, the advice provided is applicable to only the described
situations: they are not deemed to satisfy specifications for general application. Because this guidance
can only be of a general nature and, where the construction or other features of the building do not
accord with the descriptions in the examples; the construction, materials and elements of the building
must be thoroughly assessed before any of the recommendations are implemented. In some situations
appropriate testing may be required.
From May 2007 there will be changes to the wording of a number of the Building Standards. The
detailed changes have not been available for incorporation into this guide. However, these are unlikely
to have a significant effect on the arguments and advice set out in the Guide. Readers should refer
to the notes included within the individual standards that are affected by these changes.
Within Regulation 12, the application of the standards to the conversion of historic buildings recognises that
achieving the full standard will not be possible in many situations. It is for this reason that those standards having a
direct impact on the health and safety of occupiers and users of buildings are differentiated from those that do not.
Box 1 reproduces Schedule 6 of Regulation 12 and identifies application of the various standards.

Box 1. Regulation 0.12 and Schedule 6

Regulation 0.12. Conversion shall be carried out so that the building as converted complies with the
applicable requirements of Schedule 6.
Schedule 6
Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, shall meet the requirements of the following standards in
schedule 5:
• standards 2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, in section 2, fire safety;
• standards 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.17, 3.18, 3.20, 3.21, 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 3.26, in
section 3, environment;
• standards 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.9, 4.11, 4.12, in section 4, safety and
• the standards in section 5, noise;
• standards 6.1, 6.7, 6.8, in section 6 energy.
Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, shall be improved to as close to the requirement of the
following standards in schedule 5 as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion:
• the standards in section 1, structure;
• standards 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.12, in section 2, fire safety;
• standards 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.10, 3.15, 3.16, 3.19, in section 3, environment;
• standards 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.8, 4.10, in section 4, safety; and
• standards 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, in section 6, energy.


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Table 3 is a summary of the standards and identifies those that are addressed in Part II and those that are not. Only
those standards most likely to have an impact on the fabric and character of historic buildings have been included
for detailed advice.
The Building (Scotland) Act 2003 gives specific protection to historic buildings and the classification of the building
should influence the extent to which improvements to meet the relevant standards are required.This guide provides
advice applicable more widely than defined in the Act, to cover the range of traditional buildings defined in Part
I, Section 1.2 of this guide. The definition of a historic building is necessary because the building regulations now
recognise that existing buildings being converted cannot always meet the full requirements.
While the following sections are set out to reflect the order and content of the individual standards, there will be
many instances when the needs of one standard will impact upon another.The standards may also influence the way
in which the fabric of the building reacts to the changes imposed upon it. Sometimes an attempt to satisfy a standard
may cause a change in the fabric condition that is detrimental to the building. For example, sealing off ventilation
pathways within the construction to satisfy the needs of improved building envelope insulation, fire safety and
noise insulation can raise humidity levels in hidden voids to dangerous levels. Consequently, it is important to have
a sound understanding of how a traditional building functions, so that any changes imposed on the building are
fully understood. Each standard should not be addressed in isolation, and the solution or solutions adopted must
be assessed to determine their impact on the performance of the building as a whole. A holistic approach to the
application of the building standards to traditional buildings is therefore essential.
In Schedule 6, two classifications of standards are established for conversions, those that require every conversion to
meet the requirements of the standards (essential standards in Table 3); and those that shall be improved to as close
to the standard as reasonably practicable (reasonably practicable standards in Table 3).
In the case of essential standards, where these apply to a historic building, no relaxation of the standard is available.
However, the flexibility inherent in the functional nature of the standards does mean that it may be possible to
achieve the function by alternative means. For example, the use of active fire-safety measures may allow for apparent
deficiencies in other areas. Nevertheless, there may arise situations where it will be impossible to meet the standard
without serious disruption to important historic features. A case in point could be where the need to upgrade
the fire and sound insulating properties of a floor to the standard of a separating floor is not achievable without
unacceptable disruption to, or destruction of, ceiling and floor finishes. Where the cultural value of these elements
is such that their loss is unacceptable, the conversion of the building into separate apartments arranged above each
other will not be a viable form of development for the building. A vertical division of the building, rather than a
horizontal one, may be a better option.
For reasonably practicable standards, the protection of the historic character of the building is given much greater
emphasis in the way in which the standard is addressed. While the requirement is to make every effort to achieve
the relevant standard, the standard actually achieved may have to be a compromise in order to assure protection of
the historic building. However, a ‘do nothing’ approach will not be acceptable.
In the application of the standards, significant changes from the previous regulations must be recognised. The
former ‘deemed to satisfy’ standards were accepted as complying with the regulations and alternative solutions
could be achieved only by means of a relaxation from the prescribed standard. The new functional standards
permit alternative means of meeting a standard, and the system of obtaining a relaxation from the local authority
has therefore been disbanded (refer to Part I for further information). The conversion of a historic building sets
challenges to designers, certifiers of design and verifiers because each situation is unique. It will be essential to
understand how the building performs in use and to conduct a full appraisal of the relevant features of the building,
with testing where appropriate, to ensure compliance with the standard. It is likely to be beneficial for the designer
and verifier to discuss proposed solutions for potentially contentious issues at an early stage in the process.

2 Voids in historic fabric

There are many instances in the application of the standards when, in satisfying their requirements, the natural ability
of the historic fabric to ‘breathe’ is either eliminated or reduced. This can occur in the following circumstances:
a) The upgrading of thermal insulation to existing external walls by lining the walls with insulation and vapour
barriers seals off air leakage into the void between the lining and the wall, creating stagnant conditions.
b) The introduction of separating floors, where the junction between the wall and floor is sealed to prevent fire
spread and flanking sound transmission, which, in turn, prevents the through ventilation of the void behind


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

the existing historic lath and plaster wall finish.

c) Sealing off the void behind the lath and plaster at its junction with the roof, usually by installing insulation in
the roof that is continued into the eaves.
d) Sealing up gaps in construction to reduce air leakage and improve the thermal performance of the building.
The most difficult and contentious problem is, nevertheless, how best to provide ventilation to voids when floor and
wall junctions require to be sealed to prevent fire spread and sound transmission. Unfortunately, it is often the case
that the need for historic fabric to breathe is either forgotten or ignored in the design of a conversion. Providing
such ventilation should be specifically included in the design. Possible outline solutions to achieving ventilation of
hidden voids are shown in Illus .1 (see also Illus 3.15.5 in Section 3.15, Condensation).

Illus 1 Diagrammatic representation of ventilation of void behind lath and plaster or other finishes by vents at floor and ceiling level.

3 Preserving lath and plaster finishes

In the conversion of a historic building the requirement to improve the thermal performance of the building may
encourage the removal of existing historic finishes, such as traditional lath and plaster and timber panelling, to


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

allow for the installation of thermally-efficient insulation to external walls. Undoubtedly, applying insulation in this
way will greatly improve the thermal performance of the building. However, a balance must be struck between
improved thermal performance and preservation of historic fabric – of which traditional lath and plaster (usually
lime plaster) and timber panelling are key elements. It is therefore recommended that, wherever possible, traditional
lath and plaster and other historic finishes should be retained and thermal efficiency improvements to the building
achieved by other means.
The presumption that lath and plaster and other historic finishes will be preserved is reflected in many of the
recommended means of addressing the various standards provided in the following pages. Where lath and plaster
is in such poor condition that it would have to be removed and replaced, the requirement to improve the thermal
insulation of the envelope should be implemented.

Table 3. Summary assessment of the potential impact of the building standards on historic buildings. Note: standards shown in italics are not
included within the advice on the application of the building standards.

Essential Standards Reasonably Practicable Standards

No. Standard Potential Impact †
No. Standard Potential Impact
H M L H M L
1. Structure
1.1 Structure ✓
1.2 Disproportionate collapse ✓
2. Fire safety
2.1 Compartmentation ✓ 2.2 Separation ✓
2.3 Structural protection ✓ 2.4 Cavities ✓
2.5 Internal linings ✓ 2.6 Spread to neighbouring buildings X
2.9 Means of escape ✓ 2.7 Spread on external walls X
2.10 Escape lighting ✓ 2.8 Spread from neighbouring X
buildings
2.11 Communication ✓ 2.12 Fire service access ✓
2.13 Fire service water supply ✓
(Non–dwellings only)
2.14 Fire service facilities ✓
2.15 Automatic life safety fire ✓
suppression systems
3. Environment
3.5 Existing drains X 3.1 Site preparation - harmful ✓
substances
3.6 Surface water drainage ✓ 3.2 Site preparation - protection ✓
from radon
3.7 Wastewater drainage X 3.3 Flooding & ground water X
3.8 Private wastewater treatment X 3.4 Moisture from the ground ✓
plants
3.11 Apartments (Dwellings ✓ 3.10 Precipitation X
only)
3.12 Sanitary facilities ✓ 3.15 Condensation (Dwellings ✓
only)
3.13 Heating (Dwellings only) ✓ 3.16 Natural lighting (Dwellings ✓
only)

†
Potential impact: H – high, M - moderate, L – low


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

3.14 Ventilation ✓ 3.19 Combustion appliances ✓

– combustible materials
3.17 Combustion appliances - Safe X
operation
3.18 Combustion appliances ✓
– Protection from products
of combustion
3.20 Combustion appliances ✓
- Removal of products of
combustion
3.23, Oil storage X
3.24
3.25 Solid waste storage X
(Dwellings only)
3.26 Dungsteads & farm effluents X
4. Safety
4.5 Electrical safety X 4.1 Access to buildings ✓
4.6 Electrical fixtures X 4.2 Access within buildings ✓
(Dwellings only)
4.7 Aids to communication X 4.3 Stairs and ramps ✓
(Non-domestic)
4.9 Danger from heat X 4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers ✓
4.11 Liquified petroleum gas X 4.8 Danger from accidents ✓
4.12 Vehicle protective barriers X 4.10 Fixed seating (Non-domestic) X
5. Noise
5.1 Resisting sound transmission ✓
6. Energy
6.1 Policy ✓ 6.2 Building insulation envelope ✓
6.7 Commissioning building X 6.3 Heating system ✓
services
6.8 Written information X 6.4 Insulation of pipes, ducts and ✓
vessels
6.5 Artificial display lighting ✓
(Non-domestic)
6.6 Mechanical ventilation & air ✓
conditioning (Non-domestic)

Note: From May 2007, there will be changes to the wording of standards 1.1, 3.11 to 3.13, 3.23 and 3.24, 4.1
and 4.2, 4.6, 4.8 and all standards in Section 6. A note on the effect of the likely changes is included with the
commentary on each standard covered in this guide.


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

1. STRUCTURE

1.1 Structure and 1.2 Disproportionate collapse

Standard 1.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the loadings that are liable to act on it will
not lead to:
a) the collapse of the whole or part of the building; or
b) deformations which would make the building unfit for its intended use, unsafe, or cause damage to other
parts of the building or to fittings or to installed equipment.

Standard 1.2
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of damage occurring to any
part of the structure of the building, the extent of any resultant collapse will not be disproportionate to the
original cause.

1.1.1 Type of Standard

Reasonably practicable standard (Standard 1.1 and Standard 1.2)

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

1.1.2 Commentary
While the Structure standards are covered by the two separate standards shown above (Standard 1.1 and Standard
1.2), the nature of historic buildings is such that it is not considered practical to address the relevant issues within
two separate sets of advice.
When dealing with the structure of a historic building, whether exposed or hidden, it is important to remember
that all of the internal structure contributes to a listed building’s special character and is historically valuable. In the
case of listed buildings, listed building consent may be needed for structural alterations, and may also be required
for ‘opening-up’ for inspection prior to the design of the conversion.
While the materials and construction techniques used for historic buildings will be generally similar between
buildings – comprising mainly masonry walls, timber upper floors and timber pitched or flat roof structures
– each building will present a unique structural challenge when undergoing conversion. Although the structure of
traditional buildings will probably be formed from apparently ‘simple’ materials, they may not be constructed in a
simple manner. In addition, traditional methods of construction tended to vary from region to region and according
to the period of construction. Historic buildings are also likely to have been altered, extended and repaired at
various times over the lifespan, thus complicating the analysis of the structural behaviour of the building.
Unlike new build, the effects of time may have caused deterioration in the structural performance of walls and
timber.This is especially true when dealing with water penetration or the effects of material degradation. Also, when
the effects of deterioration are combined with a structure where the structural forces were not fully understood
when it was built, for example tying-in of floors and walls, the actual stability of the structure may be compromised.
This may not be obvious from a superficial and uninformed inspection of the building. No assumptions regarding
the construction and structural stability of a building should therefore be made without a careful study of the
structure and materials. Only qualified specialists who are properly knowledgeable and experienced in historic
building structures should carry out any assessment of the structure of a historic building. Any alteration, conversion
or extension to a historic building will affect the original structure, and great care must be taken to ensure that all
possible information on the existing structure and materials is obtained prior to the design of the conversion. The


 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

impact of the building works should be carefully considered at the design stage and every effort made to mitigate
the effects.
A further complication when dealing with historic structures is that the load bearing capabilities of the various
structural elements within the building may not be easily determined using current British Standards structural
codes of practice. This can lead to uncertainty regarding structural performance and, in turn, to a ‘belt and braces’
approach to design that may be unwarranted and cause unnecessary damage to historic fabric. When in sound
condition many historic structures have, intrinsically, a high residual factor of safety that is difficult to compute using
normal design procedures. They may be capable of sustaining additional loads without adverse effects.
While repair of structural defects will, when necessary, form part of the works of conversion, it is not the intention
of this commentary to try to provide advice on all possible structural defects and associated remedial action. Rather,
the advice will concentrate on some of the structural issues that may arise as a consequence of changing conditions
resulting from the conversion of a historic building.
In a conversion, one of the key structural issues that is most likely to occur is an increase or change in loading
conditions due to a change of use. The fact that a building is historic does not remove the overriding requirement
for public safety. However, this does not mean that the conversion should be carried out in a manner that will
diminish the value and appearance of the building.
Typical changes that may affect the structural system as a result of conversion, some of which may result in
disproportionate collapse, include the following (a fuller list is contained in section 1.1.3):
• increased floor loads due to changes in occupation,
• inadequate tying-in of floors and roofs to walls which may become more critical with increased loads,
• increased loads on escape routes, including stairs and landings.
While all of the above issues are important, it is the increase in design floor loads as a result of change of use that
is most commonly encountered. Few historic buildings, apart from those built for industrial purposes such as mills
and warehouses, are capable of carrying large imposed floor loadings. As a result, it has often been the case that quite
drastic structural strengthening has been designed into historic building conversions to accommodate design floor
loads for a change of use to offices. The rationale for this is that office space needs to have sufficient flexibility in
the way it is used and that it is therefore necessary to ensure that no part of the floor can be accidentally overloaded
with the resultant risk of excessive deflections or possible collapse. The design floor loads specified in the British
Standard (BS 6399 Part 1: 1996), suggests design loads of 2.5kN/m2 for offices for general use, 3.5kN/m2 for spaces
with fixed computers, and 5.0kN/m2 for storage space. Corridors and access stairs should be designed for 3.0kN/m2
or 4.0kN/m2. However, it should never be necessary to apply such high loadings in historic buildings that are to be
used as offices. The reasons for this are reviewed in the English Heritage publication (1996) ‘Office and floor loading
in historic buildings’. Upgrading a historic building to carry unrealistically high superimposed loads can result in
major structural intervention, sometimes resulting in complete removal of the internal floors and partitions, which
may not be justified by the perceived design loads.
Existing historic stairs are another contentious structural issue. The structural capacity of many historic stairs, some
constructed of stone steps and landings, ostensibly ‘cantilevered’ out from supporting walls, cannot be confirmed
by normal design calculation but are likely to be well capable of withstanding the superimposed loads liable to be
encountered in a change of use conversion. The vast majority of these stairs continue to be in use, many more than
200 years old, and show no signs of structural instability. They have therefore stood the test of time.

From May 2007, draft amended Standard 1.1 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the loadings that are liable to act on it, taking into
account the nature of the ground, will not lead to:
a) the collapse of the whole or part of the building; or
b) deformations which would make the building unfit for its intended use, unsafe, or cause damage to other parts of
the building or to fittings or to installed equipment; or
c) impairment of the stability of any part of another building.

These amendments do not alter the guidance offered on this standard.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

1.1.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Poor knowledge • Inappropriate structural intervention, which may be unnecessary and adversely affect historic
and understanding of character. Cracking may also result due to lack of understanding of load paths in traditional
traditional building materials.
materials and structures
2. Increased floor loading • Excessive deflections causing damage to historic ceilings or collapse of the floor.
• Insensitive floor strengthening can be destructive to fabric and architectural value of spaces.
• Transfer of increased floor loads to weakened masonry walls may cause detachment of inner
and outer faces of walls with a rubble core.
• Introduction of new supporting columns and beams could be damaging to historic spaces.
• Poorly executed previous repairs to floor joists and beams may not withstand additional
loading.
• Introduction of strengthening beams and their support can be very destructive to historic
fabric.
3. Historic stairs within • Strengthening stairs, especially cantilever stairs, can destroy their character. Load tests can be
escape routes adopted to confirm loading capacity.
4. Tying-in walls and • When floors require to be structurally attached to walls, the process can be destructive to
floors historic finishes.
5. Improving stability of • The use of exposed plates, as part of the stabilising process, may be aesthetically unacceptable
rubble-cored walls for a converted building.
• Gravity grouting of voids in the wall may cause further damage if poorly supervised or if too
strong grouting mortar is used.
6. Removal of internal • The load paths and load transfer mechanisms in historic buildings are often difficult to
walls determine: removal of apparently non-structural walls can cause structural distress.
7. Temporary removal of • In some situations the floorboards act as a horizontal bracing membrane and the complete
floor boards removal of the boards (even temporarily) may cause movement in walls or buckling of the floor.
8. New openings in • Forming a new opening in a timber floor may change loading conditions on other parts of the
floors floor and on supporting walls and beams.
9. New or altered door • Any new or altered penetrations in walls will change the pattern of load distribution in the
and window openings wall, and new lintels or cills can affect wall stability if they are not properly built in.
• Poorly built-in replacement safe lintels may promote settlement of the wall above.
10. Internal stud • Many historic stud partitions contain diagonal bracing; the partition then acts as a truss to
partitions carry both vertical and lateral loads. Poorly designed openings into the partition (even those
without diagonal bracing) may affect the stability of the building.
11. Slender internal load- • Historic buildings may have half-brick thick load bearing partitions associated with high floor
bearing masonry walls to ceiling heights. The walls may extend the full height of the building without being effectively
tied to floors – any increased loads may result in buckling or collapse of the wall. Old lime
mortar joints may also have lost strength over time.
12. New services • New services, and plant and water storage facilities will increase loads on roof structures, floors
installations and walls. Existing timber joists may be notched to suit new services, which may lead to local
failures.
13. Use of inappropriate • The use of hard, dense and shrinkable cement mortar and concrete in traditional structures
materials may change the moisture distribution pattern and promote shrinkage stresses within the existing
materials.
14. Shallow foundations • Historic walls often have shallow foundations with very little cover, built from large stones
placed on the ground. Uncontrolled excavations for new drainage, services and landscaping etc.
can undermine or reduce the stability of such foundations.
15. Chimney flues • New openings in historic walls may coincide with an old flue.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

1.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

For the reasons outlined above, dealing with the structural design elements of the conversion of a historic building
presents challenges that are not present in new build. This means that it is difficult to provide recommendations
that may be regarded as generic solutions because of the unique nature of the structural problems presented. This
section will therefore restrict advice to a few of the more common situations encountered in practice. However,
caution is required in their interpretation and application to actual buildings.

Structural surveys and load tests

Standard 1.1 Structure and Standard 1.2 Disproportionate collapse, are two standards for which the system of
approved certifiers of design will be employed.
For all but the most basic of buildings, and before any design work is put in hand, it is essential that
a full structural survey and assessment of the building is carried out by an engineer suitably qualified
and experienced in working with historic or traditional buildings. It is commonly the case that, because of
the complexity of the interaction of materials, components and possibly alterations to the structure over past years,
structural analysis using BS Codes of Practice will not provide the necessary reassurances regarding the stability of
the structure. For this reason, it is often necessary to employ load tests on existing elements to confirm the structural
capabilities of the structure or its elements. Load tests are typically carried out on floors, especially timber upper
floors, and staircases where normal design calculation is inappropriate.

Improving the stability of rubble cored walls

Rubble cored walls, whether rendered or faced with ashlar stone, are vulnerable to the effects of moisture and
applied loads, which may have increased over the life of the building. The possible effect of these actions is for the
outer and inner elements of the wall to no longer act in an homogeneous manner and for them to start to separate,
especially when they are inadequately tied to intermediate floors as frequently is the case (Illus 1.1.1).
There are a number of techniques that may be used to increase the stability of such walls, either singly or in
combination. For example, gravity grouting can be applied to the core of the wall to fill the voids and to tie the
wall together. This is a specialised technique, which for historic walls requires careful design of the grouting mortar
and close control of the injection process. However, there is a risk that the wall could be further damaged by this
process if it is carried out and supervised by persons lacking the necessary expertise.

Illus 1.1.1 Potential structural instability of historic rubble wall due to creation of voids in the core.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Tying-in, or stitching, of the two faces of a rubble cored wall can also be achieved by the use of anchor rods grouted
into the wall (Illus 1.1.2). These rods may be positioned at centres appropriate to the condition of the wall and can
be used to tie in flank walls, which are frequently only butt-jointed to perimeter walls.

Illus 1.1.2 Tying-in (stitching) of inner and outer faces of a rubble wall using grouted anchors.

It is often the case that timber upper floors are not securely tied into supporting walls and thus provide little lateral
stability to the wall. During a conversion there is therefore frequently a need to improve the structural connection
between walls and floors. The traditional method of bracing a wall by this means is to anchor the floor to a plate
on the outside face of the wall, as shown in Illus 1.1.3. However, while this is an acceptable structural solution,
the visible nature of plates on external faces can detract from the historic character of the wall. Perhaps more
significantly, in the case of a conversion development they may raise questions about the stability of the structure
in the minds of clients. An alternative floor to wall tying-in arrangement, which avoids the use of exposed plates,
is shown in Illus 1.1.4.

Illus 1.1.3 Plan view of wall bracing arrangement using a tie plate connection through the wall.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 1.1.4 Sectional view of strap fixing of floor to wall to provide lateral support to wall.

Strengthening timber floors

The need to increase the strength of timber upper
floors is one of the most common structural problems
encountered in a historic building conversion. All too
often an early design decision is made to replace such
floors with new concrete floors, particularly where the
building is being converted to commercial or office use.
Because such a decision will inevitably mean that much
of the character of the interior of the building will be
destroyed, there is a strong case for reassessing the design
to try to mitigate the distribution of the heaviest loading
conditions by, for example, placing storage spaces on
ground floors or within basements. Load testing of the
floor may show that such drastic action is unnecessary
and that with appropriate strengthening the existing
floor may be adapted to support increased loads without
drastic loss of historic fabric.
Because of the dampness of many historic walls, decay
of built-in timber joists and beams is a common
occurrence, usually as a result of inadequate maintenance.
The structural resolution of decayed ends of joists and
beams is relatively straightforward and, when carefully
designed and constructed, need not result in too much
damage to historic fabric. A possible solution to this
problem is shown in Illus 1.1.5. Alternatively, where
the existing joist pocket in the wall is sufficiently large,
the ends of the splice plates may be set into the pocket
and supported on a concrete pad. Because a wall will Illus 1.1.5 Repair of and support for ends of decayed joists.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 1.1.6 Timber floor strengthened by a steel beam inserted above floor level.

remain wet for some time after the dampness source has been eliminated, it is important to ensure that all timber
is protected with preservatives and that air is free to circulate around the timber within the pocket.
Typically, timber floors are strengthened by the insertion of steel beams, supported by either flank walls or new
columns. The introduction of beams and their supports can be very destructive to historic character and fabric if
they are insensitively designed and located. Usually this means that beams support the underside of floor joists and
project into the room below – often leading to loss of important plaster cornices. In some situations it is possible to
use the line of a partition being supported by the floor to act as a locus for the beam, as shown in Illus 1.1.6. In this
case the beam is designed to fit into the space occupied by the partition and is hidden from view, while causing a
minimum of damage to existing finishes. However, locating a beam in this position will mean that door openings
are not available within the partition.
An alternative approach to providing additional support to a timber floor may be by the use of a braced partition,
tied back to and supported by load-bearing flank walls, as shown in Illus 1.1.7. An existing partition can be
strengthened by adding diagonal bracing, or a new partition inserted where this is possible without disruption to
the internal character of the space.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Beam strengthening
There may occur situations where it
is necessary to retain an existing floor
structure where the construction of the
floor, including existing timber beams, is an
important factor in defining the character of
the building. In such cases, where the bearing
capacity of a beam has to be improved, every
effort must be made to achieve this without
causing serious disruption to the historic
elements. There are a number of ways in
which this can be achieved; those shown
in Illus 1.1.8 are examples of strengthening
and conserving a historic timber beam.
In situations where a timber beam is
incorporated within the depth of the floor, a
rather more simple solution can be adopted
while preserving the beam in situ. The
example in Illus 1.1.9 requires removal and
reinstatement of the ceiling below the beam
position, but by bolting two galvanised steel
angle sections to the bottom of the beam
the load bearing capacity is greatly improved
and deflection of the beam controlled.
Illus 1.1.7 Braced partition providing additional support to an existing floor.

Illus 1.1.8 Methods of strengthening existing timber floor beams. In this case the beams are exposed within the ceiling below and this feature
is retained.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 1.1.9 Beam strengthening of timber beam wholly within the floor to ceiling zone.

Replacement lintels
Openings in traditional masonry walls are normally supported by timber lintels (typically 150mm wide by 100mm
deep). Typically, a stone lintel is used when the outer face of the wall is exposed stone or is finished in render with
stone margins around the openings. Alternatively, all the lintels may be constructed from stone.
Timber safe lintels are vulnerable to moisture-related damage from damp walls. It is thus essential to ensure that
all timber lintels are in sound condition and, where decay is present, the source of the moisture is identified and
rectified and the decayed lintels replaced with new lintels as shown in Illus 1.1.10. In general, whenever supporting
elements in masonry walls are removed, propping of the wall above will be required.

‘Cantilevered’ Stairs
There are many situations in the conversion of a historic building where existing stone, or timber, cantilevered
stairs have to be retained and required to support increased loadings. Such stairs formed the principal staircase in
many town and country houses and are thus important in defining the character of the building. While these stairs
have passed the test of time and are structurally sound, engineers have been unable to provide detailed structural
calculations to prove the ability of a stair to support increased imposed loads. There are therefore concerns about
their real strength.
While the ends of the steps are built into a masonry wall and the stone then ‘cantilevered’ out, the stair does not act
as a true cantilever as the load is transferred down through the steps to the lowest step and then to the supporting
floor. Each tread carries the weight from above on its back edge and is supported under its front edge by the tread
below (Price and Rogers 2005). The bearing capacity of the wall (which does carry a torsion force), the condition
of the masonry around the built-in end of each step (or landing), the bearing of one tread upon another and the
strength of the supporting floor all contribute to the stability of the stair.
According to Price and Rogers (2005) when assessing the strength of an existing staircase, the unknowns may
include:
• the strength of the stone in the staircase,
• the quality of the material in the supporting wall,
• the quality of the mortar between the treads,
• the way the staircase was built (ie tread on tread, or the whole flight on centring),

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 1.1.10 Replacement of decayed timber safe lintels with precast concrete lintels.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 1.1.11 Fine example of cantilevered stone staircase in this former hospital converted to offices. Note the slenderness of the self-supporting
stone steps and the original iron balustrade. (Photo: Historic Scotland).

• the vertical and horizontal support provided at the top and bottom of the flights,
• the way the landing slabs have been jointed and
• the strength and stiffness of the handrail.
As a result, the only practical means of determining whether the stair has the ability to support the actual loads
to be imposed, as a result of a change in use, is to subject the stair to a load test. Price and Rogers also state that a
flight with rebated treads has even more unknowns than a flight with plain treads.

Illus 1.1.12 Forces acting on steps in a ‘cantilevered’ stair. Note: the support is not due to cantilever action. (from Price and Rogers 2005).

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

1.1.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.6 Surface water drainage
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings
• Standard 4.3 Stairs and ramps
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning.

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 2. FIRE

Preface to Fire Standards

The guidance offered by the Technical Handbook with respect to fire standards is designed essentially for new build
and, as such, the strict application of the guidance has the potential, when applied to historic buildings, to cause
significant loss of historic fabric and character. However, safety of life in a fire situation is paramount, and this is
reflected in the design of the standards; nine of the fifteen fire standards demand that the conversion shall meet the
requirement of the standard.
Historic buildings were generally constructed without regard to fire risk and were constructed without the levels
of fire resistance now required for new construction. For example, deliberate compartmentation to confine the
outbreak of fire or adequate consideration of escape routes simply did not exist. The buildings themselves therefore
create fire safety problems where the presence of certain features actually assist the rapid spread of fire. Most historic
buildings will contain undivided roof spaces and other hidden voids where a fire can smoulder unseen and break
out at a point remote from the seat of the fire. Interconnected voids are a major hazard that must be accurately
identified during the initial building surveys. To further complicate the issue, most historic buildings will have
undergone alterations and changes throughout their life, where features such as ducts, chases, shafts (including lift
shafts, ventilation spaces and old staircases), and chimneys and flues may have been built over and forgotten. They
thus provide an easy route for heat, fire and smoke to spread throughout the building.
When considering the requirements of the standards and the conservation needs of a historic building there may
be conflicts of interest between the need to provide an appropriate level of fire resistance and the preservation of
historic character. It is essential, therefore, to strike a balance between fire-safety provision and relevant conservation
issues to arrive at the optimum solution in any given situation. In general, every historic building is unique and
solutions must be tailored individually to each building. This means that alternative approaches to fire safety must
be considered so that the specific nature of the building and its construction are built into the equation. A fire
engineering approach to fire protection, based on a thorough fire risk assessment, will almost certainly be required
in the application of fire standards to historic buildings.
The attention of practitioners is drawn to BS 7974, Application of fire safety engineering principles to the design of
buildings. The BS can be used as an alternative to the guidance provided in the Technical Handbook, either in whole
or in part. It provides a disciplined and structured approach, which compares alternatives and provides opportunities
for innovative design solutions. For example, a historic door may not need to withstand the effects of a fire much
beyond the time it takes to evacuate the building, provided the time available to evacuate is reduced through, for
example, an effective and reliable fire detection and warning system.
Alternative strategies may thus compensate for deficiencies in the passive fire resistance of the fabric and layout
of the building through the use of active measures such as automatic fire detection and suppression systems.
Alternatively, a combination of schemes might be introduced based upon a thorough assessment of risk, a hazard
reduction exercise and the implementation of a good management strategy, in accordance with the guidance in BS
5588 Part 12: 2004.
Many historic buildings are in remote locations and thus have the potential to present a greater risk to life or to
the property itself. Where fire crews are required to travel some distance to reach affected property there will be a
significant time lapse between ignition and their arrival. The larger the interval of time the greater the opportunity
for fire growth. Unless some form of intervention takes place meantime, perhaps by automatic fire suppression, the
first attack may take place only on the arrival of the fire crew. Even adequate compartmentation will not protect
the room on fire, only help prevent its spread to other parts of the building.
Effective fire risk management has a contribution to make in satisfying the standards. There is, within the new
building regulations, a power to set ‘continuing requirements’, which can impose an ongoing control that might
relate to certain management actions. While management solutions alone are unlikely to satisfy the requirements
of the standards, they may make a contribution. This will depend on the particular circumstances, and may involve

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

a ‘continuing requirement’ being imposed on the building owner. Any role of management in meeting the standards
must be agreed with the verifier and the enforcing authority for fire safety legislation. There is now, however,
a possible role for management solutions to help achieve compliance, which did not exist under the previous
regulations.

2.1 Compartmentation

Standard 2.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, fire and smoke are inhibited from spreading beyond the compartment of origin until any occupants
have had the time to leave that compartment and any fire containment measures have been initiated.
Limitation This standard does not apply to domestic buildings.

2.1.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.1.2 Commentary
In the conversion of a historic building, the need to prevent the growth of fires by ‘containment’, so avoiding major
conflagrations, is one of the principal design issues in order to ensure the safety of persons both in and around the
building. Rather than creating larger and more open plan structures, many conversions of historic buildings involve
a change of use where the building is divided into smaller self-contained units (such as apartments), or to a use
where areas of the building must be sub-divided into inter-connected compartments (such as an hotel or residential
care home). Whatever the situation, the existing and potential fire loading should always be carefully considered
prior to deciding upon any particular strategy.
Historic buildings are often considered to be at greater risk from fire because of how they have been constructed.
Most buildings erected before 1900 will lack any intentional forms of fire compartmentation or inbuilt fire
resistance. In addition, many such buildings contain large, undivided roof spaces: unstopped voids, shafts and other
vertical openings along or up which fire and smoke can spread. Chapter 3 of Historic Scotland’s Technical Advice
Note 11 (Allwinkle et al 1997) discusses these problems in fuller detail. However, because of the typically short
spans of traditional timber floors, most historic buildings will contain natural lines of compartmentation that may
be incorporated into the design of conversions.
Compartmentation is the simplest means of inhibiting rapid spread of fire, smoke, heat and toxic gases. It will assist
in helping occupants to evacuate the building and fire-fighters entering for the purposes of search and rescue and
ultimately extinguishing the fire.
In assessing compartments, it is necessary to consider all the boundaries to each compartment (normally the walls,
ceilings and floors) for integrity and resistance to fire. In many historic buildings, the integrity of the boundaries
will be compromised by openings such as doors, service ducts and other weaknesses. In addition, most historic
buildings will have undergone alteration and repair, which may have further compromised the fire integrity of the
construction. Nevertheless, it is still possible to improve the fire performance of the existing construction while
retaining or restoring historic finishes.
The intention of this mandatory standard is to limit the severity of the fire and, while every effort must be made to
improve the fire resistance of compartments, there may reach a point where improving the fire resistance further
could lead to loss of important historic fabric. In such circumstances it may be possible to adopt a fire engineering
approach, which will balance weaknesses in compartmentation with other measures that will speed up the process
of evacuation and or facilitate fire-fighting. These other measures may include the adoption of a fire engineering
methodology along with improved fire safety management, detection and suppression.
When the conversion of a historic building is being considered, then a full fire risk assessment should be undertaken
to determine whether the anticipated purpose is reasonable and appropriate. Historic Scotland Technical Advice
Note 28 (Kidd 2005) explains how this should be undertaken and covers not only the risk assessment process but
also the implications of changes of use.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.1.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Maximum • Large uncompartmented spaces are common: fires are able to spread rapidly and occupants
compartment areas may have difficulty escaping unaided. Sub-dividing historic spaces to comply with maximum
vertical and horizontal compartment area requirements can be destructive to the historic character of the space and
fire breaks the building.
2. Standards of fire • Existing elements of structure may be inherently fire resistant while some may not;
resistance (short, medium however, there may be additional difficulties faced in ensuring that barriers surrounding fire
and long) compartments provide the required standard of fire resistance.
3. Smoke and heat • Malls in shopping centres and large shops in excess of 5,600m2 should be fitted with
exhaust ventilation smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems (SHEVS), which are rarely present in historic
systems buildings. Their introduction, unless existing voids or shafts can be used, will often result in
unacceptable levels of damage to historic fabric.
4. Buildings with • Introducing higher than average fuel loads into, for example, where a hotel or retail
different uses occupancy is anticipated, can increase the fire risk. While there have been many successful
conversions of historic buildings to offices, hotels, retail premises and for cultural use, care
must be taken to consider all likely impacts of the new use.
5. Residential buildings • The need for every upper storey and every basement storey to form a separate compartment
in a conversion to a residential building will normally require improvements to the fire
resistance of separating floors and/or ceilings, which may be destructive to historic features.
6. High rise buildings • The requirement for every floor at a storey height of more than 18m above the ground to
be a compartment floor may be difficult to achieve if historic finishes are to be retained, for
example in the conversion of a large historic house to a hotel.
7. Basements • Where there is a basement, the ground floor should be a compartment floor, unless there are
not more than one basement storey and two other storeys, and each storey has an area of not
more than 280m2. In most situations it should be relatively easy to make the ground floor a
separating floor, as basements in historic buildings generally do not contain significant historic
fabric.
8. Places of special fire • These will include:
risk - electrical intake rooms/switchrooms,
- transformer sub stations,
- boiler and plant rooms,
- lift motor rooms.
9. Fire-fighting shafts, • It may be impossible to provide these in accordance with the normal standards and, where
smoke venting shafts & this is the case, a compensating feature such as automatic fire suppression may have to be
lift wells provided.
• Compartment walls with medium fire resistance duration should enclose a lift well. While
the provision of such walls can be damaging to historic fabric, consideration should be given
to upgrading the fire resistance of the lift shaft and doors and also to high level venting of the
shaft.
10. Openings and service • There is a danger that, in trying to improve the fire resistance of doors in compartment
penetrations walls, historic doors and associated elements are lost or compromised.
• It is likely that there will be little in the way of sealed penetrations or provision of dampers
etc in ductwork and other service openings. However, fire stopping such openings is not
normally damaging to historic fabric.
11. Junctions • Fire stopping at junctions of compartment floors and walls can be a problem in historic
buildings as there is a need to provide sufficient air movement to control humidity in hidden
voids and spaces.
• There is a need to continue compartment walls into roof voids and attics, and to ensure an
effective fire stop at the junction with roof substrate. This requirement is unlikely to pose a
threat to historic fabric.
12. Fire resisting ceilings • Historic ceilings, and their junction with compartment walls, are likely to have limited fire
resistance and upgrading their fire resistance may mean a loss of historic fabric.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Maximum compartment sizes may be increased where there is an automatic fire suppression system fitted.
Furthermore, where such active protection is installed, there may also be opportunities to reduce the periods of
fire resistance normally required.
Where compartments are overly large, the limited presence of combustible items (such as may be found in a
museum or picture gallery) may offer sufficient compensation provided that the fire risk is well managed in
accordance with BS 5588 Part 12: 2004. In certain circumstances, however, it may be necessary to carry out a full
fire engineering analysis in order to identify fire growth potential, in accordance with BS 7974.
In extreme cases the installation of new fire rated floor over an existing historic floor may be a practical and
alternative solution. This is particularly so when the new structure can be removed at some future time, without
impacting upon the original feature.
Contrary to some views, solid wood doors provide a reasonable degree of fire separation and even panelled doors
have been known to resist the spread of fire for 15-20 minutes. The requirement to replace original doors with
modern rated fire doors is one of the most contentious issues in the process of modifying historic buildings for
new uses. However, the careful use of intumescent coating systems (paints and varnishes) can provide a reasonable
standard of fire protection to timber doors and panels for up to 60 minutes.
Upgrading penetration protection is not a difficult process given the range of modern fire resisting compounds and
materials (such as fire resistant cable transits) that are available. Where a building is being rewired there should be a
good opportunity for carrying out local fire stopping and even upgrading fire compartmentation.
There is likely to be little inbuilt fire resistance in respect of ceilings in properties constructed before 1900. It is
possible to introduce modern fire resistant materials in such areas, for example under-floor fire barrier curtains,
which might be installed with minimal disruption to historic fabric when floors are being removed for re-wiring.
Moreover, as with doors, there are intumescent products available for treating wood, steel, concrete and plasterboard
that can be used to treat ornate ceilings.

2.1.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 2.14 Fire service facilities
• Standard 2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.2 Separation

Standard 2.2
Every building, which is divided into more than one area of different occupation, must be designed and
constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within the building, fire and smoke are
inhibited from spreading beyond the area of occupation where the fire originated.

2.2.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

2.2.2 Commentary
This standard (Standard 2.2) should be read in conjunction with Standard 2.1, Compartmentation. However, 2.1 is
an essential standard, which applies to non-domestic buildings only, while 2.2 is a reasonably practicable standard and
applies to both domestic and non-domestic buildings. The essential differences between the two standards are:
• Standard 2.1 defines the maximum compartment areas for different non-domestic building use, and the
minimum fire resistance duration for compartments and elements of structure; to inhibit fire and smoke spread
and thus enable occupants to escape from the compartment and fire-fighters to enter.
• Standard 2.2 is concerned with the need to prevent fire spread from one dwelling to another (domestic
buildings) or from buildings, or parts of a building, in different occupations (non-domestic buildings). This
is because of the difficulty, in all cases, of ensuring a consistent and good standard of fire safety management
and the increased life risk that consequently might arise. It covers the design and construction of separating
elements which have to provide a complete barrier to the products of combustion.
The requirement of Standard 2.2 to provide separation of spaces that have a specified period of fire resistance is one
that places possibly the most significant demands on the design and construction of historic building conversions.
The most important elements that normally will have to be upgraded – or alternative strategies adopted – are the
doors, floors, walls, penetrations through floors and walls, and roof voids.
A particular problem in historic buildings is the presence of multiple flues that may be present in separating walls.
The majority of rooms will have had a fireplace and many redundant flues are likely to be unlined and in uncertain
condition. Over many years, perhaps centuries, mortar becomes detached and gaps occur, which can permit the
transfer of the products of combustion across separating elements. Similarly, ends of beams and floor joists built into
separating walls may be a source of weakness that can permit the passage of fire and smoke across the wall.
Historic buildings will also contain hidden voids as a result of the method of construction, or redundant spaces
that are now covered up. The traditional methods of construction result in cavities behind lath and plaster that
permit the free circulation of air, which controls the moisture content of timber within these spaces. In addition,
most historic buildings are likely to have undergone some degree of alteration over the years, for example the
introduction of modern building services. As a result, the original structure may have been built over, creating
voids. Often, the careless installation of services over many years has resulted in the creation of pathways within the
construction that will destroy its effectiveness as a fire barrier.
The identification of voids in the design of a conversion is necessary to ensure the integrity of fire (and sound)
separation between parts of buildings in separate occupation. Also, understanding the role of these voids in a historic
building is crucial, as the thoughtless sealing up of such voids can adversely affect how such buildings ‘breathe’ and
possibly leading to fungal decay and deterioration of porous plaster finishes and the like. Balancing the need for fire
integrity while maintaining air movement is thus a significant challenge to designers.
Separating walls are required to extend into roof spaces and into solums, and are an absolute necessity for preventing
fire spread between dwellings, or between one part of a building and another. It is always worth remembering
that, while improving fire resistance of elements may cause some disruption to historic materials, the option to
‘do nothing’ is not appropriate, as weaknesses in the fire resistance duration could lead to the complete loss of the
building and even loss of life.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.2.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Separating walls • Generally, traditional lath and plaster finishes cannot be relied upon to provide the necessary
and floors period of fire resistance – especially at junctions and where the plaster is in poor condition – and
thus will compromise the integrity of separating walls and floors. Upgrading timber floors may
cause significant loss of historic materials and finishes.
2. Combustibility • Most historic buildings do not have any storey at a height of more than 18m, in which case
separating floors and walls may be constructed from combustible materials (for non-domestic
buildings refer to the standard for the particular situations where this applies). While this should
mean that major replacement of structural materials may not be necessary, upgrading of performance
may be required with consequent loss of historic finishes, unless alternative strategies are employed
(refer to Section 2.2.4 below).
• For storeys at a height of more than 18m, separating walls and floors are required to be
constructed from non-combustible materials. This requirement may result in the drastic
reconstruction or replacement of walls and floors, which is likely to be unacceptable in most historic
buildings. Alternative strategies to improve fire resistance will be necessary in such cases.
3. Openings (esp. • Doors in separating walls are required to have the same period of fire resistance duration as the
doors), service wall (will generally be a minimum of medium fire resistance duration), although in some instances
penetrations, a self-closing fire door with short fire resistance duration may be installed. Upgrading historic doors
chimneys or flue to meet the standard of fire resistance required will frequently lead to loss of the historic character
pipes of the door (refer to the advice in 2.2.4 below).
• Existing and new service penetrations should be fire stopped. Fire stopping is unlikely to pose a
serious risk to historic fabric.
• Existing chimneys and flues in masonry walls may be critical to the fire performance of the
separating wall where the condition of stonework and pointing is poor. Improvements to fire
resistance is thus essential but must be carried out in a sympathetic manner.
4. Junctions • For many historic buildings with separating timber floors, fire stopping the junction between floor
and wall to provide a permanent seal will reduce air movement in cavities and increase the risk of
fungal decay of timber.

2.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

1. General recommendations
There is unlikely to be any significant degree of intentional fire separation in most historic buildings. Determination
of what is present can often be difficult without damaging historic fabric and a specialist survey using endoscopes or
fibre optic TV cameras may be the only way of determining what lies inside a wall or under a floor. The greater part
of the building or structure, other than masonry or bricks, will burn and even where non-combustible materials
(such as slates) are present, these will be supported by combustible timber and sarking. However, the following
guidance may prove helpful:
a) Lath and plaster will give only a very short period of fire resistance. However, intumescent coatings are
available that can improve the standard of fire resistance to 30 or even 60 minutes, but only where the lath and
plaster remains in place and the plaster does not detach from the laths as a result of thermal movement etc.
b) Close-boarded floors on substantial joists may provide longer periods of fire resistance than is normally
anticipated. There will be few such floors that will not provide 30 minutes fire resistance and most will
provide at least 60 minutes resistance. Where pugging in the form of cinder ash or crushed sea shells has been
introduced this will increase the resistance to fire.
c) Existing doors may not offer any formal evidence of fire resistance but this does not mean that they provide
no resistance. Again, the use of intumescent varnishes and paints can improve fire ratings and specialist advice
should be sought.
While automatic fire detection will be (or should be) installed in all domestic properties, it will not usually be linked
to any common or neighbouring alarms. Where, however, there are difficulties in ensuring the proper standard of
fire separation between different occupancies, consideration should be given to providing fire detection and alarm
systems to BS 5839 Part 1.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Similarly, the presence of automatic fire suppression, such as an automatic fire sprinkler system designed and installed
to either BS 9251: 2005 or BS 5306 Part 2: 1990 may, in certain circumstances, provide adequate compensation.
However, in this particular circumstance the issue of maintenance will clearly be an important matter requiring
careful consideration.
Good ventilation and airflow is an important feature often required in many historic buildings. However, vents in
walls, doors or floors that are also required to prevent the spread of fire can be acceptable if suitable products are
installed that will seal in the event of fire e.g. automatic dampers or intumescent grilles.

2. Upgrading fire resistance duration of floors

There are various means of upgrading the fire resistance duration of existing timber separating floors. The most
appropriate method will be determined by the required period of resistance, the historic importance of the floor
and the construction and condition of the floor. For these floors the following methods of upgrading performance
could be considered. The examples illustrated are reproduced, in part, from BRE Digest 208 1988, Increasing the fire
resistance of existing timber floors, where more detailed information on specification and fixings can be obtained.
a) Applying a layer or layers of plasterboard to the underside of the existing floor. However, this method is
appropriate only where the existing ceiling is of no significance to the historic character of the building (Illus
2.2.1(a)).

Illus 2.2.1(a) Half-hour fire protection added to underside of existing ceiling.

b) Installing a fire resisting suspended ceiling system beneath the existing floor may be appropriate when high
fire resistance duration is required and where the floor to ceiling height permits. The existing historic ceiling
may then be preserved within the new construction.
c) Installing a lightweight underfloor fire-resisting barrier within the depth of the floor is useful when the
existing ceiling and its fixing to the joists are in good condition (Illus 2.2.1 (b) and 2.2.1 (c)). In addition to
the examples illustrated, proprietary systems are available. Usually, such systems require a few floor boards to
be lifted and, for example, foil-clad intumescent material slid between the joists and fixed with battens. This
system allows the historic ceiling to be retained while possibly achieving in excess of 100 minutes of fire
resistance.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 2.2.1(b) One-hour fire resistance added within the floor to preserve historic ceiling.

d) One of the least damaging methods of improving the fire resistance of a separating floor to achieve half-hour
fire protection while retaining the existing ceiling is by adding a hardboard or plywood layer to the surface of
the existing floor (Illus 2.2.1(c)).

Illus 2.2.1(c). Half-hour fire resistance applied from above to existing floor.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

e) Where existing joists are exposed it is possible to upgrade the floor by adding plasterboard protection below
the flooring to achieve half-hour protection (Illus 2.2.1(d)).

Illus. 2.2.1(d). Fire protecting a floor with existing joists exposed.

f) Applying intumescent paper to the surface of the ceiling may be sufficient to improve the fire resistance
duration to meet the short duration requirement. It can be used only where the lath and plaster are well fixed.
When upgrading the fire resistance duration of a historic timber floor, it is essential to provide resistance to the
junction between the floor and the wall. However, sealing the gap between the floor and the wall will prevent the
ventilation of voids behind lath and plaster wall finishes. For further information on this issue, refer to the advice
contained in Part II, Standard 2.4 Cavities.

Illus 2.2.2 Historic ceiling to separating floor in a country house hotel – the ceiling has had fire resistance duration improved by the addition
of intumescent paper (Photo: Ian Gough).

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3. Upgrading the fire resistance duration of doors in separating walls

Upgrading the fire resistance duration of a historic door in a separating wall is discussed in Section 6.1.4, Part 1,
of this guide. Further information can be found in Historic Scotland TAN 11 (1997) and in TRADA publication,
Sheet 32, (2005) Fire resisting doorsets by upgrading. However, the principal recommendations for improving the
performance of these doors are summarised below (more detailed information is available in TRADA Sheet 32).
a) For a framed door with solid panels it is important to identify the species of timber used to enable an estimate
to be made of the potential burn-through time for the door and of its likely potential to distort. In addition,
the condition of the door must be taken into account as any shrinkage or splitting will influence the burn-
through time. The thinnest timber within the door should be used for this purpose. This will allow a decision
to be made on how best to upgrade the performance of the door. Methods can include:
• facing the door on both sides with non-combustible boards, which can be removed at a later date with
minimal damage,
• sealing all cracks and gaps with intumescent paste,
• applying intumescent paper to protect vulnerable areas such as fielded panels,
• applying intumescent paints and varnishes to doors and frames (usually in conjunction with other
upgrading measures),
• fitting proprietary intumescent strips and flexible cold smoke seals.
b) In the case of a door with a glazed panel, the normal approach will be to replace the existing glass with fire
resisting glass. However, this may mean that important historic glass is lost. In such a case it may be possible to
apply secondary fire glazing to the door (using a suitable fire resisting glass), which retains the historic glass in
place and allows the door to be returned to its original state, should the need arise.
c) The gap between the door leaf and frame in a historic door opening is frequently wider than the 4mm
maximum. The door and frame may have distorted over the years leaving a variable gap. In such cases, to allow
the fitting of intumesent seals, the door leaf edges may need to be adjusted.
d) It is not just the door leaf that will require attention. In order for the whole door installation (including the
door frame construction, the frame to wall junction and ironmongery) to achieve at least a short fire resistance
duration, the following steps to improve performance should be implemented.
• fit intumescent strips across the head and down both jambs;
• repair damaged frames where these affect fire performance;
• carefully remove architraves to check that no voids occur between the frame and surrounding wall, and
thus allow the passage of combustion products; and
• fill any voids with plaster, intumescent material or tightly packed rock wool (or similar) insulation.
e) Existing historic door ironmongery cannot be assumed to be suitable for use on a fire-resisting door. For
example, large heavy iron latches and hinges can transmit heat rapidly and thus reduce the fire resistance of the
door. Where this is the case, historic door furniture may need to be replaced with suitable approved fittings
and the historic furniture stored carefully for possible refitting at a later date should building use change. In
the case of a listed building this may be a matter for listed building consent. Alternative options relating to the
use or management of the building may have to be explored where the fittings are important to the character
of the building. Similarly, alterations to the door furniture over the life of the door may have resulted in gaps
or reduced door thicknesses that should be filled with a timber insert piece.
f) The introduction of fire detection and alarm systems and automatic fire suppression, as discussed in point 1
above, General discussion, will influence the extent to which improvements to the fire resistance of doors and
door frames are required.

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2.2.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 2.9 Means of escape
• Standard 2.11 Communication
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 3.19 Combustion appliances – combustible materials
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission

2.3 Structural protection

2.3.1 Type of standard

Standard 2.3
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, the load-bearing capacity of the building will continue to function until all occupants have
escaped, or been assisted to escape, from the building and any fire containment measures have been initiated.

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.3.2 Commentary
For new build, this is a relatively straightforward standard that presents little difficulty to the designer. However,
the conversion of a historic building can raise complex issues relating to the level of fire protection offered by an
element of structure. Modern building materials are covered by appropriate British and European standards and
fire test certification; but the performance of traditional, historic materials will be less well understood and many
materials will not have the ‘security’ of such certification. A designer (or verifier) inexperienced in the conversion
of historic buildings may consider that, in the absence of test data, it is necessary to adopt a ‘fail-safe’ approach and
over-design structural fire protection, which may have an adverse effect on historic fabric.
It is essential, therefore, to understand the way in which materials have been combined to form an element of
structure, and to appreciate how both the individual materials and materials used in combination affect the fire
performance of the element. Such an understanding will take into account the effects of age, physical and chemical
degradation, applied treatments and any other forms of degradation that will have an impact on fire performance.
It is also important to know the likely impact that any applied protective coatings or finishes may have on the
historic character of the element. More detailed advice on the performance of historic materials in fire is available
in Historic Scotland Technical Advice Note (TAN) 11.
It is clear, therefore, that before embarking on the design of a historic building conversion it will be necessary to
conduct a full survey and fire risk assessment of the structural elements and their likely performance in fire. In the
absence of such a survey it will be impossible to determine the structural performance of the building in fire, or the
extent to which upgrading of the elements – or the introduction of other measures – will be necessary. However,
experience of real fires in historic buildings suggests that, in many cases, the load-bearing capacity of structural
elements will be maintained for 30 minutes or more. For example, timber is a combustible material but the degree
of fire resistance increases with thickness; the formation of a char layer inhibits further the effect of fire. However,

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

the condition of the timber is vital to the assessment of performance as fungal decay and insect attack, for example,
will have a significant effect. Traditional lime or gypsum plasters have an inherent resistance to fire when in sound
condition, but where the plaster is not firmly adhering to the substrate – especially to fir laths – its ability to resist
fire is reduced significantly.
Failure of a structural element may not be due simply to the combustibility of the materials – the effects of heat
can cause distortion resulting in the collapse of supported elements. For example, the expansion, buckling or other
deformation of cast iron or steel columns or beams in the early stages of a fire can cause the collapse of supported
floors.

2.3.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Elements of • The majority of historic buildings undergoing conversion are of limited height, and many will
structure not have a storey more than 7.5m above the ground. In this case elements of structure need only
to have at least a short fire resistance duration, which can usually be accommodated without
significant disruption to historic finishes and materials.
• Where the building has a storey height over 7.5m and not more than 18m, a medium fire
resistance duration is required. The majority of historic buildings will not achieve structural
fire protection of this order without improvements to structural fire resistance, which may be
destructive to historic materials and finishes. Specialist advice is required.
• Buildings with a storey height over 18m above the ground are required to have a long fire
resistance duration. In an effort to improve structural fire protection, there is potential for extreme
loss of historic fabric. This is an area in which specialist advice is essential.
2. Combustibility • The use of combustible materials is normal for elements of structure in historic buildings.
The presence of such materials is acceptable provided the element achieves the appropriate fire
resistance duration.
• Structural timber, while combustible, may have appropriate fire resistance duration for the given
situation. Unthinking ‘improvements’ to fire resistance of timber can be damaging to its historic
character.
3. Openings and • Unlikely to present a risk to structural stability. However, past alterations to structural floors
service penetrations to install services and the like may have adversely affected the fire resistance of the element, and
further intervention, to improve fire resistance, may be destructive to fabric.
4. Junctions • Unlikely to present a risk to historic fabric in most situations. However, a fire risk assessment will
be required to determine whether fire stopping at junctions of elements of structure is necessary.
The installation of fire stopping may result in loss of historic fabric.

2.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

1. Fire risk assessment

While most of the main structural features will already have a limited degree of fire resistance inherent in them,
it may be possible to demonstrate a reasonably adequate level of safety by carrying out a full and detailed fire risk
assessment followed by a hazard reduction exercise. Limiting amounts of fuel present in a building, combined with
few ignition sources and good management practice in accordance with BS 5588 Part 12: 2004 ‘Managing fire safety’,
may in some cases be sufficient to satisfy the authorities having jurisdiction on this matter. Furthermore, occupancy
factors, such as whether the premises are used for residential purposes or are day risk only, should also be taken into
account when assessing the adequacy of existing materials. Finally, in some cases it may be necessary to carry out
a full fire engineering analysis in accordance with BS PD 7974 2004.

2. Improve fire protection

Even after carrying out a thorough fire risk assessment, it may still be necessary to improve the quality of fire
protection to existing elements of structure and there are many ways of doing so without damaging historic
features. Methods include:
• non-combustible materials, such as mineral fibre, can be used to clad structural members,

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

• enclose existing historic structures within new structures, such as floors, which can, at some future date, be
removed without damaging historic features,
• intumescing paints and varnishes are available to treat a wide range of materials such as: steel, timber, concrete
lath and plaster etc; however, intumscent pillows and fire stop blocks are also available and extremely useful for
ensuring fire-stopping around columns and beams.

3. Install active fire-defence systems

Active systems of fire defence such as fire suppression and alarms may also be used to compensate for weaknesses in
structural fire protection or where confidence in the quality of existing measures is low. Some of these circumstances
are already recognised within the Technical Handbooks:
• for buildings with different uses (non-domestic), fire sprinklers allow shorter fire resistance duration,
• reduced fire resistance of external walls is permitted if fire sprinklers are present. also reduced boundary
distances are permitted for shop, entertainment, class 1 factory and storage buildings if sprinklers are present,
• basements can be provided with mechanical ventilation for fire service use if they have automatic fire
suppression.

2.3.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 1.1 Structure
• Standard 1.2 Structure – Disproportionate collapse
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 2.14 Fire service facilities
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission
• Standard 6.2 Building envelope insulation

2.4 Cavities

Standard 2.4
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, the unseen spread of fire and smoke within concealed spaces in its structure and fabric is
inhibited.

2.4.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.4.2 Commentary
In all buildings the spread of fire and smoke in concealed spaces must be a primary concern in fire safety design,
as fire can spread undetected and very rapidly within such spaces. The risks are increased significantly in historic
buildings, where cavities and pathways for fire and smoke will be hidden within the construction and their presence
may not be known without detailed investigation. Moreover, it is not unusual to find in very old buildings significant
quantities of combustible material such as: off-cuts of timber, bird’s nests, soot and other forms of combustible refuse
that has been deposited within the cavities of walls over the years.
A further consideration is that historic buildings are required to breathe, which means that most cavities will be
ventilated, thus raising the potential for more rapid fire spread.The undetected spread of fire within cavities has been
responsible for many serious fires in historic buildings – especially because, once established, they are so notoriously
difficult to fight and extinguish.
For the majority of historic buildings of masonry construction in Scotland, the most common method of applying
the internal wall finish is with timber lath and plaster (or timber panelling), fixed with timber dooks to the masonry.
This method of construction leaves a small, ventilated gap behind the lath and plaster, which frequently provides a
ready pathway for the products of combustion into other ventilated spaces within floors and roofs. Sealing off these
cavities to prevent the spread of smoke and fire may seem the simplest solution, but cutting off ventilation pathways
and the process of inserting cavity barriers can be damaging to historic fabric.
The standard recommends that cavity barriers should be installed around the edges of cavities. Barriers, for example,
are required around the head, jambs and sill of an external door or window opening and at a wall-head between
a wall cavity and a roof space cavity. However, the difficulties where through ventilation has to be maintained are
acknowledged in the standard. Designers of conversions must recognise that appropriate solutions will require a
thorough understanding of the location of cavities; the risks posed by fire spread and by reduced ventilation within
construction. It may be that alternative strategies to reduce the risks to occupants will have to be employed.
For the purposes of this standard, a roof space is also classed as a cavity, as it is often a high-risk area that can be
quickly consumed by fire passing into the space through adjoining cavities. Often the cellular arrangement of walls
on lower floors does not extend into the roof void, creating a large volume roof (refer to Standard 2.1, Separation,
for further information). Large volume roofs, as encountered for example in the conversion of churches or public
buildings, are vulnerable to fire spread. Also domes, which are often double skinned and have a timber supporting
structure, have little fire resistance and allow rapid fire spread within the construction.

Illus 2.4.1 The presence of large, uncompartmented roof voids has resulted in severe fire damage to the roof and interior of this Category A
listed university building. (Picture by Leigh Johnston, Historic Scotland and reproduced here from TAN 28).

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2.4.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Cavity barriers • The introduction of cavity barriers into historic buildings creates two significant
problems:
- sealing off a cavity will reduce the ventilation of voids and may promote dampness
within the construction and
- the process of inserting fire-stopping materials into historic construction can cause
damage to historic fabric.
• The recommendation to provide cavity barriers around the edges of a cavity, for
example around window openings, is impractical where existing finishes are retained.
2. Roof space cavities • A cavity includes a roof space. Many historic roofs are likely to have ceilings
constructed from lath and plaster, which, when in sound condition, may be capable
of providing short fire resistance duration. But upgrading a ceiling to provide short
fire resistance duration may mean loss of historic features.
3. Cavities above ceilings in • Where a ceiling void extends over a room intended for sleeping, a cavity barrier
residential buildings on the same plane as the wall is required. Alternatively, where this is not practical,
a fire-resisting ceiling can be installed. However, each of these solutions can lead to
damage to historic fabric. Existing ceilings may need to be disturbed to gain access
to the roof space, and upgrading the fire resistance duration of the ceiling may mean
loss of important features.
4. Fire resisting ceilings • These may be used in place of cavity barriers in appropriate situations.
The comments above apply.
5. Combustibility • Cavity barriers and fire resisting ceilings provided as an alternative to cavity
barriers generally need not be constructed of non-combustible material. No
additional risk to historic fabric is posed by this clause.
6. Supporting structures • No additional risk posed by this clause.
7. Openings and service • No additional risk posed by this clause.
penetrations
8. Junctions • Cavity barriers are required to fit tightly to rigid construction. This may not be
possible at a junction with slates, tiles or similar materials; in which case the junction
should be fire stopped. For rooms contained within roofs, access for fire stopping
may be destructive to finishes.
• Where a separating wall or floor abuts a structure containing a cavity, as can be
the case with lath and plaster lined structures, a cavity barrier should be installed
to extend the line of the structure. This requirement can be a serious problem in
historic buildings as installation of the barriers can be destructive to fabric and
sealing off cavities at these locations will affect the ventilation of voids.

2.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

a) There is unlikely to be any significant degree of intentional fire separation in most historic buildings. All
roof spaces should be carefully checked and assessed as part of the overall fire risk assessment. However,
determination of what is present can often be difficult without damaging historic fabric and a specialist survey
using endoscopes or fibre optic TV cameras may be the only way of determining what lies inside a wall or
under a floor. The vulnerable locations are:
• areas around chimneys and flues should always be carefully checked and any waste combustible material
and rubbish removed as a priority,
• breaches in walls, ceilings and floors (particularly where electrical cables penetrate) and seal as appropriate.
b) New barriers can be installed and, in addition to traditional materials, a wide variety of modern proprietary
products are available, including:
• fire barrier curtains, both intumescent and mineral fibre, for fixing inside roof-spaces or floors and
separating large voids;

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

• intumescent gaskets for PVC/metal electrical outlet boxes in ceilings and walls;
• fire resisting covers/caps for recessed light fittings/downlighters and air conditioning units;
• intumescent soffit vent grilles, roofing fire break membranes (for fitting over separating or compartment
walls and preventing fire spread across a roof);
• intumescent pads and pillows for metal electrical trunking in ceilings and walls.
c) Where the building fabric cannot be disturbed or the installation of barriers is not practicable, consideration
should be given to improving the level of automatic fire detection - or even installing automatic fire
suppression.

2.4.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission
• Standard 6.2 Building envelope insulation

2.5 Internal linings

Standard 2.5
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, the development of fire and smoke from the surfaces of walls and ceilings within the area of
origin is inhibited.

2.5.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.5.2 Commentary
This is an essential standard, which can have a significant impact on the conversion of a historic building because it
is concerned with the ability of surfaces to restrict the spread of fire and smoke. The materials used to cover walls
and ceilings can greatly increase the danger to people who are escaping from a building that is on fire, and they
do so in two ways:
• they may burn very easily, spreading the fire from one end of a room or corridor to the other,
• they may give off poisonous fumes when heated.
Many of the important surfaces encountered in historic buildings, and which should be preserved in a conversion,
can affect the spread of fire and its rate of growth. Some will be classified into high or very high-risk categories, for
example, historic timber panelling. Fire spread on wall and ceiling linings in escape routes are particularly important
in this respect.

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The performance criteria set out in Annex 2.E, Reaction to fire, of this standard can be satisfied by either a British
Standard fire test or European harmonised fire tests. Principally the standards applicable are contained in BS 476
Parts 6 & 7. Clearly, these tests apply to the specification of internal linings for new buildings and test data for
historic linings may not be available. However, experience gained from the performance of particular materials in
a fire situation may be used in the fire risk assessment of a historic lining.

Timber linings
Timber wall and ceiling linings are likely to be the most frequently encountered historic surface that will contribute
to the spread of fire. They will burn readily and the presence of shakes, splits and shrinkage cracks will also
contribute further to the fire risk. In addition, such linings may have been treated with waxes, polishes and paints,
which tend to increase the flammability of the surface.

Decorative treatments
The standard excludes any decorative treatments, such as paints and wallpapers. However, while some paints,
polishes and varnishes may themselves be liable to ignition, it is the heavy build-up of layers of paint over many
years that make them potentially vulnerable to fire and the production of smoke and gases. To counter this effect,
multiple layers are not recommended in the standard. However, the stripping back of multiple layers may destroy
important historical information and, where paint removal from surfaces is being considered in historic buildings,
listed building consent may be required.
For all historic linings and decorative finishes, a fire risk assessment is required. For the build-up of multiple
layers of paint and wall coverings a fire risk assessment will normally include an exploration of the layers, perhaps
involving paint scrapes or sampling of a discreet segment of wall covering for analysis. This analysis may also
include a chemical analysis of paint layers to determine the composition of the paint and its fire risk potential.
Such an investigation will also help to identify the historic importance of hidden layers and therefore assist in the
development of a conservation strategy.

Plaster surfaces
The majority of wall and ceiling surfaces are likely to be plaster on timber lathing.These traditional plasters, whether
lime or gypsum, are inherently resistant to spread of fire. However, the strength of such finishes is determined by
the quality of the key between plaster and lath (or other substrate). When this is damaged through movement of
the substrate or decay of the timber laths, the capacity of the finish to withstand fire is reduced. In a fire situation
there is a risk that unstable plaster will collapse suddenly, exposing combustible material to fire. Thus, in the fire risk
assessment of linings, the condition of the plaster and its substrate should be considered.

2.5.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Internal linings • Some historic wall and ceiling linings may cause spread of fire and their removal or treatment
can result in a significant loss of historic character and fabric.
• Multiple layers of paint or other coverings may present a fire risk, but their indiscriminate
removal may destroy a layer of historic importance.

2.5.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

a) Intumescent paints and varnishes are widely available in a variety of forms for the treatment of timber and
there are many examples of these products being successfully used in historic buildings. Also, other treatments
are available for other materials such as: lath and plaster; wallpaper, fabrics and drapes. However, expert advice
should always be sought in these cases, so as to ensure any fire protection coating will not damage any base
material that which requires preservation.
b) Following a full and detailed fire risk assessment, it may be possible to reduce or eliminate fire hazards to the
extent that the possibility of internal linings becoming involved in fire, or consequently posing a hazard to
persons in the building, is very limited. Should this be the case, it may be possible that, subject to the approval
of authorities having jurisdiction, the linings in question may be left as they are. However, such a strategy will
require good ongoing management in accordance with BS 5588 Part 12 and confidence that standards will

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be maintained. Furthermore, such an arrangement should be communicated to the relevant fire and rescue
service as it could affect safe access for fire-fighting, and may need recording on any operational/tactical risk
plan for the building.
c) The use of automatic fire suppression, particularly fire sprinklers with upward/sidewall sprinkler heads,
can provide sufficient wall wetting to modify flame spread across many combustible surfaces. For further
information see Section 2.15.

2.5.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1. Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2. Separation
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 2.14 Fire service facilities
• Standard 2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems

2.9. Escape

Standard 2.9
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, the occupants, once alerted to the outbreak of the fire, are provided with the opportunity to
escape from the building, before being affected by fire or smoke.

2.9.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.9.2 Commentary
Due to its mandatory status, this standard, whether applied to the conversion of domestic or non-domestic
buildings, is likely to have a significant impact on the fabric and character of historic buildings. The standard will
have an influence on the existing historic spatial arrangements within the building, the fire resistance requirements
of elements forming escape routes and it could even affect the external envelope of the building, which, of course,
should be avoided and only considered as a last resort.
If rigorously applied, many requirements may cause much that is of significance within the building to be lost and
it is important that, to ensure both the conservation of the building and the safe escape of occupants, the guidance
in the Building Standards Handbook is interpreted with sensitivity. Reference should be made to the Preface to
fire standards in Part II, Section 2, Fire, of this Guide, where the adoption of a fire engineering approach to the
conversion of historic buildings is suggested.
It is therefore recommended that, for all important historic buildings in which the internal fabric is essentially intact,
fire engineering is included in the design of conversions and suitably qualified and experienced fire engineering
specialists are appointed for this work. In some circumstances it may be the case that, even with fire engineering,
the provision of safe escape cannot be achieved without significant loss of historic character. Where this is the case
the suitability of the building for its intended change of use must be questioned. However, most buildings can be
adapted successfully: there are many examples of Category A listed buildings being sympathetically converted to a
new use while retaining their historic character.

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However, it is possible that in many historic building conversions the nature, size and significance of the building
– particularly of its internal fabric – will not warrant a full fire engineering approach. In such cases, the sympathetic
alteration of the interior to improve its physical features for escape purposes, combined with elements of fire
engineering – such as automatic fire detection – may provide a solution that meets the functional requirements of
this standard.
By applying the guidance in BS 7974: 2001 or BS DD 9999: 2005 it may be possible, for example, to compensate
for deficiencies in escape route travel distances and combustibility of materials by the use of automatic fire detection
and suppression systems. These systems will provide early warning to occupants of the outbreak of a fire and rapid
intervention to suppress the fire, both of which will allow time for safe escape. Implementing fire engineering
provides the occupants with the opportunity to escape from the building before being affected by fire or smoke,
which is the essential requirement of the standard.
Where conversion of a building is not constrained by internal planning, such as when there is nothing of historic
value remaining within the external envelope, implementation of the detailed guidance in the Handbook on passive
escape measures must be included within the design. Nevertheless, while escape routes and associated features
should be in accordance with the standard, including combustibility requirements, the exits from the building may
adversely affect the character of historic façades.
There are a number of specific issues where, in the implementation of the standard, there is the potential to increase
the risk to the building. These are important because apparently simple alterations can be influential in loss of
character. Section 2.9.3 below outlines the most common examples.
It should also be appreciated that over the years many historic buildings have been accepted with refuge spaces
provided (eg on roofs and balconies) where people can wait, and where reliance has been placed upon rescue
by the fire service. This practice is no longer acceptable and, in these cases, new arrangements will be required.
Furthermore, means of escape for disabled persons should not rely upon fire service rescue, and proper facilities and
procedures should in all cases be established in accordance with BS 5588 Part 8: 1999. Note: such spaces should not
be confused with ‘temporary waiting spaces’ as defined by this standard.

2.9.3 Issues to be considered *

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Number of fire exits • The provision of additional fire exits from non-domestic buildings can be damaging to
internal spaces and to the external character of the building.
2. Travel distance • To adhere strictly to a maximum travel distance may cause alterations within the building
that are disruptive to historic spaces.
3. Escape windows • The provision of an openable window large enough to escape through in upper storey
(domestic buildings) apartments and houses may require alteration to historic windows.
• The minimum height of 1000mm above the floor of the openable part may also be difficult
in some situations when a cill height has to be lowered.
4. Headroom • A headroom of 2m may be difficult to achieve in some attic conversions.
• A minimum clear headroom of 1.9m to a doorway in an escape route may be difficult to
achieve in a historic doorway, and will usually mean alterations to the opening and to the
door itself – historic doors and frames may be lost.
5. Fire doors • Doors to protected zones are required to be self-closing fire doors with at least medium
fire resistance duration in non-domestic buildings and at least short fire resistance duration in
domestic buildings. Providing even short fire resistance duration with a historic door may be
impossible without significant changes to the character of the door.
6. Locks • Historic ironmongery eg locks, can greatly contribute to the character of the door. Types
of hardware recommended in the Code of Practice of the Building Hardware Industry
Federation (2000) Hardware for Timber Fire Escape Doors may not be compatible with the
historic door.
7. Temporary waiting • The formation of unobstructed temporary waiting spaces of not less than 700mm x
spaces 1200mm on every escape stair landing may be difficult to provide without alterations to
existing spaces and fabric.
*
The issues are drawn from the standards: some apply to all buildings, some to non-domestic only and some to domestic only.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

8. Protected zones and • The need for the enclosing structure of a protected zone (part of the escape route) to have
protected enclosures at least a medium fire resistance duration and any door in the enclosing structure to have at
least short fire resistance duration may cause loss or alteration of historic finishes and doors.
• Short fire resistance duration also applies to any door in a protected enclosure.
9. Combustibility – escape • The requirement for every part of an escape stair (including the landing) and the floor of
stairs a protected zone or protected lobby to be constructed on non-combustible material may be
unacceptable where the escape stair is an important historic timber stair.
• In a building where all the floors are timber, the construction of a non-combustible floor
to a protected zone or lobby is likely to be damaging to historic fabric.
10. Junctions • The need to ensure continuity of fire-stopping at junctions between escape routes and
other parts of the building may require the removal of historic finishes.
11. Direction of door • Where the occupant capacity is 10 or more for storage or factory buildings, or 60 or more
openings (non-domestic for other buildings, doors across escape routes should open in the direction of travel. This can
buildings) mean alteration to the door and to adjacent spaces.
12. Signs and notices • Signs and notices can be obtrusive and not in keeping with the historic nature of the
building.

2.9.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

1. Fire risk assessments

Traditionally, prescriptive codes and guidance relating to means of escape has focused primarily upon evacuation
times with commensurate rules on maximum travel distances. It is often these rules that will determine the location
of staircases and final exits. In every case there will therefore be a need to carry out a full and detailed fire risk
assessment in order to establish:
• all persons who may be at risk,
• the potential and inherent fire risks within the building,
• what control measures that may already exist and/or are reasonably expected to be within the building.
By establishing a more accurate assessment of the fire risks involved, efforts thereafter to reduce the fire risk
classification can be consequently translated into longer travel distances – subject to ongoing good management
in accordance with BS 5588 Part 12.
Similarly, with numbers of exits and exit widths, particularly in the larger public buildings used for assembly and
entertainment, limiting the maximum numbers of persons within the building, or parts of the building, at any
one time may be an acceptable alternative to installing new or wider exit doors and damaging historic structures.
However, it should be emphasised that a restricted access strategy, while initially often considered an attractive
proposition, is rarely seen as such a satisfactory solution in later years.

2. Available safe egress time

When designing buildings for life safety, BS 7974 (together with its associated ‘Published Documents’) describes
how the aim should be to ensure that the time available for escape, the available safe egress time (ASET) should
be greater than the actual time needed to reach a place of relative safety ie required safe escape time (RSET). This
can be demonstrated by:
• modelling fire and smoke development to determine the onset of untenable conditions for persons in a
building (to determine ASET),
• calculating the total sum of the fire detection/alarm time, the recognition/response time, and the travel time
to a place of safety (to determine RSET),
• comparing the results.
In some circumstances this exercise may prove that little, if anything, is required to be done to ensure adequate
means of escape in an existing building – despite the fact that the building may not comply with the traditional
prescriptive guidance.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

In the majority of simpler buildings, it is appreciated that this approach is unnecessarily complex and time-
consuming, and therefore the usual approach is to use accepted prescriptive standards as a yardstick and as a means
of determining the adequacy of provisions. However, BS DD9999 (2005) can also provide a middle way by also
allowing for more flexible design when additional fire precautions; such as automatic fire detection, fire sprinklers
or smoke control systems etc, are installed. Making use of existing features, such as high ceilings that may act as large
smoke reservoirs, can provide an acceptable level of safety for occupants, despite a lack of, or apparent weakness in,
the existing means of escape facilities.

3. Active systems
Some advice already exists within the standard in relation to the provision of active systems of fire defence such
as automatic fire detection and fire sprinklers and, where appropriate, weaknesses in means of escape might be
adequately compensated for by increasing fire detection coverage and/or installing fire sprinklers.

4. Improvements to means of escape

Where improvements to the means of escape are still required, there are various ways that these can be achieved
without unduly damaging the historic fabric of a building, such as:
• existing ground floor windows can sometimes, with care and diligence, be converted to suitable final exit
doors that are in keeping with the building’s façade;
• staircases can be enclosed by the careful introduction
of new doors and screens or, if the building is
devoid of high fire loads and smoke is the principal
concern, lightweight fire screens and shutters can be
installed: these can be particularly useful across wide
and/or tall openings, such as at the head of large
accommodation staircases;
• minor improvements to existing separating walls
can convert them into what can be considered
compartment walls thus reducing travel distances;
• existing walls, doors and floors can be upgraded
causing minimal disruption (see Section 2.1.).

5. Ironmongery and signage

Deficiencies in such features as locks on doors, low
headroom, signs and notices etc, can sometimes be
compensated for with the provision of enhanced
supervision and stewarding, particularly in public
buildings such as museums and galleries. Hold-open
devices on inward opening doors across escape routes
may be considered, even when such doors are required
to be fire resisting and self closing. This is because it
might not be necessary for all fire-resisting doors to
close immediately upon actuation of the fire alarm,
with some operating on a delay or locally placed smoke
detectors. All of these solutions will clearly rely upon
good levels of supervision and management and approval
of authorities having jurisdiction, particularly the local
fire authority. Further information on doors and door
devices can be found in Historic Scotland TAN 23,
2005, Fire safety management in heritage buildings.

Illus 2.9.1 Hold open device on historic panelled door within an escape route (Photo: D Urquhart)

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.9.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 1.1 Structure
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 2.10 Escape lighting
• Standard 2.11 Communications
• Standard 3.16 Natural lighting
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings
• Standard 4.3 Stairs and ramps
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents (safe cleaning of windows)
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to sound transmission

2.10 Escape lighting

Standard 2.10
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, illumination is provided to assist in escape.

2.10.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.10.2 Commentary
While the full implementation of this standard is essential, the introduction of escape route lighting and emergency
lighting into a historic building can be dealt with in a way that causes minimum disturbance to both the aesthetics
and fabric of the building. However, unsympathetic installations, which are introduced without regard to historic
character, must be avoided. For example, the use of intrusive bulkhead fittings and surface mounted, fire-protected
cables are unlikely to be acceptable in most situations. The use of self-contained emergency luminairs may be more
easily accommodated within an existing building than the installation of a protected circuit to the existing lighting
system.

2.10.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Location of fixtures and fittings and routing of • Aesthetic damage to historic character,
cables. • Disruption of finishes.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.10.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

This standard makes a distinction between ‘escape route lighting’ that may be by a protected circuit, and ‘emergency
lighting’, which requires an alternative power supply. Generally the technical requirements for escape route lighting
or emergency lighting in different building types are well covered in publications referred to within the standard.
In particular, BS 5266 Parts 1 (2005) and 7 (1999) give details on the requirements for most building types.
A protected circuit can be created by running a fire-protected power supply from a distribution board near the
origin of the electrical supply for the building. Suitable materials for this are Mineral Insulated Copper Sheathed
(MICS) cables or fire-protected soft bodied cables such as Firetuf or FP200.
If emergency lighting is required, the two main generic options are central battery systems or self-contained
emergency luminaires. Central battery systems are those in which emergency luminaries, located in different
parts of the building, are supplied by a central battery power source via fire-protected cables. Local relays, usually
positioned at the distribution board supplying the lighting circuits, switch the emergency luminaires on in the event
of a power failure in any given lighting circuit. Self-contained emergency luminaires contain a battery pack and
charging feed within the luminaire. If the control equipment within the battery pack senses a loss of power to the
permanent live charging feed then the luminaire will be switched on.
These two systems have relative advantages and disadvantages. The central battery system is more suited to larger
buildings whereas the self-contained solution is suited to smaller buildings. These relative advantages apply also to
installation and maintenance costs. The luminaires associated with central battery systems tend to be more discreet
and compact than those for self-contained systems. Both systems can be arranged to operate certain luminaires in
the general lighting scheme as emergency luminaries. However, arranging this is more straightforward and usually
more cost effective with the self-contained option than with the central battery system.
Emergency lighting must be functional, but great care is also required when designing an installation for a historic
building because the aesthetic impact of the luminaires can be significant.
A further option for emergency lighting that can
produce more sympathetic solutions is a hybrid system,
which utilises inverter and battery packs located near
to the emergency luminaires, and connected to these
via fire protected cable. The luminaries are switched
on when the charging feed to the battery pack is
interrupted (as in the self-contained system). This
arrangement can be used to power a single lamp in a
chandelier, for instance, and is particularly useful when
aesthetic considerations make it difficult to utilise more
standard emergency lighting solutions.

2.10.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 6.5 Artificial and display lighting

Illus 2.10.1 Emergency lighting installation in a listed Category A building (Photo: S Brown).

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2.11 Communication

Standard 2.11
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, the occupants are alerted to the outbreak of fire.
Limitation
This standard applies only to a building which:
a) is a dwelling;
b) is a residential building; or
c) is an enclosed shopping centre.

2.11.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.11.2 Commentary
Communication of fire warning is an essential standard for dwellings, residential buildings and enclosed shopping
centres. However, their use may be appropriate for other types of conversion where there may be a need to
compensate for deficiencies in other areas of the fire standards.
Generally, the sympathetic installation of these systems in historic buildings can be achieved without significantly
affecting its historic character.The standard promotes the use of permanent wiring to a circuit for smoke alarms and
the technical handbooks state that ‘smoke alarms may be interconnected by hard wiring on a single final circuit’. However,
there is a case in the conversion of a historic building for this to be replaced with a radio installation, and BS 5839
provides guidance for the design requirements of such a system. Radio installations reduce significantly the need
to run cables within the construction and, when this is done during a conversion, the additional disruption will be
minimal. Radio-linked components forming part of a BS 5839-1 fire alarm system all contain individual batteries.
While this reduces cabling needed, the ongoing replacement of batteries over the life of the system will need to be
properly costed and managed. This aspect should be given due consideration as part of the selection process. The
following points should be noted:
• the smoke alarms are connected to the mains supply, and
• the radio-interlinking does not reduce the battery life of an alarm when the power is down,
• the local authority and fire authority should be satisfied that the potential for accidental false alarms
has been managed.

2.11.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Location of detection devices • Wired systems can be damaging to historic fabric
• Detector heads can be disruptive to historic character of ceilings.

2.11.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The technical requirements for fire detection and alarm systems in different building types are well covered
in publications referred to within the standard. In particular, BS 5839: 1995 Parts 1 and 6 give details on the
requirements for non-domestic and domestic building types respectively.
Note that the standard differentiates between dwellings with no storey greater than 200m2 and dwellings with a

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

storey greater than 200m2. In the former case, domestic smoke alarms that are self-contained may be mains powered
with battery backup. Separate stand-alone domestic smoke alarms should be interconnected so that if one unit
operates all others will also sound. In the latter case, a dwelling with any storey more than 200m2 should be provided
with a fire detection and alarm system designed and installed in accordance with BS 5839: 2002 Part 6.
The type of buildings for which automatic fire detection and alarm systems are required under the Building
Regulations are very limited. However, it is often necessary to consider such systems for other reasons. This may
be because the owner or occupier:
• requires to comply with fire safety legislation,
• requires asset protection or a system for insurance purposes, or
• requires a system as part of a fire engineering solution to compensate for a failure to comply with other fire
safety guidance within the standards.

This third reason arises frequently in historic building conversions. The installation of an automatic fire detection and
alarm system is generally the most practical way of overcoming difficulties in complying with normal requirements for
escape routes, fire separation and the like. It should be noted that if the system is installed for this reason, it is usually
necessary for the system to be of a high standard. Typically, it will be necessary to design the installation to an L1
(M) level of coverage and to make the installation fully addressable (ie so that individual detection devices can be
uniquely identified at the fire alarm panels), so giving building occupiers and the fire fighters precise information
about the areas of the building affected by fire.
The two main options for a fire detection system are:
a) fully wired installations and
b) wired installations with radio interlinking.

Radio interlinking is regarded as a reliable alternative to wired interlinking between detectors, and guidance is
given in BS 5839 (Part 1 1995, Part 6 2002). The advantage of radio interlinking is that it is not necessary to run
fire-protected cables to all the devices. These systems can therefore be installed with least disruption to the building
fabric. This is particularly useful if little or no other work is planned for certain areas of the building. They can
also be installed at a very early stage in a historic building conversion project and provide detection in the building
during the contract – arguably the period of highest risk for the building. The advantage of a wired installation is
usually lower cost, both in terms of initial and maintenance costs. The wiring of these systems is less disruptive if
the installation is part of a general conversion or refurbishment project that requires other services to be installed
at the same time.
A further option for some buildings with particularly fine, ornate ceiling finishes may be an aspirating smoke
detection system. Sometimes it would be regarded as difficult to accept the installation of a normal detector head
in such ceilings. Aspirating systems involve running lengths of pipe to small sampling points, which are generally
only around 8mm in diameter. The holes for these sampling points must be located in compliance with the same
rules as for smoke detectors. However, it is usually possible to do this while also positioning the holes in a feature
of the plasterwork that renders them practically invisible. These aspirating systems are usually integrated into a
system with discreet detection devices so that they, in effect, behave as detectors in the larger installation. They do,
however, have disadvantages:
• they are generally significantly more expensive than point detectors and
• they are more limited in the addressable information that they can provide to the central alarm panel.

Even where the installation covers several zones, they often need to cover more than one room per zone to be
cost effective (unless the rooms are very large), and so the grouping of rooms would require to be agreed with the
verifying authority.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 2.11.1 Installation of an aspirating smoke detector system in a ceiling void. Shown is the main plastic air pipe with an 8mm diameter
tube from it to go through an 8mm hole in the roof boarding (Photo: S Brown).

2.11.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.9 Escape

Illus 2.11.2 Very discreet smoke detector set into historic ceiling.
The detector head is located to the left of the ceiling rose (Photo: I Gough).

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

2.12 Fire service access

Standard 2.12
Every building must be accessible to fire appliances and fire service personnel.

2.12.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

2.12.2 Commentary
Generally, fire-fighting is carried out within a building utilising many of the normal features that already exist, such
as access roads and driveways, entrance doors and exits, internal stairways and exterior windows etc. However, from
time to time, additional arrangements for fire fighters, their vehicles and appliances should be made.
As this is a standard that requires improvement to as close as is reasonably practicable, some work may not be
undertaken where it is not seen as reasonable or practicable, but compensatory measures should be offered where
access cannot comply.
Access from public roads to the exterior perimeter of a building must be available for both pumping and sometimes
high-reach fire appliances, in order that fire-fighting resources can be brought close enough for effective use.
The extent to which access is required is dependant on the size and use of the building. However, in addition,
consideration should always be given not only to the height and width of vehicles, but also to axle weights and
the working spaces required around them. This is particularly so, for example, with the jacking points of turntable
ladders and hydraulic platforms.
As fire appliance design and specifications can vary (sometimes even within a fire authority and from the same
manufacturer), the relevant fire and rescue service should always be consulted regarding:
a) The vehicles and appliances that would be expected to be deployed;
b) The tactical fire-fighting plans (if any) that are in place for adoption by attending fire crews; and
c) The water supplies considered necessary to mount an effective fire-fighting attack.
This can reveal both weaknesses and strengths not only in the existing physical features of the building’s fire
defences, but also in the emergency plans that may already be established to deal with an unwanted fire. Such a
meeting with the fire and rescue service can also confirm or correct perceptions about what measures would, in
reality, be taken to tackle an outbreak of fire in any particular building and thus focus minds and resources effectively
and efficiently.
Notwithstanding the guidance that may be contained in ‘operational tactical plans’ for a specific building, access
into any building will only be made following a ‘dynamic risk assessment’ by the fire and rescue service officer in
charge. This will take into account the size and complexity of the building together with unusual features that may
be present and the features that may aid or hinder fire fighting. In most buildings the combination of access facilities
offered by the normal means of escape, and the ability to work from ladders and appliances on the perimeter, will
generally be adequate without special internal arrangements. However, in tall buildings and buildings with deep
basements, special access facilities may be required.
Further guidance is contained in BS 5588 Part 5: 2004 Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings
Part 5: Access and facilities for fire fighting.

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2.12.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Access for vehicles • Existing roads and driveways may not be suitable for vehicle weights and/or dimensions and
and fire service only allow for limited access to a building’s footprint. Their alteration may affect historic character
personnel and setting.
• Hard standing may be lacking or very limited. This can be a particularly serious problem in areas
that suffer from poor drainage, as fire-fighting operations can result in large quantities of water
being pumped or transported around a site, which may damage historic features.
• Narrow and/or low-height gateways and arches, trees and vegetation may restrict vehicle access
routes. Turning circles may not be available at the end of narrow driveways. These features may be
protected by listed building legislation or tree preservation orders.
• Safe working areas for fire appliances may sometimes be inhibited by being too close to
buildings (in case of structural collapse), restricted by overhead cables and remote from water
supply.

Illus 2.12.1 Improvement to fire service access at Duff House. A hard standing and turning area for fire service vehicles has been formed
using ‘Grass-crete’ to reduce impact on the historic landscape. (Photo: D Urquhart).

2.12.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

There are a number of issues that should be considered when implementing this standard:
1. In the case of a listed building, the listing applies to not just the building but, as a general rule, to all buildings
within the curtilage, even if they are not individually listed. Listing often specifically includes boundary walls,
gateways and similar structures. Any proposed changes to improve fire service access to structures within the
curtilage, would therefore require listed building consent.
2. Access to historic buildings was generally not designed with fire service access in mind and, as a result, existing
roads, hard standings, vehicle turning circles and reversing distances may not comply with the standard.
However, in many cases, the original access will have been adapted over the years to suit the changing access
needs of the building, and the original, historic surfaces may have been destroyed or buried under new
surfaces. In such cases, or where the character of the site will not be adversely affected, fire service access

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should be improved to as close to the requirements of the standard as is possible. Where changes are made to
access, care should be taken to not disturb hidden archaeology.
3. Where, without unacceptable damage to historic character, it is not possible to alter fire service access to meet
the needs of the standard, the introduction of the following measures may help to compensate for deficiencies
in fire service access:
• automatic fire suppression may be utilised to compensate for poor fire appliance access, which may
reduce the intensity and spread of fire, or even extinguish the fire, and give more time for the fire service
to gain access to the fire;
• additional fire compartmentation and/or increased periods of fire resistance may delay fire growth and
spread, whilst at the same time providing opportunities for securing better fire-fighting bridgeheads;
• good management with well established and rehearsed emergency plans, together with the preparation of
‘emergency packs’ (see BS 5588-12: 2004) for attending fire crews.

2.12.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.13 Fire service water supply
• Standard 2.14 Fire service facilities
• Standard 2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings.

2.13. Fire service water supply

Standard 2.13
Every building must be provided with a water supply for use by the fire service.

2.13.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.13.2 Commentary
Under the provisions of Fire (Scotland) Act 2005, it is the duty of the relevant fire authority to ‘take all reasonable
measures for securing the supply of an adequate supply of water, and for ensuring that it will be available for use, in case of fire’.
If the supply is inadequate, the fire authority may enter into an agreement with either a water undertaker or ‘any
persons other than the statutory water undertakers’ for the provision of additional supplies. It should be noted that the
fire authority cannot require those ‘other persons’ to provide additional supplies.
Water for fire fighting can be supplied in three ways:
a) Carried by fire and rescue service vehicles: pumping appliances and water carriers.
b) Available from either public or private water mains.
c) Available from either ‘open water’ or static tanks.

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In the vast majority of cases, unless a fire is very small and can be tackled successfully with a fire extinguisher,
water from a fire service pumping appliance (sometimes called a water tender) will be used to fight the fire. This is
sometimes referred to by fire-fighters as the ‘original’ supply.
Whilst fire and rescue service pumps can vary as to specification and design, they typically carry between 1000
litres and 2000 litres of water. This water is delivered via either high- pressure hose reels or lay-flat hoses, of either
44mm or 70mm diameter (however, in some parts of the UK, larger diameter lay-flat hoses are being introduced
specifically for water relay purposes and will invariably be carried on an appliance called a ‘hose layer’).
Water carriers can carry between 4,500 litres and 20,000 litres and may also carry dams and associated equipment.
A water carrier is always used in conjunction with a pumping appliance.
Water for fire fighting, other than the original supply, is primarily extracted via fire hydrants that are permanently
fixed to the mains. All hydrants in the UK should comply with the requirements of British Standard 750: 1984,
which requires that they be capable of delivering not less than 2000 litres per minute at a constant pressure of 1.7
bar at the hydrant inlet, with their location marked in accordance with British Standard 3251: 1976 (1993). Fire
hydrants may be above ground, as is common in the USA, and are called ‘pillar’ (or sometimes ‘post’) hydrants; or
below ground, as is more common in the UK. For historic building locations, below ground hydrants are clearly
preferable.
The UK Home Office Fire Service Manual 2001 7 recommends that hydrants be placed at intervals of between 90
and 180 metres except in the case of high risk and rural areas. In high-risk areas it is common practice for hydrants
to be placed so that they are not more than 18 metres away from the entry to any building and not more than 150
metres apart. In rural areas, hydrants may be spaced so that one is near an isolated property.
Hydrants are a most effective means of supplying water for fire-fighting; however, they are costly and in many cases
the potential costs of installation can outweigh the benefits – especially where there are poor pressures and flows
within the water mains themselves. In these circumstances fire authorities will seek to make use of open water, or
water from static tanks.
Open water includes rivers, lochs, swimming pools and even the sea. Static tanks may include underground wells
or above ground tanks specifically provided for such purposes (as was common during the Second World War in
many UK towns and cities). In some sensitive locations, the installation of an above-ground tank may adversely
affect the setting of the historic building.
A fire-fighting pump will have the ability to deliver water under positive pressure through hoses, but will also be
able to draw water using negative pressure. In this case, a ‘hard suction’ hose is necessary to withstand the external
atmospheric pressure acting upon it and, therefore, not collapse. However, one drawback with this method of
obtaining water is that it is hydraulically very inefficient. It is essential that the pump be placed as close to the
surface of the water as possible and, in any event, at a distance of not more than 8 metres. This can cause difficulties
particularly when attempting to pump from bridges or deep wells.
Provided a fire pump can be made to work, these sources of water can be invaluable. Water can then be transported
over considerable distances by either relaying water through hoses (sometimes with intermediary booster pumps)
or by shuttle, utilising additional fire service pumping appliances.
Further guidance is contained in: BS 5588 Part 5: 2004 Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings
Part 5: Access and facilities for fire fighting.

2.13.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Water hydrants • Installing new hydrants and upgrading existing water mains can damage historic
landscapes and built features, and may disturb buried archaeology.
2. Alternative water supplies • Provision of suitable hard standing adjacent to open water and not more than 8 metres
from the surface of the water may be difficult to achieve without disturbing the site or
the historic building itself.
• The installation of above-ground water storage tanks can be visually intrusive within a
historic site.

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2.13.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Where, without unacceptable damage to the character and setting of a historic building, it is not possible to improve
water supplies for fire-fighting and to meet the needs of the standard, the introduction of the following measures
may help to compensate for deficiencies.
a) In certain cases, the provision of a ‘dry’ fire main may enable water to be pumped remotely to a hydrant or
hydrants close to and around the building, in order to supplement the water supplies carried on fire service
pumps. Polyethylene piping is available and now approved (Factory Mutual) for underground fire protection
services, and may provide a convenient alternative to traditional materials.
b) Means for damming small burns quickly such as sluice gates or similar, together with facilities to enable light
portable pumps to be used and transported on 4 x 4 vehicles along existing tracks.
c) Provision of ‘bridge doors’ in the parapet of a bridge may enable a suction hose to reach the surface of a river
or stream from a fire pump’s nearest access point and without kinking the hose.
d) Where above-ground tanks are required, the site must be carefully considered so that, while accommodating
the requirements for fire service water supply as far as possible, careful design of the landscaping of the site
reduces the impact of the tank on the historic environment.
e) Automatic fire suppression may be utilised to compensate for poor water supplies by reducing the intensity
and spread of fire (or even extinguish it entirely) and giving more time for fire-fighters to gain access to the
fire and extinguish it with the original supply carried on pumping appliances.

Illus 2.13.1 Landscaped underground storage tank with minimal intrusion into historic landscape which could have been improved with
more careful detailing of intrusions. (Photo: D Urquhart).

2.13.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.12 Fire service access
• Standard 2.14 Fire service facilities
• Standard 2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings.

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2.14 Fire service facilities

Standard 2.14
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that facilities are provided to assist fire-fighting
or rescue operations.

2.14.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.14.2 Commentary
A fireman, to be successful, must enter buildings; he must get in below, above, on every side, from opposite houses, over back
walls, over side walls, through panels of doors, through windows, through loopholes, through skylights, through holes cut by
himself in the gates, the walls, the roof; he must know how to reach the attic from the basement by ladders placed on half
burned stairs, and the basement from the attic by rope made fast on a chimney. His whole success depends on his getting in
and remaining there and he must always carry his appliances with him, as without them he is of no use.
So wrote Sir Eyre Massey Shaw in his book, Fires and Fire Brigades in 1884.Whilst some of the techniques suggested
would probably not find favour with more safety conscious C21 fire-fighters, the general principles proposed by
Shaw, over a century ago, are still valid today.
While ‘defensive’ fire-fighting is usually practised outside a building, ‘offensive’ fire-fighting is carried out within a
building, utilising many of the normal features that already exist there. Fire-fighters will therefore gain access via
entrances and exit doors and will use corridors and stairways provided for the occupants’ day-to-day use.
Occasionally they will gain access to upper floors from ladders pitched outside windows, thereby bypassing stairways
that may have been affected by a fire. This has the advantage of requiring shorter hose lines into a fire zone and a
ready means of ventilating heat and smoke to open air. It also provides a quick and certain exit route!
However, with tall buildings beyond the reach of fire and rescue service extension ladders, most of which can only
reach a maximum height of 11 metres, these activities can only take place from within the building. Similarly, with
deep basements, fire-fighters must descend into what may in effect become a chimney, as the products of combustion
will rise up, making this type of fire particularly difficult to deal with. Indeed, basement fires are potentially the most
dangerous of all fires to fight offensively as they can place great demands on the physical capabilities of individual
fire-fighters. Both of these types of fires have been the feature of recent research carried out by the The Building
Disaster Assessment Group 2004 for the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.
In each of these circumstances additional integral measures are required in a building, both to protect fire-fighters
and to reduce the burdens placed upon them. This includes fire-fighting water mains, considered necessary to
alleviate the need to run out large amounts of hose and manoeuvre it through a building. For safety reasons hose
lines are nearly always charged before being taken into a building on fire; a fully charged hose is very heavy and
less flexible than might be imagined; therefore, permanently fixed mains may save time and manpower. It should
also be noted that such mains have the potential advantage of protecting a building from considerable damage, such
as that which might be caused by burst hoses outside the room of fire origin. However, this is always incumbent
upon the main being properly maintained and periodically inspected.
Fire-fighting mains may be either:
a) Rising
b) Falling
c) Horizontal
In practice, fire-fighting mains are generally ‘dry’ or ‘wet risers’ installed in accordance with BS 5306: Part 1 (dry being
mains filled by the fire and rescue service on arrival at an incident; ‘wet’ being mains permanently filled with water).

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In larger historic buildings it is not uncommon to

find dry riser fire-fighting mains. Unfortunately, they
(or more specifically the landing valves), are often not
enclosed within a fire resisting enclosure where a fire-
fighting ‘bridgehead’ may be established. A fire-fighting
bridgehead may be described as ‘part of a building,
usually the floor below the fire floor (the floor above in the
case of basements), from which fire-fighting teams can be safely
committed to attack a fire.’
In tall buildings (with topmost storey height more than
18m) or buildings with deep basements it is desirable
to establish such bridgeheads within staircases and in
these circumstances a ‘fire-fighting shaft’ is formed. Fire-
fighting shafts must necessarily be well protected from
the effects of any fire by being enclosed within a long
(two hour minimum) fire resistance duration structure
accessed via a self closing medium fire resistance
duration door (FD 60S); the stairwell being further
protected by another short fire resistance duration door
(FD 30S) thus creating a ‘fire-fighting lobby’.
In buildings with a top storey higher than 18 metres, or
where a basement is deeper than 10 metres, this shaft
should include a lift, specially designed and installed
so that fire-fighters may safely use it for transportation
of personnel and equipment. A word of caution is
appropriate here, particularly in the case of historic
buildings that may already have what appears to be Illus 2.14.1 Dry riser inlet located to reduce impact on historic
a suitable lift installed, as there are many cases of lifts character by locating inlet valves beneath cast iron cover in footpath
previously accepted for fire brigade use which on (Photograph from TAN 28: Paul Beaton, Historic Scotland).
closer examination do not satisfy the current safety
requirements contained within BS EN 81-1 or BS EN
81-2
However, on a more positive note, it is becoming increasingly acceptable to utilise fire-fighting lifts for evacuating
disabled persons and therefore any expenditure in this area may have significant additional benefits in relation to
Standard 2.9, Escape.
A fire-fighting bridgehead must be kept free from smoke and so it is vitally important that there are facilities to
ventilate any smoke that might seep into the fire-fighting shaft – particularly the stairwell, which will probably also
be required as a means of escape. Furthermore, due to the difficulty of removing heat and smoke naturally from
basements, mechanical extract systems may be necessary.
The purpose of fire ventilation, as distinct from normal ventilation, is threefold:
a) to facilitate fire-fighting,
b) to prevent the spread of fire,
c) to reduce damage by heat and smoke.
It must be recognised however, that whilst a considerable amount of research has taken place in the field of fire and
smoke ventilation, this is a very complex subject. Moreover, it is perhaps fair to say that building standards are not
necessarily in step with modern day fire-fighting tactics, as revealed by the work of the Building Disaster Assessment
Group. The standards themselves may therefore be inappropriate and early consultation with the statutory bodies
and a competent fire engineer will be essential.
A traditional building typically contains a main access staircase that is a central and important feature of the building
and from which rooms open directly on to unprotected landings. The construction of a fire-fighting stair – or fire-
fighting shaft in taller buildings – to enclose such a staircase and designed to comply with the recommendations
of the standard has the potential to cause significant damage to the character of the building. A major challenge is

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

thus presented to designers to meet the requirements of the standard by other means.
Further guidance is contained BS 5588 Part 5: 2004 ‘Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings Part
5: Access and facilities for fire fighting.’

2.14.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Internal mains • Difficult to install new mains without damaging historic features.
2. Fire-fighting lobbies and shafts • The creation of fire resisting enclosures to the required standard and/or
construction of lobbies may damage historic features.
3. Fire-fighting lifts • Upgrading existing lifts may prove uneconomic.
4. Ventilation of heat and smoke • Providing openable lights/ventilators in fire-fighting staircases may damage
the external fabric of a building.
• Roof mounted fire ventilators may also damage historic roofing features.

2.14.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

There are a number of issues that should be considered when implementing this standard:
1. For a low rise building an unvented lobby may be used. If the stair is on an external wall, 1.0m2 of ventilation
should be provided, which could be an openable window. Openable vents should be outward opening, but
not top hung, be able to open to a minimum of 30 degrees and be clearly identifiable and accessible. They
should be fitted with simple lever handles, rotary devices or locks that can be operated by the fire service.
2. Consideration ought to be given to the use of CPVC pipework for the provision of both dry and wet
rising fire mains. Because of its lightness and simple jointing methods, this material is much easier to use and
may be less damaging to historic structures than steel pipes. However, as the use of CPVC is outside of the
specifications laid down in BS 5306 Part 1 1976, this approach must always be carefully ‘risk assessed’ and full
approval of the authorities having jurisdiction, together with the building’s insurer, is essential.

Illus 2.14.2 Fire-fighting stair for a building with a topmost storey height between 7.5m and 18m.

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

3. Where, without unacceptable damage to historic character, it is not possible to alter or improve facilities to aid
fire service access and to meet the needs of the standard, the introduction of the following measures may help
to compensate for deficiencies:
a) Automatic fire suppression may be utilised to compensate for poor facilities to aid fire-fighter access by
reducing the intensity and spread of fire (or even extinguish it entirely) and so give more time for the fire
service to safely gain access to the fire.
b) Additional fire compartmentation and/or increased periods of fire resistance may delay fire growth and
spread, whilst at the same time providing opportunities for securing fire-fighting bridgeheads.
c) Reduction in the quantity of combustible materials, combined with good site management in accordance
with BS 5588-12: 2004, may compensate for poor facilities for ventilating fire compartments.

2.14.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 2.11 Communication
• Standard 2.12 Fire service access
• Standard 2.13 Fire service water supply
• Standard 2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings

2.15 Automatic life safety fire suppression systems

Standard 2.15
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that, in the event of an outbreak of fire within
the building, fire and smoke will be inhibited from spreading through the building by the operation of an
automatic life safety fire suppression system.
Limitation
This standard applies only to a building which:
a) is an enclosed shopping centre;
b) is a residential care building;
c) is a high rise domestic building; or
d) (d) forms the whole or part of a sheltered housing complex

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2.15.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

2.15.2 Commentary
Automatic fire suppression systems have the ability to not only detect and signal the outbreak of a fire but also to
physically fight it. There are a number of different automatic fire suppression systems available and the suitability
of each type of system will depend on a range of factors, including the type of fire likely to be encountered in the
protected space. Historic Scotland Technical Advice Notes TAN 11 and TAN 28 provide detailed information on
the various systems and their use within historic buildings.
However, the standard requires that automatic life safety fire suppression systems be installed to
DD 251:2000 (now BS 9251: 2005) and some of these different systems may not comply with this
requirement.
The technical requirements for fire suppression systems in different building types are well covered in publications
referred to within the standard and BS 9251: 2005 gives guidance on the requirements for installations in sheltered
housing, residential care homes and high rise domestic buildings, whilst BS 5306 Part 2 and BS EN 12845 together
with the LPC publication Rules for Automatic Sprinkler Installations (1994), which gives details relating to various
non-domestic applications.
The types of buildings for which automatic fire suppression systems are required under the building regulations
are very limited. However, it is often necessary to consider such systems for other reasons. This may be because
the owner or occupier requires a system for insurance purposes, or requires a system as part of a fire engineering
solution to compensate for a failure to comply with other fire safety guidance within the standards. This second
reason arises frequently in historic building conversions.
The installation of an automatic fire suppression system is sometimes a practical way of overcoming difficulties in
complying with normal requirements for escape routes, fire separation and the like. It should be noted that, if the
system is installed for this reason, it might be necessary to make a detailed fire engineering case to show how the
suppression system is able to provide the same level of protection to building occupiers as the normal provisions
of the standards.
In the installation of an automatic fire suppression system into a historic building, the risks posed to its fabric and
character by the installation must be considered. Any changes to a listed building must not only satisfy fire protection
needs, but also the legislation in respect of listed building consent. However, the process of converting a building
does provide the opportunity to install a fire suppression system along with other work. There will inevitably be
some opening up, which can be part of a planned process where the necessary pipe work and other features can be
hidden from view, resulting in minimum disruption to surface finishes. In the case of a badly dilapidated building,
the installation of an automatic fire suppression system will be more easily accommodated.
A further consideration is the provision of an adequate supply of water at the required pressure. If mains water is
not available, or the pressure inadequate, there will be a requirement for quite large water storage facilities, which
may be very disruptive to the building if positioned internally. External storage tanks may be difficult to locate in
a position that does not impact on the historic character of the property.
Sprinklers required for life safety must be of the ‘wet pipe’ variety ie the pipework is permanently charged with
water. Therefore, and where appropriate, precautions against freezing should always be taken.

2.15.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

System • Installation of pipes and related fittings may be damaging to historic character and fabric if poorly
installation planned.
• Sprinkler heads and smoke/fire detectors can be unacceptably intrusive within important historic spaces.
• Installation of pumps and water storage within buildings may require significant structural and spatial
alterations, which may be unacceptable.

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2.15.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Sprinkler systems
Two main options for sprinkler installations are direct mains-fed systems and systems that have water storage and
pumps.
a) The mains-fed system is significantly less expensive and less complex than the pumped system and requires
less space; however, there are limitations on its use. Specifically, the mains water pressure and flow rate in the
area must be such that the water supply can serve the sprinklers together with a degree of confidence in the
continuity and reliability of the service. Scottish Water must be consulted on this and flow rates and pressures
should be measured near the point at which it is intended to make the connection. Water pressures and
available flow rates can vary from time to time depending upon demands on the network and this should be
taken into consideration. To comply with the guidance on design of these systems the sprinkler installation
must be capable of operating correctly at the lowest anticipated supply pressure.
b) If the mains water supply is inadequate, or does not exist (eg in a rural location where the building is served
by a private water supply), then it may be necessary to use a system with a storage tank and pumps. Often a
standby power supply or a pump driven directly by a diesel (or similar) engine is required for these systems so
that the pumps can operate during a power failure. These requirements can become quite onerous in terms
of cost and the space required to house the equipment, which is often problematic in a historic building. It
is possible to locate the central equipment (tank, pumps, standby power facility etc) outside of the premises
served by the installation (in an out-building for instance or underground) and pipe the sprinkler water into
the building.
Running sprinkler pipework through a historic building and locating the sprinkler heads can be problematic too.
Pipework is typically quite large (in the order of 100mm diameter in certain parts of the installation). Finding
vertical and horizontal routes for such large pipes in traditionally constructed buildings is usually difficult. Possible
approaches to resolving the problems can include the following:

a) The use of modern CPVC pipework can alleviate many of the difficulties of installation and may be less
damaging to historic structures. Unfortunately, being less rigid than steel, it may well require more support.
b) Flexible connections for fire sprinklers are now available and can enable connections to be made in difficult
locations without damaging existing structures.
c) The problem of pipe size can be eased by utilising a network design for the distribution rather than a simple
root and branch type design. A network design allows parallel routes for water to flow to a given sprinkler
head, so reducing the size of each individual pipe.
d) Having high pressures available also helps, as the higher the pressure the smaller the pipes can be to carry the
same quantity of water. The available pressures can be adjusted when using a pumped system, but if using a
direct main supplied installation, pressure in the system is governed by the reliable pressure at the main.
e) Changing a building or its structure to accommodate a sprinkler system should be considered only as a last
resort. The system should be designed to reflect the construction and spatial arrangement of the building and
pipework should be routed, wherever possible, through existing voids, ducts, spaces, such as ‘dumb waiters’, old
chimneys and disused pipe ducts.
The location of sprinkler heads may require particularly careful consideration in historic buildings because of
the aesthetic impact and/or the interference with historic fabric. Ornate ceilings present a particular problem
since inappropriately located heads may damage plasterwork or detract from the enjoyment of the ceiling. It will
be necessary for the sprinkler system designer to take special care to consider the style and location of heads to
minimise the intrusion of the system while still meeting the functional requirements for coverage of the heads
within the room.
The use of recessed and/or concealed sprinkler heads (rather than the traditional pendant type of fire sprinkler
head) will be visually less obtrusive and, whilst care must always be taken to ensure fire sprinkler heads are not
painted, they can be supplied in colours to suit.
Generally the design of these systems will have to be carried out by a suitably qualified engineer or a specialist
contractor with in-house design facilities. In either case, the particular demands of historic buildings should be

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 Conversion of Traditional Buildings Part 2: Application of the Building Standards

Illus 2.15.1 Discreet sprinkler head located behind a colour-matched Figure 2.15.2 Sidewall sprinkler head above a cornice in Duff
circular cover in ornate ceilings at Duff House (Photo: D Urquhart). House. (Photo: D Urquhart).

made clear to them at the outset, and enough time allocated to the design and installation processes, which are
much more onerous than in ‘normal’ projects.

Other fire suppression systems

Recent developments in fire suppression systems include the use of water mist and gas suppression systems; the
latter, while generally regarded as safer for fabrics found in some historic buildings, do reduce the oxygen content
of the air and are therefore a risk to occupants. Proprietary inert gas systems are now available that allow humans
to continue to breathe where the mixture has been discharged. However, for large areas they are unsuitable due to
the quantity of gas required and the difficulty of maintaining the appropriate concentrations of gas for the duration
of the fire’s life. They can be ideal, though, for smaller spaces, such as archive storage rooms or high risk areas such
as transformer chambers and switchrooms.
Other than marine or industrial situations, water mist and fog type fire suppression systems are increasingly being
used in risk situations and have proved beneficial in safeguarding specific hazards. Unfortunately there are no
British or European standards covering their use and, while work is ongoing to produce a suitable standard for the
application of water-mist fire suppression systems, there is little authoritative documentation and guidance currently
available to the designer and building professional.

2.15.5 Related standards

Standards related to this standard are:
• Standard 1.1 Structure
• Standard 2.1 Compartmentation
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 2.5 Internal linings
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 2.12 Access for fire appliances
• Standard 2.13 Water supplies for fire-fighting
• Standard 2.14 Facilities for fire-fighting

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 3. ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Site preparation: Harmful and dangerous substances

Standard 3.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that there will not be a danger to the building
nor a threat to the health of people in and around the building due to the presence of harmful or dangerous
substances.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to the removal of unsuitable material, including turf, vegetable matter, wood,
roots and topsoil on the site of a building (other than a dwelling) intended to have a life not exceeding the
period specified in regulation 6.

3.1.1 Type of Standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

3.1.2 Commentary
There may be a view that this standard has little relevance to the conversion of a historic building and that it
is designed to deal with new developments on previously contaminated land. There are, however, a number of
situations where the presence of harmful and dangerous substances can impact upon a historic building and its
occupants. Examples of historic building conversions where contaminants may be present are:
a) Where the previous use of the building allowed the possibility of spillage or release of contaminants such as
chemicals, toxic metals, oils, asbestos and other hazardous fibres and particulates etc.
b) Where the building was previously used to house animals eg cattle byres.
c) When the fabric of the building contains harmful and dangerous materials such as asbestos, lead water pipes,
historic lead-based paint etc.
d) Where there is contaminated land immediately adjacent to the building, which may be disturbed during
the conversion, for example when installing surface water drainage to control moisture levels in the
underbuildings.
e) Where a pathway exists by which a contaminant can reach the building, for example, contaminated ground
water from a pollutant source being directed to the building.
In addition, this standard also covers the treatment of the solum of buildings to prevent vegetable growth and
evaporation of moisture from the ground. There is also a requirement for any part of the underbuilding that is in
contact with the ground, such as sloping ground, to be tanked. Further information is contained in Part II, Section
3.4, Moisture from the ground, when dealing with this issue.
As far as the conversion of a historic building is concerned, this standard is a ‘reasonably practicable’ standard, which
gives some flexibility as to how far it is implemented provided that the situation is no worse than before the

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conversion. This means it is possible that, for example, additional treatment of the solum may not be required.
However, where there is an established risk to the building or to the health of people in and around the building,
remedial action will normally be required.
A site-specific risk assessment should be carried out where the past history of the site indicates the possibility of
contaminants being present.

3.1.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Harmful or dangerous • Where historic lead-based paint finishes are present there will be pressure to remove such
substances finishes and replace with modern, non-toxic paints – this may lead to a loss of an important
historic decorative scheme.
• Many historic buildings have had systems installed that incorporate asbestos insulation.
However, this is unlikely to be original to the building and its removal will not present
a risk to the building if carried out in a properly controlled way. Note: if the asbestos
containing material is in sound condition, the advice from the Health and Safety Executive
is to leave it in place (refer to Part I, Section 2.5.5 for further information).
• Former farm steadings, stables and the like, where animals have been housed, will be
contaminated with faecal matter. The greatest risk is to hidden archaeology below the floor
and in the ground surrounding the building when contaminated material is removed.
• Treatment or removal of building fabric that has been impregnated with contaminants,
especially porous materials.
• Existing walls may be undermined and services disrupted by removal of contaminants up
to 1m deep.
2. Solum treatment • Treating the solum of a historic building to raise its level to that of the adjoining ground
can be disruptive to historic floors.

3.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Each site must be subject to site-specific risk assessment, which must take into account the sensitivity of the
intended use of the site. It is necessary to recognise the specific source(s), pathway(s) and receptor(s), and the extent
of remedial treatment required to ensure that human health, the building and the environment are no longer at
risk. In the case of housing, the risk assessment, and the nature of pollutant linkages, will depend on the following
factors and their relationship to the contaminant:
• the design and layout of the conversion;
• whether the site includes gardens and, if so, where they are situated;
• any harmful or dangerous materials which are peculiar to the conversion and the precautions that will be used
in construction.
Points that should be considered to reduce risk to people and buildings prior to work commencing are:
• local knowledge should be actively sought on the past history of the site and surrounding area;
• the history of the site can provide clues to whether the site is contaminated and reference to current and
historical OS maps and site plans can provide evidence of contaminants;
• a walk over the site can provide other valuable clues, including the type of vegetation (or lack of it), any
unusual smells or suspicious containers;
• a soil and site investigation may be considered if the desktop study and walk-through show possible
contaminators (such as middens etc.);
• this standard requires a hazard identification and assessment to be carried out, for which a risk assessment
specific to the site is required;
• the site should be considered as a pathway or receptor of contamination, and advice from the appropriate
environment section of the local authority should be sought on these risks in order to reduce risk when
developing the site;

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• a restoration plan (also known as a remediation or risk management plan) should be prepared for the
contaminated site - refer to planning advice note PAN 33, 2000, for further information.
Points that should be considered to reduce the risk to the occupants and the building during the conversion of a
historic building are:
• the type of contaminant defines the approach to its removal and/or treatment, and in all cases it assumes the
contaminated area within and around the building will have 100mm of concrete capping;
• expert advice for remediation should be sought in cases where contamination has been found and specialists
employed for the removal of the contaminants;
• if contamination is found during construction the Verifier should be informed immediately;
• contaminants in most cases should be removed by experts, and advice sought from the Verifier in this regard;
• licenses may have to be sought for removal of some contaminants:
• the potential impact of any removal or treatment of contaminants on the fabric or character of the building
must be included within the conservation plan for the building.
Treating the solum of historic buildings to meet the recommendations of the standard may be destructive to historic
floors should they require to be lifted to raise the solum level and to treat the surface. However, unless there is
evidence that the existing solum is a source of unacceptable dampness that is causing damage to the building, is a
risk to the health of occupants, or is supporting vegetable growth (including fungal growth), the least damaging
approach may be to leave the existing solum as it is. Where there is evidence of high moisture levels then the
recommendations contained in Section 3.4, Moisture from the ground, should be followed.
Further guidance and sources of information may be obtained from:
Planning Advice Note (PAN) 33
Code of Practice BS 10175: 2001, Investigation of potentially contaminated sites. (supersedes DD 175: 1988)
Code of Practice BS5390: 1999, Site Investigations
CIRIA, Special Publications 101-112 (1995-97), Remedial treatment of contaminated land, Vols I-XII.

3.1.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.2 Site preparation: protection from radon gas
• Standard 3.4 Moisture from the ground

3.2 Site preparation – protection from radon gas

Standard 3.2
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that there will not be a threat to the health
of people in or around the building due to the emission and containment of radon gas.

3.2.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

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3.2.2 Commentary
Radon is a natural radioactive gas that decays into other radioactive species, all of which cause human exposure
to radiation and have, with prolonged exposure, been linked to lung cancer. Radon is naturally occurring, being
present in rocks and soils and also in products produced from them (eg stone, concrete and bricks). The standard
identifies certain areas of Scotland where radon is deemed to be present in sufficiently high concentrations to
constitute a health risk to occupants of buildings. These areas are concentrated in two main locations, where steps
to reduce radon levels are recommended. These areas are defined in the maps in the Standard and are confined to
eastern Sutherland/Caithness and in Deeside and Kincardine in Aberdeenshire.
When dealing with the conversion of historic buildings, only reasonably practicable action needs to be taken
to ensure that exposure to radon is no worse than before the conversion. However, to safeguard the health of
occupants, it is desirable to implement measures to reduce radon levels that are compatible with the conservation of
the building. Tests conducted in the building will confirm the level of risk and whether radon reduction measures
are necessary. Radon reduction, sometimes called radon mitigation, should be implemented when levels exceed the
action level of 200 Bq/m3 (bequerals per cubic metre).
Buildings that have been effectively draught-proofed as an energy conservation measure will have reduced levels of
ventilation, and therefore may have higher radon concentrations.

3.2.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Radon protection measures • Installations can be visually intrusive, for example, external fans and vent pipework.
• Radon sumps within buildings may disrupt historic solid floors.
• Sealing up fireplaces and cracks to reduce radon levels can increase fabric moisture levels.

3.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Where radon levels exceed the action level, it will normally be possible to implement at least some radon reduction
measures without adversely affecting the historic character of the building being converted. There are three main
methods of radon reduction for existing buildings when levels exceed 200 Bq/m3. For further information refer to
DEFRA (2003), Reducing radon levels in the home and to the BRE publication, BRE 376 Radon guidance on protective
measures for new dwellings in Scotland.

a) Radon sump method

This method is for use with solid concrete (or similar) ground floors. A sump, which is a bucket-sized void, is
excavated just inside an external wall and a 110mm diameter pipe leading from the sump is passed through the
wall. A fan, connected to the pipe, draws air from the soil beneath the floor and vents it harmlessly to the air above
eaves level. A prefabricated sump may be used as an alternative. This method is, however, visually intrusive but it is
possible to share a sump system between buildings, which may reduce the visual impact and floor disruption.
A less visually intrusive version of the method is to use a passive sump system when it may be not necessary to install
a fan. In this case the pipe from the sump is routed up through the building to vent at the highest point by passive
stack ventilation (refer to Part II, Section 3.14 for further information on passive stack ventilation).

b) Improved ventilation under suspended floors

This is likely to be the most commonly employed method in a historic building with a suspended ground floor.
Not only does this method reduce radon but it is also good for the building. It works by ensuring that sufficient
ventilation is provided below the floor. Installing additional sub-floor vents may be sufficient where radon levels
are relatively low. For higher radon levels, a fan installed at one side of the property can be used to increase air flow
rates and remove radon laden air.
Historic buildings typically have open fireplaces and chimneys, which keep the property well ventilated. However,
chimneys tend to draw air into a room from other areas, for example from below a suspended timber floor, which
may increase radon levels in the room. In this case, one option is to block the chimney, cap it with a chimney-pot
hood and install a small vent in the blocked fireplace. Such an approach may not be acceptable where the character
of the room is adversely affected by sealing the fireplace opening.

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Sealing up large holes and cracks in a suspended timber floor is recommended as this will reduce radon penetration
into room spaces, but will reduce the ventilation within the room, which should be compensated for by other
means. Covering the entire floor with an impervious membrane to act as a seal against radon is not recommended,
as this will increase the risk of timber decay. Sealing cracks reduces the flow of radon into rooms and is often
used with other methods. However, sealing cracks alone has been shown not to lower radon levels significantly or
consistently.
Increasing ventilation inside the building can effect a small reduction in radon levels by dilution but should only be
used in conjunction with other measures. Buildings that make use of open fires and solid-fuel-effect open fires will
draw radon-laden air into rooms, as will the continuous use of extractor fans in kitchens and bathrooms.

Illus 3.2.1 Radon sump system installed in an existing solid floor.

Illus 3.2.2 Improved radon ventilation under a suspended floor.

c) Positive pressurisation
This method works by diluting the radon entering the building. A specially installed fan blows air from the roof
space – or fresh air from outside – into the building thus maintaining a positive air pressure inside. However,
the efficiency of this system for a historic building is likely to be poor as the system works best with well-sealed
buildings.

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3.2.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.4 Moisture from the ground
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning

3.4 Moisture from the ground

Standard 3.4
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that there will not be a threat to the building or
the health of the occupants as a result of moisture penetration from the ground.

3.4.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

3.4.2 Commentary
The requirement of this standard is that a floor, wall or other building element adjacent to the ground should
prevent moisture from the ground from reaching the inner surface of any part of a building where it may constitute
a health risk to occupants. The standard also identifies the need to recognise the impact that climate change could
have on the fabric of buildings through increased rainfall and temperatures.
This standard is designed for new-build construction and, if implemented fully for the conversion of a building
of traditional construction, is likely to be detrimental to the fabric of the building. It is designed to prevent the
penetration of moisture from the ground by the introduction of damp proof courses in walls and damp proof
membranes below ground floors.
In the conversion of a historic building the usual types of construction encountered in Scotland do not normally
permit the introduction of a DPC within the wall and often, where such elements are introduced, the results have
not been successful.The most common cause of dampness at the base of walls of traditional buildings is often found
to be due to defective ground drainage. The factors shown below are the most usual causes of dampness from the
ground:
• blocked (or non-existent) ground drainage,
• raised adjoining ground levels over the years,
• the application of hard cement base-course renders at ground level and
• the use of impervious finishes around buildings that direct water back towards the walls.
It follows, therefore, that correction of these defects should be the first course of action. In addition, it is possible
that condensation on surfaces at the base of the wall may be a contributory factor to the ‘rising damp’ problem.
Refer to Section 4.3.1 in Part 1 of this book for further information.
An additional factor that affects the moisture condition of walls and suspended floors is the need for ventilation
to assist in the removal of moisture from walls and sub-floor spaces. Maintaining an adequate flow of air at these
points is an essential feature of moisture control.

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Illus 3.4.1 Dampness in a lime mortar rendered wall (Category B listed, mid-C19) (Photo: D Urquhart).
Note: The volume of moisture from the ground, from the chimney area and the pre-existing dampness in the wall has overcome the potential
for the render to transpire the moisture. Applying render to a saturated wall is not good practice. In this case all sources of moisture should
have been addressed before render was applied. In the case of moisture from the ground, lowering the ground level and installing a French
drain would be a means of reducing moisture rise in the wall. A new concrete floor may have been laid on a DPM, which has exacerbated the
problem of moisture from the ground.

Illus 3.4.2 Damproofing inserted into a historic wall, circa mid-C19 (listed Category C(S)) (Photo: D Urquhart).
Note: In this example it is likely that the dampness problem has been exacerbated by the application of hard cement render and the
installation of a new concrete ground floor on a DPM. The rear wall of the building is unrendered rubble, which has not had a DPC
installed.

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Basements are a potential source of dampness. However, it has to be recognised that in most historic buildings
basements were generally not intended to be permanently occupied. They were used as storage spaces, cellars or
work places such as kitchens and laundries. As such they were generally finished to a lower standard than other parts
of the building and, as a purely working area, these below ground rooms were adequate for purpose, and dampness
would not be a major concern. Also, some basements were meant to be damp to keep food cool. However,
dampness is the most common defect encountered in a basement and, where a basement has to be converted into
a habitable space, the causes of dampness must be removed.
Before progressing with a basement conversion, even if the standard and quality of the existing finishes may be
lower than in the rest of the property, it is still important to identify all elements of cultural significance that may
be present and to conserve these elements as far as is possible. In many cases, basements will have been poorly
treated over the life of a building and there may be little of significance remaining, apart from historic forms such
as vaulted roofs and the like, which should be conserved. Vaulted and arched basement roof structures are difficult
to waterproof effectively because of their construction. They are also prone to future structural movement due to
imposed loads from adjacent roads, car parks and paths, which may disrupt the waterproofing.
Where other walls – such as earth retaining walls, garden walls and arches – abut basement and sub-basement walls
they can encourage moisture transfer from the ground into the building. The effect can be that moisture is directed
into the wall, often under a pressure sufficient to produce running water at the inside face.
The conversion of a basement into habitable accommodation will mean that it is of vital importance to ensure
that effective damp proofing of the basement is carried out and that the treatment method selected has a life at
least equal to the life of the conversion. It is important to ensure also that any treatment method does not have the
effect of driving moisture higher up the wall. Traditional tanking of the inside face of a porous basement retaining
wall would have this effect.
Other problems associated with basements may be a low ceiling height (which could mean reducing the level of
the floor with its associated problems), absence of natural light and ventilation.

3.4.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Rising damp Refer to Part 1, Section 4.3.1, Moisture from the ground. Key points are:
• Insertion of damp-proof courses in masonry and earth walls may contribute to raised moisture
levels, both below and above the DPC – moisture becomes ‘locked in’;
• A damp-proof membrane below a new concrete ground floor reduces moisture evaporation and
can encourage a greater flow of moisture towards floor perimeters and into porous walls;
• Cutting a thick masonry wall to insert a physical DPC can be destructive to the wall and
chemical damp-proofing methods can be unreliable in rubble-cored walls, leaving untreated gaps
within the wall;
• Reducing ventilation at floor/wall junctions can raise the moisture content of adjacent plaster and
timber.
2. Basements • Damp-proofing an existing basement requires very careful consideration of the wall construction,
internal conditions and external ground hydrostatic pressures;
• Applying impervious render or other waterproofing material to the inside face will trap moisture
behind the surface and drive it further up the wall to emerge at a higher level.

3.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

a) Ground floors and wall-floor junctions

In the control of rising damp in a historic building it must be remembered that this is only one of a number of
mechanisms that can result in high moisture levels in the base of walls of traditional construction.The most effective
means of managing dampness, without adversely affecting historic construction, is to ensure that the source of
dampness has been properly identified.The most appropriate and cost-effective methods of controlling the moisture
can then be implemented.

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The installation of damp proof courses in traditional masonry walls is fraught with difficulties, and is generally
recommended only as a last resort when rising damp has been properly identified as the cause of dampness and
other methods have been ineffective. The first step in any wall treatment is to reduce the volume of moisture
moving from the ground into the wall. The normal method is to adopt passive measures to ensure that surface
water is drained clear of the foundations. Installing a ‘French’ drain is the traditional solution. However, the design
and construction of these drains is often unsatisfactory and may collect water rather than effect its removal. Reasons
for unsatisfactory performance can be:
• poor design,
• lack of falls,
• drain becoming clogged up with soil and debris,
• clay soils acting as a ‘sump’ for ground water,
• poor selection of granular fill or backfilling with soil.
In addition, the provision of paving drained away from the wall, where this is possible, is a valuable additional
measure to reduce ground water levels.
The trend towards replacing suspended timber floors with concrete ground floor slabs may not be the most
appropriate solution to the rising damp problem. The generally preferred option is to retain or reinstate the
timber ground floor and ensure adequate through ventilation is provided. Many historic buildings have inadequate
ventilation; either because of insufficient ventilation area or because of ventilation being restricted by later additions
to the building.

Illus 3.4.3 Junction of new concrete floor slab with existing wall.
Note: new concrete slab and DPM, and internal wall insulation with plasterboard finish used only when there are no existing historic floors
and wall finishes.

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Illustration 3.4.4 typically represents moisture transpiration into the sub-floor space of a suspended timber floor and
the control of the moisture by adequate ventilation. In this case the insulation of the floor has been improved by
the installation of rigid thermal insulation, kept clear of adjoining masonry to allow free movement of air.

Illus 3.4.4 Ventilation of a suspended timber ground floor.

Occasionally, a historic stone flag floor has to be

retained. In this case the temptation to lift the floor and
insert a fully insulated concrete slab below the re-laid
(or replaced) flagstone should be resisted. Apart from
their historic significance, these floors, when laid in
the traditional manner on a lime mortar base, usually
perform well in terms of damp resistance. They will
keep water pressures below the floor under control by
transpiration of moisture into the ventilated room above,
thus preventing additional ground water being directed
into adjoining walls. Where possible the original flags
should be retained and excessively worn flags can be
turned over and re-laid (Illus 3.4.6).
The temptation to apply a modern impervious floor
covering on top of the flagstones should be resisted as
this will trap moisture below the covering and prevent
evaporation through the flagstone floor. It may also
increase dampness elsewhere. The application of sealers Illus 3.4.5 Traditional flagstone floor re-laid in converted Category
to the surface of the flagstones will create a similar A listed building (Photo: D Urquhart).
effect.
Where there is evidence of dampness (rising damp) on the flagstone floor and/or adjacent walls, the source or
sources of the moisture should be investigated and eliminated. Often lowering the external ground level and the
installation of French drains will be sufficient to control the dampness. However, in some cases where ground water
control has not proved to be effective, the insertion of a damp proof membrane may be required below the floor.
Care should be taken in the investigation to ensure that the dampness has been properly identified and is not due
to condensation.

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Illus 3.4.6 Detail of a traditional stone flag floor that has been lifted and re-laid.

b) Basements
Waterproofing of a historic basement to permit the formation of habitable accommodation can be a challenging
exercise.The rules that apply to ground floors apply also to basements, where inappropriate treatment can encourage
moisture to rise higher up the wall than would otherwise be the case. Relief of hydrostatic pressure within the
construction must be part of the overall design.
The traditional approach to providing a habitable basement space is to adopt the drained cavity method, in which
a dry envelope is constructed inside the existing structure. In all cases the cavity behind the dry envelope should
be ventilated to dissipate moisture. Inevitably such a system will encroach into the usable space. There are available,
however, proprietary systems using modern materials and techniques that may be used to achieve the same
outcome, but which do not make the same demands on space.These include specialist plastic membranes applied to
the inside face of the existing wall, which allow moisture from the wall to drain down into a special drainage system
at the wall/floor junction. In this way hydrostatic pressure is relieved without the need for a large gap between the
existing wall and the new internal linings. Illus 3.4.7 is a representation of such a system.

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Illus 3.4.7 Diagrammatic representation of a proprietary basement wall treatment system.

3.4.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.6 Surface water drainage
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 6.2 Building envelope insulation

3.6 Surface water drainage

Standard 3.6
Every building, and hard surface within the curtilage of a building, must be designed and constructed with a surface
water drainage system that will:
(a) ensure the disposal of surface water without threatening the building and the health and safety of the
people in and around the building; and
(b) have facilities for the separation and removal of silt, grit and pollutants.

3.6.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

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3.6.2 Commentary
This standard has significant implications for the conversion of historic buildings. To simply accept the current
system, or adopt a conventional piped surface water system, may not be acceptable in all circumstances. For
buildings, the existing rainwater disposal system may be entirely appropriate where the gutters and downpipes are
constructed and installed in a way that allows surface water to be removed quickly and safely. However, the system
will have to be improved to the required standard where the assessment of the building prior to its conversion
shows that the existing surface water drainage system may result in damage to the building, pose a danger to people
around the building (particularly to disabled people) or create a risk to the environment by flooding or pollution.
Water is the ‘engine’ of decay in historic buildings. Frequently, the decay and deterioration of historic fabric can
be directly attributed to inadequate design and/or lack of maintenance of roof drainage elements. The resulting
saturation of masonry is a primary cause of dry rot (S. lacrymans), stone decay and dampness in internal spaces.
Drainage of surface water is thus a vital element in the conservation of historic buildings, and existing historic
drainage features which are promoting decay of the building may have to be replaced with a system that does not
pose a risk to the building.
In meeting this standard it should be possible, in the majority of situations, both to comply with its requirements
and maintain the historic character of the building. For example, many historic buildings do not have a system of
eaves gutters and downpipes, but rely on overhanging eaves to shed water clear of the building. In the past, this has
created problems for the character of the building when local authorities have insisted upon the installation of roof
drainage in a conversion. However, this standard allows for an eaves drop system to be used (ie roof drainage without
gutters and downpipes); providing the design takes into account the need to protect fabric, elements, foundations
and persons. Where the roof has an area of not more than 8m2 no restrictions apply.
It is in the surface water drainage of paved surfaces that the application of the standard may have a detrimental
impact on the character of the building, including its curtilage. Historic paved surfaces might not be able to remove
surface water efficiently, or their drainage discharge might endanger the environment. In upgrading the surface
water drainage system there is a danger that hidden archaeology could be disturbed by excavation work.
The requirements of this standard, which is an essential standard for conversions, means that each surface within the
curtilage of the building must be assessed against the criteria set out in the standard. A small paved surface of less
than 200m2 is unlikely to present a problem. However, larger areas may need to be resurfaced and drainage installed
that incorporates a Sustainable Drainage System (SUDS) or uses a traditional piped system that does not endanger
the environment. Fortunately, there are many surfacing systems available that meet both the requirements of the
standard and are sympathetic to the historic environment.

3.6.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Surface water drainage from • Risks to historic buildings are unlikely to be increased by the application of this
buildings standard unless existing roof drainage elements are replaced with alternatives that are
unsympathetic to the historic character.
2. Surface water drainage of • Historic paved surfaces may have to be replaced with a surface that is designed to
paved surfaces prevent ponding of water, especially on access routes suitable for disabled people: historic
character can be adversely affected by unsympathetic alternative surfaces.
• Installation of new drainage may disturb hidden archaeology.
3. Surface water discharge, • The SUDS system advocates managing the site so that the quantity of runoff is
soakaways and SUDS reduced through minimising paved areas and directly connected areas. This means that,
without careful design of surface runoff adjacent to buildings, dampness in walls at
ground level may be increased.
• Installation of new drainage and infiltration devices (soakaways etc.) may disturb
hidden archaeology.

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3.6.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

a) Surface water drainage from buildings

Unless the design of the existing roof drainage system is defective and causing damage to historic fabric or the
condition of the system is such that replacement is necessary, there is unlikely to be a need to take direct action to
meet the standard. However, should a new design or a replacement system become necessary the requirements of
the standard will apply.
Where possible, gutters and downpipes should be constructed and installed in accordance with BS EN 12056-3:
2000. In many cases there will be a need to use replacement gutters and downpipes that replicate the original,
both in design and materials. But, as the BS is not specifically designed to accommodate historic buildings, it may
be that traditional replacement components do not fully accord with the British Standard. In such cases, to avoid
the use of unsympathetic modern components, it is recommended that the past performance of these components
and materials be accepted as a suitable means of meeting the standard where the roof area or form has not been
altered.
An existing building without eaves gutters and downpipes (an eaves drop system) is an acceptable method of roof
drainage. Where this arrangement of rain water runoff from a historic building has not had an adverse effect on the
building, on the health and safety of people in and around the building or on the environment, no changes to the
system need be made. However, where a risk assessment of the free fall of water from roofs indicates the following
risks, remedial action will be required.

Risk Remedial action

1. Concentration of water runoff • Eaves catchment and rain water disposal required, possibly using eaves
onto walls causing decay gutters or eaves hoppers as appropriate.
2. Ponding or constant wetting of • Replace with a permeable surface (although must be suitable for disabled
access routes (potential for slipping access).Note:a permeable surface may not be sufficient to clear an access route
due to ice or algal films) of standing water quickly enough and additional measures will be required.
• Relay the surface to provide water runoff.
3. Splash back from the ground • Use a gravel layer around the base of the wall.
onto walls
4. Discharge from the roof • Install a hopper at roof level with a downpipe discharging clear of the
concentrated onto a small area with foundation.
a risk to shallow foundations.
5. Impervious soils • The formation of permeable surfaces and sub-base in impervious soils
such as clays may act as a ‘sump’ for water and encourage the movement
of moisture into the building.

Illus 3.6.2 is appropriate for permeable soil conditions. Where the building has an eaves drop system and the soil is
impermeable then additional drainage will be required to prevent ponding. This drainage, for example, may consist
of a perforated drain, with rodding eyes, connected to a soakaway sized to deal with the design flow load and located
well clear of the building.

b) Surface water drainage from paved areas

To prevent physical damage to historic buildings and for the safety of people it is essential to remove surface water
quickly and efficiently from paved areas. This may be achieved using either a SUDS system or a traditional piped
drainage system. Permeable surfaces and filter drains are a preferred option. CIRIA (2001) provides further guidance,
which can be obtained from their web site http://www.ciria.org.uk. These surfaces have a permeable pavement and
sub-base (Illus 3.6.2) to store and dissipate surface water.Various surfaces can be used that are compatible with the
character of historic buildings. Surfaces can include the following (not all are suitable for access to buildings):
• grass (if not trafficked),
• reinforced grass,

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Illus 3.6.2 Eaves drop roof drainage system to prevent splashing of water on the wall (to comply with BRE Digest 365).

• gravelled areas,
• solid paving blocks with large vertical holes filled with soil or gravel,
• solid paving blocks with gaps between individual units,
• porous paving blocks with a system of voids within the unit,
• continuous surfaces with an inherent system of voids.

c) Surface water discharge

The traditional methods of surface water discharge to a soakaway, a public sewer, an outfall to a watercourse or, if
the surface water is from a dwelling, to a storage container are still suitable methods. Therefore, for most historic
buildings it is likely that the existing system, provided it complies with the requirements of the standard, will be
acceptable. However, the sustainable management of surface water drainage (SUDS) is now the preferred option
when a new system is required. SUDS can be designed to suit most urban and rural environments.

3.6.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.4 Moisture from the ground
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings

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3.11 Facilities in a dwelling

Standard 3.11
Every dwelling must be designed and constructed in such a way that the size of any apartments or kitchens and the
access to other rooms does not threaten the health of the occupants.
Limitation
This standard applies only to a dwelling.

3.11.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.11.2 Commentary
There should seldom be occasions where the historic fabric of a building inhibits compliance with this standard.
Similarly, it is unlikely that the character of a historic property will be adversely affected in accommodating its
essentially undemanding space requirements. Where there are restricted pre-existing room sizes, it may be necessary
to locate storage for kitchens and bedrooms in locations more remote from the rooms than would be normally
accepted.
From May 2007, draft amended standard 3.11 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that

a) The size of any apartment or kitchen will provide a level of amenity that ensures the welfare and convenience of all
occupants and visitors; and
b) an accessible space is provided to allow for the safe, convenient and sustainable drying of washing.

Limitation
This standard applies only to a dwelling

This amendment will introduce requirements for drying facilities.These requirements will apply to conversions, but
can be fulfilled in a variety of ways so should not create specific problems for older buildings.

3.11.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Provision of activity spaces • Well-planned room spaces should not present a risk to historic buildings,
unless room proportions are altered to the detriment of historic character.
2. Floor to ceiling height • Inappropriate roof projections (dormer windows etc.) to increase
designated room areas.

3.11.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The minimum floor to ceiling height of any part of the designated area of a room is 1.5m and, for an activity space
designated for use by disabled people, the height across the full area of the activity space should be not less than
1.8m. Achieving these headroom requirements for activity spaces could be a problem in some rooms with coomed
ceilings. However, with good space planning it should be possible to achieve the requirements of this standard
without loss of historic character.
In situations where alterations to the roofline are thought to be necessary to increase the floor areas to achieve the

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space standard, every effort must be made to find alternative solutions that avoid such alterations. Adding dormer
windows and projections to historic roofs may have a serious impact on both historic character and fabric. If,
however, such alterations are the only possible solution, the design, construction and materials must respect the
historic form and character of the building.
In addition to the above requirements, for houses designated as Houses in Multiple Occupation (HMOs) there
are Benchmark Standards setting out the minimum space requirements for bedrooms and communal living rooms.
These space standards for HMOs may be more demanding than those of this standard (refer to Part I, section 7.4
for further advice on HMOs).

3.11.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.12 Sanitary facilities
• Standard 3.16 Natural lighting

3.12 Sanitary facilities

Standard 3.12
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that sanitary facilities are provided for all
occupants of, and visitors to, the building and that there is no threat to the health and safety of occupants or
visitors.

3.12.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.12.2 Commentary
The Technical Handbooks to building standards specify the number of water closets (or waterless closets),
washbasins, baths or showers and sinks required in domestic and non-domestic buildings. Many pre-1920 domestic
properties were designed without separate toilets or bathrooms. If these properties have remained in domestic use
most will have already been upgraded to include a bathroom with water closet or a bathroom and separate toilet.
However, the requirement to provide an accessible toilet from public areas is likely to be the issue that will create
the most difficulty in a historic building conversion. The space for such an installation may not be available within
existing accommodation without disrupting the character of the space.
In addition to the provision of new sanitary facilities, the design, routing and installation of water supply, soil and
waste drainage and ventilation to serve the facilities need to be planned very carefully if unacceptable disruption to
historic fabric and spaces is to be avoided. Accommodation of soil and waste drainage, for example, can be difficult
to achieve within the thickness of an existing floor, and ‘boxing-in’ of pipework below a floor is unlikely to be an
acceptable solution. Similarly, the creation of vertical ducts within historic spaces will be disruptive to the character
of the space. Wherever possible the installation of services to sanitary accommodation should be routed within
existing voids and ducts.
From May 2007, draft amended standard 3.12 is;
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that sanitary facilities are provided for all occupants of, and
visitors to, the building in a form that allows convenience of use and offers no threat to the health and safety of occupants
or visitors.

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This amendment introduces guidance on more accessible sanitary facilities. The guidance on risks/problems still
applies, as it will be even more difficult to accommodate the required space.

3.12.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Provision of sanitary facilities • In conversions where toilets and bathrooms have to be provided as new spaces it can
and accessible toilets be difficult to find adequate and appropriate space for them without compromising
the main rooms in the building. In particular, the space for the provision of an accessible
toilet, accessible from public areas (not en-suite) can be disruptive to the historic
character of spaces.
2. Provision of drainage • It can be very difficult to find a route for a full 100m soil pipe connecting the new
water closet to the ground drains whilst avoiding damage to the historic fabric and
preserving the appearance of rooms below.
3. Provision of water supply • Finding a route for hot and cold water supply pipes from the mains entry point
and/or remote water heating source whilst avoiding damage to historic fabric and
preserving the appearance of rooms adjacent can also be difficult.
4. Provision of ventilation • Often new toilets and bathrooms have to be inserted into historic buildings in central
spaces away from the external walls of the building. Ventilation is then required in
addition to that provided by opening windows. Finding an undisruptive route for a
ventilation duct for powered extract or for passive ventilation systems can be difficult,
particularly for passive ventilation systems where the vent duct/pipe has to rise
continually to the open air without any sharp bends.
5. Maintenance of pipe work • Wherever water is contained in a system of pipes under pressure there is a danger of
leaks causing damage to the surrounding fabric. This is particularly acute in historic
buildings where much of the internal fabric is timber and is therefore susceptible to rot.

3.12.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

a) Provision of toilets and bathrooms

The sanitary facilities required by the standard have to be provided in a separate room or rooms. Careful
consideration must be given from the earliest design proposals as to how these rooms can be fitted in so that their
provision has the minimum impact on the historic fabric. Careful attention must be paid to:
• how the facility is to be supplied with hot and cold water and where these supply pipes are to run,
• how the facility is to be supplied with drainage and ventilation,
• how these drainage and ventilation pipes are to be threaded through the existing structure and
• how an accessible toilet can be accessed directly from a public space.
In multi-storey projects, where possible, sanitary facilities should be stacked one above the other so that drainage
and water supply pipes can be run through the new facilities with minimum effect on the rest of the building.
Generally the sanitary facilities required by the standards require small spaces. Where one space, big enough to
accommodate both bathing and toilet facilities, is not available, a bathroom without water closet can be provided
in one small space and a toilet with washbasin provided in another small space.
Often, existing storage cupboards can be used for new sanitary facilities with little damage to the historic fabric.
In other buildings the smaller, more humble rooms with least detail should be used. Inserting a bathroom box into
the corner of an important historic room should be avoided wherever possible.

b) Provision of drainage
The largest pipes are the most difficult to thread through the historic fabric without causing damage. Where it is
found impossible to find an acceptable route for a full 100mm soil and vent pipe, a macerator and pressure pumped
system should be considered. Outlet pipes from these systems need only be small-diameter and, being pumped, can

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rise as well as fall. However, the introduction of exposed pipes or ducts on internal surfaces needs to be carefully
considered, especially if they have to be routed over and around historic details, such as cornices.
Where it is considered impossible to provide a piped connection to a public sewer at reasonable cost, without
unacceptable damage to the historic fabric, the standards allow for the installation of a waterless closet.This standard,
strangely, does not make clear what should happen to waste water from baths, showers, wash hand basins and sinks.
It must be assumed that waste from these facilities must continue to be taken to a public or private disposal system
(refer to Standard 3.7 Wastewater drainage – not covered in this Guide).

c) Provision of Water Supply

Water supply pipes are generally much easier to thread through the historic fabric due to their small diameter
and flexible nature when using modern materials. Care must, however, be taken to ensure that all supply pipes are
adequately supported and will not be damaged by any movement in the structure.
Hot water supply pipes should be insulated between heat source and point of delivery. This can increase the
overall diameter to three or four times the diameter of the pipe itself, and can exacerbate the difficulties of finding
acceptable routes through the historic fabric. Where this proves to be too difficult, point of delivery water heaters can
be used. These require only a single, small-diameter cold supply and, usually, electric power via a twin and earth
cable.
A water supply system is usually pressurised by gravity by installing a cold-water storage tank at the highest point
of the building. In many historic buildings this is not possible, either because the space is not available, or because
the historic structure is not adequate to bear the weight of this, often very heavy tank, and the water within it.
In some areas, the water authority may allow all water supply requirements to be taken directly off the mains for
domestic buildings, the required pressure within the building being provided by the pressure in the mains. Where
this is allowed, a high-level water tank within the building is not required.
Where a high level tank is not possible, a tank installed in a basement, store or other low-level space should be
provided with an electric pressure-pump to lift water to the required point of delivery. Where possible the load of
tank and water should be transferred directly to the ground avoiding any stress in the historic fabric.

d) Provision of Ventilation
Refer to Standard 3.14 for recommended ventilation provision to sanitary accommodation. Standard 3.14
recommends that a bathroom or a shower-room be ventilated by either a mechanical extract system or a passive
stack system. A toilet may be ventilated by a ventilator with an opening area of at least 1/30th of the floor area of
the space; typically by trickle ventilation in a window or by mechanical ventilation. Most domestic mechanical and
passive ventilation systems require ducts of minimum 75mm diameter.

3.12.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.5 Existing drains
• Standard 3.7 Wastewater drainage
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings

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3.13 Heating

Standard 3.13
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that it can be heated.
Limitation
This standard applies only to a dwelling.

3.13.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.13.2 Commentary
In the conversion of a historic building to dwellings, meeting the requirements of this essential standard will not
present any real risks to the character of the building. It is accepted that practically all such conversions will involve
the installation of some form of ‘central heating’ system, which will more than meet the minimum standard set
out.
Historic buildings of masonry construction will often have internal walls, chimneys, vaults and solid floors that have
a high thermal capacity. This thermal capacity may be taken into account when considering the heating system,
as their ability to store heat can reduce temperature fluctuations within rooms. Where the external walls are of
massive masonry construction and lined internally with lath and plaster, it is sometimes thought that they will act
as a thermal store to the benefit of space heating. However, this is not the case as the presence of a ventilated void
behind the plaster has the effect of converting the structure into one that is thermally lightweight, which means
that the internal surfaces will have only a limited capacity to store heat and will thus respond quickly to changes
in temperature.
From May 2007, draft amended standard 3.13 is:
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that it can be heated and maintain temperatures at a level
that will not endanger the health of the occupants.
Limitation
This standard applies only to a dwelling.

This amendment is used to require a much less basic heating performance, but the guidance on risks/problems
remains applicable.

3.13.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Heating regimes not matched to • Spaces (eg recesses and cupboards) not adequately heated leading to mould
building fabric and room arrangements growth, condensation and potential fabric deterioration.
2. Heating of previously unheated or • The sudden heating of previously unheated or poorly heated spaces can cause
poorly heated spaces a rapid change in the moisture condition of porous materials; leading to serious
shrinkage and cracking (refer to Part 1, Section 4.4 for further information).

3.13.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The minimum heating requirements set out in this standard, which relates only to dwellings, are very basic and
in almost every dwelling created by the conversion of a historic building these requirements will be exceeded
significantly. Guidance on ways of heating such buildings efficiently is given in the notes to Standard 6.3. However,

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it is important to match the type of heating system to the thermal properties of the building so that the most
energy efficient approach is adopted. In addition, the heating of the building should take into account heat losses
from ventilation (Standard 3.14) and the need to ensure that surface temperatures normally exceed dew point
temperatures for the moisture vapour conditions likely to prevail.
A balance is required between heating of spaces, surface temperatures and ventilation to prevent mould growth.This
is likely to be more problematic in recesses and cupboards on external walls (refer to notes in Section 3.15). Unless
particular care is taken in the design of space heating it is possible, even when recommended room temperatures
are achieved, that there are spaces within or adjacent to rooms where the internal air temperature falls below the
critical temperature at which mould growths can occur.
It is normal for a dwelling to be continuously heated, whereas a building that is not continuously occupied, such
as a church, will tend to be heated intermittently. Maximising the thermal capacity of the internal fabric will help
mitigate fluctuations in external temperature and even out the internal temperature.
With careful design the high thermal capacity volumes of historic fabric can be used as heat-sinks to improve the
economics of heating input and to improve the internal environment. These internal volumes of historic fabric
should not be insulated, allowing space heating to gradually warm them up and allowing them to re-radiate their
stored energy into rooms when these are cooler.

3.13.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 6.2 Building envelope insulation
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems

3.14 Ventilation

Standard 3.14
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the air quality inside the building is not a
threat to the health of the occupants or the capability of the building to resist moisture, decay or infestation.

3.14.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.14.2 Commentary
Lack of ventilation in historic buildings is not normally a problem. The nature of these buildings means that
there are many sources of fortuitous natural ventilation, for example through gaps around loose-fitting doors and
windows, through skirting and floor junctions, and through roofs and open flues. Such high rates of ventilation
usually meant that these buildings were healthy for occupants (if cold) and that condensation and mould growth
were controlled. In the conversion of these buildings there is a danger that, by trying to improve energy efficiency,
natural ventilation will be reduced to below acceptable levels.
This standard is essentially aimed at the ventilation of bathrooms, kitchens and other moisture-producing areas.
In upgrading thermal performance of historic buildings, considerable care has to be exercised when selecting a
ventilation rate. A minimum ventilation rate that is acceptable for human health and the extraction of moisture may

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be insufficient to provide ventilation to hidden spaces, which could lead to raised moisture contents in vulnerable
materials, such as plaster and timber. Ventilation is thus necessary to maintain a healthy building fabric as well as
healthy conditions for occupants. The introduction of vapour checks when insulation is added will further reduce
the permeability of the construction. However, for traditional Scottish masonry construction the amount of air
movement required to maintain a moisture balance and to prevent the development of dry rot in timber is relatively
low.
To prevent the occurrence of condensation and mould growth on surfaces it is important to ensure that humidity
levels are kept below 70% RH by a combination of both adequate ventilation and space heating.

3.14.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Control of humidity • Historic buildings with a poorly insulated envelope require a higher internal air temperature
than well-insulated construction to keep the air in contact with external wall surfaces below
70% RH (above 70% RH moulds may develop). Note: where the room air is at 70% RH, air
in contact with external surfaces will be at a higher relative humidity.
2. Natural ventilation • Sealing up openings (draught stripping) and open flues to conserve energy reduces airflow
within rooms and hidden spaces and may upset the moisture balance in porous materials and
promote decay.
3. Trickle ventilators • Unsympathetic introduction of trickle ventilators into traditional sash and case windows
(and other traditional windows) may adversely affect the historic character of the windows.
4. Passive stack • PSV and ducted forms of mechanical ventilation can be very disruptive to historic fabric
ventilation systems, and its character where ducts intrude into spaces and pass through walls, floors and roofs.
mechanical ventilation • Location of vents in the external fabric (walls and roofs) may affect historic character and
and mechanical aids to their installation can be destructive to fabric, particularly in earth and rubble-type walls.
ventilation • Location of plant can be visually intrusive and may overload structural elements.
• Location and design of controls may be intrusive in sensitive spaces.
• A PSV system in a building can be ineffective where wind suction is insufficient to prevent
moisture build-up in spaces.
6. Air movement in voids • May be affected adversely by energy conservation measures that reduce air infiltration
– installed ventilation systems may not address this issue.

3.14.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Wherever possible the natural ventilation system of the historic building should be preserved, with materials and
constructions introduced to improve thermal performance being carefully positioned (and held in place) to avoid
blocking existing ventilation routes and systems. For example:
• insulation blocking eaves vents;
• insulation blocking the open spaces behind framed-out walls and roof spaces, or between these open spaces on
different floors at floor and wall junctions;
• insulation blocking the connection between floor voids and wall voids;
• membranes or insulation blocking wall vents to floor voids.
There are two common physical problems in relation to the normal provisions for ventilation that are encountered
in historic building conversions:
a) The first is that it can be difficult to incorporate trickle ventilators in existing windows (or to provide them
elsewhere). For some historic buildings any alteration to the window joinery will be unacceptable because
of the historic importance of that joinery. In these cases the insertion of ventilators in plain plasterwork
and through external walls may be preferable. Where some alteration of the window joinery is considered
acceptable, trickle vents can be created by cutting holes into the case above the lower sash and below the
upper sash as indicated in Illus 3.14.1. Alternatively, if trickle ventilation is required at the top of the window,
the system shown in the illustration can be adopted. Fitting proprietary trickle vents in the rails of the sash

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is not recommended as this is likely to weaken the joinery sections and the ventilator can look obtrusive.
Further information on the installation of trickle ventilators can be found in Newsom (2002).
b) The second is that sometimes it is not possible to provide the normal natural ventilation opening area via
windows, the position and size of these being fixed by the historic façade. The practicality of using openable
windows also depends upon the location of the building and the immediate external environment. In noisy or
polluted urban areas, for example, it may not be possible simply to open windows for increased ventilation.

Illus 3.14.1 Detail of trickle ventilation in sash and case window (Reproduced from Historic Scotland, Guide for Practitioners 3 2002).

For dwellings, a number of ventilation options are available, each with its advantages and disadvantages. Reference
should be made also to the DTER Good Practice Guide 268 for more detailed information. The systems available
are:
• passive stack ventilation (PSV)
• local extract fans (extract only)
• continuous mechanical ventilation system
– extract only system or
– balanced supply and extract system

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a) Passive and mixed mode systems.

If openable windows alone are insufficient or inappropriate for ventilation in larger-scale commercial buildings
then other forms of natural ventilation can be considered. Generally these will rely on creating other ventilation
openings in the building, and ducting air from these openings into the spaces. These ventilation openings will often
be at roof level to avoid pollution, noise, and to minimise interference with the historic fabric.
These installations may work on a purely ‘passive’ basis, relying upon the natural forces created by wind movements
and temperature differences to draw fresh air into the building and then up an exhaust stack to discharge at roof
level. Such an installation is referred to as the passive stack ventilation system (PSV), which can also be used
in domestic-scale buildings. If there are periods during which these natural forces are not adequate to generate the
necessary air movement, fans can be installed at the head of the exhaust stack to draw the air through the system.
This is what is termed a mixed mode system. Mixed mode systems utilise comparatively low fan power, and
then only when fan assistance is required, and so can assist in achieving the requirements under Standard 6.6, which
relate to the efficiency of mechanical ventilation systems.
Passive or mixed mode ventilation systems require complex calculations and usually dynamic thermal modelling
to ensure that they will work correctly, thus suitably qualified engineers would be required to prepare the designs.
Complex historic buildings, even if simple ventilation systems are to be used, will normally require specialist
engineering input.
It is recommended that the use of the PSV system be considered as the first choice of system for a historic
building. It is only when the suction generated by a PSV system is insufficient that a mechanical system should be
installed.

Illus 3.14.2 Whole-house ventilation – domestic passive stack ventilation system.

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b) Local extract fans

Local extract fans are positioned in the high moisture producing spaces to extract moisture and other pollutants.
They are not normally operated continuously and may be operated by the occupant or by a humidity-sensor control
(sited close to the main source of moisture generation) with replacement air provided by trickle ventilation. The
extracted air is ducted to the outside and the positioning of the extracts needs to be carefully controlled to avoid
damage to historic character and to prevent drawing combustion gases into a room from open-flued appliances.

c) Continuous mechanical ventilation system

In dwellings or domestic-scale properties, a good, practical and energy efficient solution is to install a continuous
mechanical ventilation system complying with the provisions of BRE Digest 398. There are two main forms of
such systems:
i. extract only and
ii. balanced supply and extract.
Both can be designed to comply with the Building Standards using proprietary equipment for small-scale
applications.
The extract only system relies upon leakage into the building for make-up air. Generally in historic buildings
with sash and case windows, the infiltration through these windows will be adequate for such a system to function
properly, provided that excessive draught stripping has not been fixed to the windows. It is important to ensure that sufficient
air infiltration will be available from other sources in such cases.
The balanced supply and extract system delivers air as well as extracting it and does not rely on any infiltration.
The balanced supply and extract type of system can also be provided with a cross-flow heat exchanger to recuperate
some of the heat from the exhaust air and pre-heat the incoming fresh air. These systems contribute to the energy
efficiency of the building and can help with the energy performance requirements under Section 6.6, but additional
space is required for the plant involved.

Illus 3.14.3 Balanced supply and extract whole-house mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery.

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Both systems require a location for one or more (in larger properties) central fan units, which will be ducted to
outside: one duct for the extract only system and two for the balanced supply and extract system. The size of these
ducts depends upon a number of factors, which require calculation, but typically they would be around 150mm
to 200mm diameter in proprietary systems. The routing of ducts must be carefully designed to reduce damage to
historic fabric and need to have appropriate fire stopping and sound insulation (for dwellings) at penetrations in
separating floors and walls.These systems offer a number of advantages over discreet extract or supply fans. A typical
small building might require three or four individual fans for toilets, kitchens and the like alone. Each of these fans
requires a wall or roof penetration.
A central continuous system can achieve the same or better standard of ventilation with one or two penetrations,
which can be located in such a way as to minimise interventions with the fabric and provide the best location for
the air intake or exhaust in relation to the surrounding environment. These systems are also typically quieter in
operation and less visually intrusive.
Many historic buildings, from which air is being mechanically extracted, will allow sufficient replacement air to
infiltrate into the space from an adjacent area around and below existing doors. To comply with the standard for
4000mm2 of trickle ventilation, additional unobstructed air space can be achieved by such infiltration, provided that
this has been accurately determined and is capable of being inserted into the existing construction. This does not
necessarily have to be provided by way of holes in the door. Cutting 5mm off the bottom of a standard 824mm
door will provide 4000mm2 of ventilation space for replacement air to pass through.

Ventilation outlets through roofs

The introduction of roof vents into historic roofs needs to be carefully considered and designed. How this is
achieved depends on the importance of the building and, particularly, of the roof and roofscape. Among the factors
to be considered are:
• outer, visible roof slopes should be avoided for any ventilation outlets;
• often historic buildings have hidden valleys and roof slopes where roof vents will have a minimal impact;
• hidden, simple ‘straight-through’ vent pipes with carefully formed lead collars (rather than short-life, tin rubber
collars) should be considered;
• where a larger free ventilation area is required, small additional pitched dormer-vents can often be
incorporated (Illus 3.14.4);
• inset-dormer vents are usually less obtrusive than projecting dormer vents (Illus 3.14.4);

Illus 3.14.4 Projecting and inset dormer vents – inset (recessed) vents are preferred).

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• where the vent is to be positioned onto a visible roof slope, a proprietary flush-with-pitch plastic or metal
vent can be used (Illus 3.14.5);
• other types of roof vents may be used depending on circumstances, eg ridge vents (raised fireclay, raised ridge
roll and lead flashings) and continuous lead or zinc.

Illus 3.14.5 Inset dormer vents on a traditional pitched slated roof. Inset dormer vents eliminate the need for large, intrusive ventilation grills.

3.14.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 5.1 Resistance to noise
transmission (through ducts)
• Standard 6.2 Heating systems
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical
ventilation and air conditioning

Illus 3.14.6 Flush roof vents (Photo: D Urquhart).

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3.15 Condensation

Standard 3.15
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that there will not be a threat to the building or
the health of the occupants as a result of moisture caused by surface or interstitial condensation.
Limitation
This standard only applies to a dwelling.

3.15.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

3.15.2 Commentary
While this regulation applies only to dwellings, the risk of damage to the fabric of a traditional building as a result of
condensation is such that it must be treated as an issue for all buildings. It contains no specific controls but instead,
generalised objectives and directs the reader to two principal sources of guidance:
• BS 5250:2002 Code of Practice for the Control of Condensation in Buildings
• Stirling (2002), Thermal Insulation: avoiding risks
Both of these documents are aimed at the designers of new buildings, but include guidance on the important
principles that must also be observed in the conversion of traditional buildings.
When addressing the problem of condensation in historic buildings it is of critical importance to consider the
whole building envelope and its servicing. The main principles of condensation control in new buildings rely
upon thermal isolation (avoidance of cold bridging), vapour control (vapour checks, vapour barriers and breather
membranes) and extraction (mechanical ventilation in bathrooms and kitchens). In traditional methods of
construction, the emphasis is largely upon natural ventilation, heating, and controlled condensation.
The combination in many historic buildings of ventilated timber floors, lath and plaster walls with air spaces behind,
uninsulated freely ventilated roofs, single glazed windows and open fires in every apartment, may not be thermally
efficient, but it does provide an effective solution to the risks of condensation. Traditional slated roofs often did not
include felt membranes under the slates, which were nailed directly to gap-boarded sarking, and, as a result, allowed
air to penetrate freely into the roof space. Alteration to any element of such a construction (usually to improve the
level of thermal comfort) can have serious and unexpected consequences with regard to condensation risk.
Two fundamental approaches exist in dealing with condensation in historic buildings:
a) Where the fabric of the building is such that it is desirable to retain or re-create the internal linings, every
effort should be made to enable the building to continue to work or breathe in the way that it always has. This
requires that the construction is well ventilated, that no existing ventilation paths are blocked and mechanical
extraction is located as close as possible to any new sources of moisture such as showers, baths, and hobs.
b) In instances where the building does not have, or has never had, any internal linings, there is greater
opportunity to treat it in the manner that a new construction would be detailed, with the provision of vapour
control layers, and unbroken or bridged insulation.
The potential for interstitial condensation within the construction of a traditional building is an issue that requires
careful attention. Unlike new buildings, which have vapour checks built into the construction to control the
movement of water vapour into the fabric, traditional buildings have porous surfaces that offer little resistance to
the transfer of water vapour. To prevent the occurrence of condensation within the construction, reliance is placed
on keeping hidden voids and roof spaces ventilated to control humidity levels.

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In dealing with condensation it is also important to recognise the role of mould growth. This standard covers
the threat to the health of occupants; mould spores may affect health, especially of persons suffering from asthma
or allergies. While surface condensation will occur when the surface temperature falls below the dew-point
temperature of the ambient air, mould growth can occur on a surface that is above dew-point temperature. This
becomes more of a problem where the walls of a traditional building have not been thermally upgraded, and
internal surface temperatures remain depressed. Sealing up the building to improve energy efficiency may reduce
ventilation rates and raise humidity levels above the critical point for mould growth.

3.15.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Condensation The risks are:
in roofs • Lack of ventilation can lead to increased risk of condensation in the roofspace and consequential
problems of rot and mould growth.
• Condensation on slate fixing nails can lead to corrosion and failure.
• Installation of roof ventilators can affect the appearance and character of the roof.
• Installation of roofing felt during previous remedial works can severely restrict the level of
fortuitous ventilation within the roof space, requiring the provision of roof vents.
• Provision of a vented cavity may require removal of historic finishes in flat roofs and raise the level
of the roof line.
• Underside lead corrosion can occur to existing and new lead roofing.

2. Surface Condensation associated with single glazed windows and window jambs.
condensation and • Replacement double glazed windows may change the character and appearance of the building to
thermal bridging an unacceptable degree and move condensation elsewhere.
• Secondary glazing may have an equally unacceptable impact upon the interior.
• Condensation on windows and jambs can cause rot in windows and damage to internal finishes on
walls and floors.
• Trickle ventilators can be visually obtrusive in more sensitive historic buildings.

Condensation on walls and fitments in areas of high humidity.

• Poorly ventilated bathrooms and kitchens can lead to surface condensation on walls which will
lead to deterioration of both finishes and the historic fabric of the walls. Also condensation dripping
from cisterns can have an equally damaging effect upon floors.
• Mechanical ventilator locations and proliferation can be visually obtrusive if handled insensitively.

3. Interstitial • Where interstitial condensation forms within the fabric of a traditional wall construction, it will
condensation have its most severe impact where construction timbers are built into the external stone wall.
• Timber lintels and joist ends are liable to absorb any condensation forming on and tracking down
the inner face of the outer stone leaf.
• Care is required to interpret correctly the source of moisture and ensure that moisture from poor
maintenance (pointing, rain water gutters etc.) is not confused with interstitial condensation.
• Incomplete thermal insulation and vapour checks, eg at window sills and ingoes, may encourage
interstitial condensation on colder surfaces.

3.15.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The issue of condensation, and more particularly interstitial condensation, is one where alterations to improve for
example thermal performance, fire or sound insulation, can lead to a building’s performance being worse than
before the conversion. While the following diagrams and descriptions offer solutions to some specific problems, it
is essential that a holistic approach is taken, with a consistent overall strategy being adopted.
Note: Most of the diagrams in this section are composite details, which relate to more than just Standard 3.15
Condensation.They are therefore repeated in other sections of the Guide where appropriate, for example in Section
6 Energy.

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a) Condensation in roofs

Illus 3.15.1(a) Eaves ventilation of insulated pitched roof.

Illus 3.15.1(b) Roof ventilation using proprietary slate vents.

Notes
i. Continuous ventilation, or equivalent, is essential at eaves level and commonly required at the ridge.
ii. A traditional uninsulated roof will permit free movement of air between the roof space and behind the
lath and plaster. However, adding insulation that seals off the top of the gap at the plaster, while satisfying
the requirement of Standard 2.4.1, compromises the free flow of ventilation; there is thus a need to ensure
adequate air movement by other means. In this example, the insulation is kept back from the wallhead to
allow free movement of air between the void behind the lath and plaster and the roof space.
iii. Due to the temperature differential between the wall and ceiling plaster (especially at the wall head), there
is an increased risk of both surface and interstitial condensation on the wall at its junction with the ceiling.
Careful control of relative humidity and vapour pressure within room spaces is therefore a vital factor in the
control of condensation.

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iv. Loft insulation should be of a material not susceptible to damage from condensation dripping from nail ends.
v. All pipework and tanks should be on the warm side of the insulation wherever possible.
vi. Design of roof ventilators should be sympathetic to the historic character of the roof.

Illus 3.15.2(a) Ventilation of flat roof using a ventilated space above the original roof deck to combat underside lead corrosion (ULC). New
lead roof covering and supporting deck constructed.

Illus 3.15.2(b) Ventilation of existing lead covered flat cold roof. Existing ceiling removed to allow installation of insulation and vapour check.

Notes
i. Refer to notes for Illus 3.15.1 for the problem of maintaining ventilation behind lath and plaster.
ii. For existing and new lead roofs, underside lead corrosion (ULC) can reduce significantly the life of lead
sheeting. Ventilation of the roof below the lead supporting deck is essential to control this phenomenon.
Where the existing ceiling must be retained, Illus 3.15.2(a) offers an appropriate solution, however, it requires
the level of the lead roof covering to be raised.
iii. Illus 3.15.2(b) shows a cold roof solution where the existing ceiling is removed to allow installation of
insulation and a vapour control layer. This solution is also appropriate for control of ULC.

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b) Condensation on or within floors

Illus 3.15.3(a) Ventilation of suspended timber floor with ventilation behind lath and plaster.

Notes (refer also to notes associated with Standard 3.4, Moisture from the ground)
i. Solum ventilation must be maintained and, where possible or required, enhanced. Continuity with the
cavity behind the lath and plaster should be achieved by ensuring the floor insulation does not seal off the
ventilation paths to the void behind the lath and plaster.
ii. Where vertical separating construction is inserted through the building, continuity of the solum ventilation
will need to be provided, including the provision of fire sleeves.

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Illus 3.15.3(b) Recommended solution where an existing flagstone floor is retained.

Notes (refer also to notes associated with Standard 3.4 Moisture from the ground)
i. A solid floor of the type illustrated, where the historic form of construction has to be retained, will be prone
to surface condensation where the rest of the envelope has been improved. Timber should be isolated from the
floor surface to reduce contact with surface moisture. Efficient room ventilation is essential to control relative
humidity and vapour pressure.
ii. In this example the insulation of the external wall has been improved. However, adding insulation is only
appropriate in historic buildings when there are no existing wall finishes of historic significance. Lath and
plaster is a historic finish and the presumption should be to retain such finishes whenever possible.

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c) Condensation within walls

Illus 3.15.4 Window head detail providing supplementary ventilation to cavity behind lath and plaster wall finish.

Notes
i. Maintenance of the void behind the lath and plaster will allow for improved evaporation of interstitial
condensation on the inner face of the outer stone wall. Given the restrictions created by Standard 2.4.1, as
mentioned in Section 3.15.4(a) ii above, it may be necessary to provide alternative means of ventilation to this
space.
ii. Providing air movement within the space behind wall finishes to control the moisture content of adjacent
timbers and plaster is not easily achieved where there are separating floors between dwellings. Illustration
3.15.5 shows a possible means of achieving air movement by the insertion of inconspicuous, small-area vents
at skirting and ceiling level. Because of the danger of drawing moisture laden air into the cooler void behind
the plaster, the vents should not be installed in moisture producing spaces, such as kitchens and bathrooms.

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Illus 3.15.5 Ventilation of void behind wall finishes where separating floor wall junctions are sealed for fire resistance and sound insulation.

d) Condensation on single glazed windows

Notes
i. Where single glazed windows are to be retained or reinstated, a condensation drain should be provided where
possible and particularly in areas of high humidity or with a northerly aspect.
ii. Draught stripping of sash and case windows will dramatically reduce ventilation rates and necessitate the
provision of passive or trickle ventilation, which may be difficult to incorporate into a traditional window
frame. Suitable details for providing trickle ventilators in sash and case windows are shown in Illus 3.14.1.
iii. Improving the envelope insulation elsewhere and incorporating vapour control barriers will tend to increase
the risk of surface condensation on single-glazed windows.

e) Thermal bridging
Improving the insulation to parts of the envelope of a traditional building, and sealing up gaps in the construction to
reduce infiltration, will increase the risk of condensation through thermal bridging at locations where insulation is
not provided (and vapour control layers have not been installed). Situations where condensation is allowed to form
(and is not evaporated) in materials in contact with embedded timber are areas of increased risk of material decay.

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Examples of such situations where surface condensation, interstitial condensation and moulds may occur are:
• window and cupboard recesses,
• on and below window sills,
• external door threshold areas,
• lintels (timber safe-lintels are at particular risk),
• uninsulated floor wall junctions,
• junction of insulated roof with poorly-insulated walls.
Steps should be taken to ensure sufficient air movement at these locations to control humidity levels and to prevent
stagnation.

3.15.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.4 Fire spread in cavities (i.e. sealing of cavities)
• Standard 3.10 Precipitation
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 6.2 Building insulation envelope
• Standard 5.1 Noise (ie sealing of cavities)
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems

3.16 Natural lighting

Standard 3.16
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that natural lighting is provided to ensure that
the health of the occupants is not threatened.
Limitation
This standard only applies to a dwelling.

3.16.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

3.16.2 Commentary
This standard applies to dwellings, and only to apartments within the dwellings. Therefore a space that is designated
as a store or box room need not comply with this standard.
It is unlikely that the application of this standard in the conversion of a historic building will present any significant
risk to the fabric or character of the building, as the minimum requirements for natural lighting can be readily
achieved in most buildings. The exception is when new openings for natural lighting are inserted into the existing
fabric.

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3.16.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Natural lighting provision • New window openings to rooms, whether through walls or in the roof, have the potential
to cause a significant loss of historic character if they are poorly designed, badly integrated
into the envelope or use inappropriate materials.

3.16.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The daylight requirement of this standard can be achieved by means other than a window. Alternative means of
providing natural lighting can be by means of:
• rooflight,
• glazed roof,
• glazed door and
• glass bricks.
All the areas of natural lighting can be aggregated to provide the total area required.
The conversion of a historic building is required to meet the requirements of the standard to as close as is reasonably
practicable and in no case worse than before. However, it is often the case that the windows of a historic building
cannot be altered to allow the room to be designated as an apartment. In such cases it may be possible to redesign
the space to reduce its size to ensure compliance, which is not always practicable, or to combine spaces into an
open-plan area to permit an aggregation of daylight provision to meet the required standard. These are likely to be
exceptional cases as an apartment can be as small as circa 6m2, in which case the glazed area need only be 0.4m2.
If an area is to be designated as an apartment, but does not meet the full natural lighting requirement, a solution
may be to introduce a sunpipe to allow transmission of light into the space. Sunpipes are not specifically included
within the standards and the advice of the Verifier should be sought.

3.16.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.11 Facilities in a dwelling
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents

Illus 3.16.1 New window frame fixed into resized opening in this
former mill converted to apartments. Note the rather poorly executed
mortar pointing around the repositioned stone cill.

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Preface to Standards 3.18, 3.19 and 3.20: Combustion appliances

These three standards are concerned with features such as chimneys, flue pipes, the size and design of flues, the
location of flue terminals and the relationship of chimneys, flue pipes and appliances to combustible materials.
Standards 3.18 and 3.20 are standards that must be met in a conversion, while Standard 3.19 is one that must be met
as close to the requirement as is reasonably practicable. Therefore, in attempting to alter these existing features to comply
with the standards, there is a risk that the historic character of the building may be adversely affected.
Original chimneys are important features of historic buildings, and chimneystacks and pots are essential to the
character of the roofscape of both individual buildings and groups of buildings. These features should always be
retained, and reinstated or repaired where necessary using traditional methods, with particular attention to cope
details and profiles. Over the life of a building, original chimney pots are often replaced with pots that are of
modern design and thus conflict with the character of the roof. Broken or unsuitable chimney pots should be
replaced with ones that match the original or are of a local pattern. Also, chimneys become redundant and are
sometimes demolished because of structural problems, or to save on maintenance.
Where possible, the opportunity should be taken to rebuild previously altered or demolished chimneys, using
traditional materials that match the original, if this will restore the appearance and character of the building.
Sometimes chimneys have been rebuilt using brick with a rendered finish. In exposed rooftop situations, render
tends to have a short life and the subsequent condition and appearance of the chimney becomes unacceptable on
a historic building. The opportunity should be taken to rebuild the chimney in its original materials (although,
sometimes, rebuilding in brick may be acceptable). However, before proceeding with this type of work, it is
important to carry out research to ensure that any new build or repair work accurately reflects the original design
and materials. Before rebuilding original chimneys, detailed records – photographs and drawings – should be made
to ensure accurate reconstruction.
The installation of new flues for modern appliances will be a common requirement and must be designed with
sympathy to reflect the character of the building. Modern flues installed either within the building or fixed to
an external wall can cause serious damage to fabric and to historic character. Similarly, poorly sited modern flue
terminals projecting above the roofline can be unsightly and not in sympathy with the historic nature of the
building.

3.18 Combustion appliances – protection from products of combustion

Standard 3.18
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that any component part of each fixed
combustion appliance installation used for the removal of combustion gases will withstand heat generated as
a result of its operation without any structural change that would impair the stability or performance of the
installation.

3.18.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.18.2 Commentary
This mandatory standard is concerned with the ability of chimneys and flues to remove safely the products of
combustion, limit the effects of heat on the structural components and prevent the spread of fire into the building.
Most historic buildings will contain existing chimneys and flues, which may or may not be in current use. However,
it is likely that the structural condition of many of these chimneys and flues will be unknown, and some may have
deteriorated to the extent that they will allow the spread of heat, fire and combustion gases into the building. A
particular point of weakness occurs in a wall containing multiple flues, where the separating wall between flues can
be quite slender (typically only a half brick thick), and where mortar may have been lost from the joints.

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Sometimes old flues were lined with ‘parging’, a lime render applied as the chimney was being built. This was
often crudely applied and, over the years, may have become detached. Where historic chimneys and flues are to be
retained in use it is therefore likely that they will have to be upgraded to meet the requirements of this standard.
However, it is not usually a difficult task to upgrade a chimney, provided it has been well maintained and is in a
sound structural condition.
As part of the conversion of a historic building, it is essential to conduct a detailed investigation of the condition of
all chimneys and flues, not only for their ability to remove the products of combustion but to assess the chimney
for its structural stability and resistance to dampness. Dampness is a major cause of problems in chimneys, whether
in use or redundant. Moisture combines with sulphates deposited inside the flue as part of the combustion process
to form weak acids. The acids thus formed can attack the lime mortar in the parging or in the masonry joints.
Moisture levels can build up rapidly in redundant flues where the fireplace has been built up or the chimney head
sealed. It is therefore essential to ensure that redundant flues are ventilated at top and bottom.
Dampness in chimneys can be caused by:
a) The ingress of rain, which can enter directly down the flue and into the building, through defective flashings
or through the wall itself due to the wall thickness being too thin or the pointing defective.
b) Water ingress at the chimney head, where the mortar holding the chimney pot in place (flaunching) has
decayed, allowing water to enter the chimney.
c) Condensation within the flue, especially in tall chimneys.
Redundant flues can be put to positive use as part of the planned ventilation of a converted building. The flue can
be utilised to act as ‘passive stack ventilation’, which may compensate for a more tightly sealed building elsewhere.
This is thus a good reason to retain redundant flues and to keep them ventilated. A redundant flue can also be
used to accommodate soil and vent pipes, and bathroom and kitchen vents, without disruption to other parts of
the historic fabric.
As well as issues relating to existing chimneys and flues, a conversion will often require the installation of new
combustion appliances that are remote from an existing flue. The construction of new chimneys and flues,
particularly modern metal chimneys, can be destructive to internal spaces and historic character when they are
installed within the building. The location of a flue terminal requires very careful consideration if the character of
the roof is to be retained. Inserting balanced flues for gas appliances through existing walls must also be carefully
considered to avoid damage to both the fabric and character of the wall. There is a special risk where a flue is
formed in a rubble wall, as the moisture balance in the wall around the flue (especially in the case of tempered-earth
mortars) may be affected, leading to excessive shrinkage as the wall dries out. Attaching a chimney to a building
externally can have a significant adverse effect on the architectural and historic character of the building, and should
be avoided if at all possible.

3.18.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Redundant chimneys • Removal of redundant masonry chimneys can affect the architectural appearance and
historic character of the building.
• Sealing up of redundant flues can lead to dampness within the flues and reduce room
ventilation.
2. Dampness • Poorly maintained chimneys can be a significant cause of dampness and structural decay
of masonry.
3. New chimneys and flues • New metal chimneys installed within historic buildings can be destructive to historic
fabric and character.
• Modern metal chimneys fixed externally to the building can have an adverse impact on
the architecture and character of the building.
• Poorly sited flue terminals can affect the character of historic roofs.
• Inserting flue terminals (balanced flues) through historic walls can affect adversely both
the external façade and the wall construction.

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3.18.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Often the only practical way to utilise an existing chimney flue-way in a historic building is to install a flexible
metal liner. This addresses most of the problems outlined in the commentary and is a suitable solution for most
combustion appliances, from open solid-fuel fires to oil-fired boilers. The diameter and material of the liner must
be considered in relation to the type of combustion appliance, and the flue may also have a positive or negative
pressure designation depending on the appliance. Generally, the most suitable material is double-skin stainless steel
with a positive pressure rating and, provided the correct grade of material is used, such liners would be suitable for
multi fuel applications. BSEN 1856-1 and –1856-2: 2004 give the definitive guidance on this, and specialist flue
manufacturers and installers will be able to provide advice based on the requirements of the British Standard.
Installing liners can be problematic. If the masonry flue is in poor condition it may have partially collapsed in places
and there may also be local partial obstructions, which narrow the masonry flue-way and so restrict the diameter
of the liner that can be installed.
Normal practice is to secure the assistance of a flue specialist to survey the flues by dropping mandrels of different
diameters down the flues. If there is an obstruction which effectively blocks the flue or unduly restricts it, then a
decision must be made as to whether it is necessary to remove the obstruction. This can be highly invasive, but if
it is necessary to make the flue usable it may be, on balance, the correct thing to do if the alternative to using the
flue is even more invasive (such as running a new metal flue down the outside of the building).

3.18.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 1.1 Structure
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 2.4 Cavities
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.19 Combustion appliances: relationship to combustion materials
• Standard 3.20 Combustion appliances: removal of products of combustion

3.19 Combustion appliances – relationship to combustible materials

Standard 3.19
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that any component part of each fixed
combustion appliance installation will not cause damage to the building in which it is installed by radiated,
convected or conducted heat or from hot embers expelled from the appliance.

3.19.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

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3.19.2 Commentary
Many conversions of historic buildings will incorporate existing chimneys and hearths for combustion appliances,
especially solid fuel appliances. These appliances generate considerable heat and, while this is a reasonably practicable
standard, great care must be exercised to ensure that combustible materials are protected from temperatures
sufficiently high to generate a risk of combustion. The greatest risk is to existing timber joists, beams, grounds and
dooks (fillets), built in or adjacent to hearths and chimneys. It is not unusual to find existing combustible material
incorporated into a building where the minimum separation from the surface surrounding a flue in a masonry
chimney, or from the top surface of a constructional heart, is less than the distance specified in the standard. The
construction hearth itself, which is likely to be either a concrete or a stone slab, may be less than the required
125mm thickness of non-combustible material.
Where a new hearth for a combustion appliance has to be constructed, this can usually be accommodated without
too much disturbance to existing suspended timber floors. However, achieving a minimum air space of 50mm
between the underside of a hearth and timber brackets supporting the ceiling may be difficult to achieve without
alteration to the ceiling support system. Illustration 3.19.1 identifies some of the potential risks of combustion when
existing hearths and flues are retained in use in a conversion.

Illus 3.19.1 Diagram showing the potential risks associated with timber built into and adjacent to walls containing hearths and flues.

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When existing flues have to be retained, or brought back into use, it is essential to establish the condition of the
masonry walls surrounding the flues. Over time, and with the exposure to heat from the flues, there is a risk that
mortar in the joints has deteriorated and become loose, or even been lost from the joint, allowing an easy access
route for heat to combustible material. To establish the condition of masonry chimneys will normally require
surfaces behind internal finishes to be inspected using a minimally-destructive method, such as endoscopy.
Many historic buildings have walls containing multiple flues. Whether or not some of the flues will be retained or
returned to use it is essential to establish the routes and locations of all the flues, for both structural and fire safety
reasons. Illustration 3.19.2, which is reproduced from TAN 23 (GBG 2001), Non-destructive Investigation of Standing
Structures, gives a clear picture of the often complex arrangement of flues within a wall. A variety of techniques may
be required to identify the routes of multiple flues in a party wall, including free electromagnetic radiation (FEMR).

Illus 3.19.2 Results of an investigation to track flues in a party wall (reproduced from TAN 23).

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The problems associated with the installation of metal chimneys in historic buildings are described in Standard 3.20.
However, where such a chimney has to be installed, it will not normally create additional problems to maintain the
minimum separation distances from combustible materials required by this standard.

3.19.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Relationship of masonry • Built-in timber beams and joists may not comply with minimum separation distances
chimneys to combustible from flues and remedial work can be destructive to historic fabric.
materials • Mortar pointing to existing chimneys that are to be used for a combustion appliance may
be in poor condition – remedial work will require the removal of wall finishes.
2. Relationship of hearths to • Maintaining the required air space below a hearth can require removal of either
combustible materials the hearth or the ceiling below to effect alterations to combustible ceiling support
arrangements.
• Timber beams or joists that penetrate the supporting hearth wall from the opposite
side of the wall may present a risk of combustion. Remedial work can be destructive to
historic fabric.

3.19.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

The principal issue with respect to conversions is where an existing chimney is to be used to accommodate a flue
for a combustion appliance. In such cases, the relationship of hearths and flues to combustible materials – usually
timber beams, joists, dooks and ceiling support brackets – is a significant risk that must be properly assessed.
An investigation to establish relationships between combustible materials and flues and hearths may involve the
following tasks:
• some opening up of construction to establish the position of joist and beam ends (and other timber that may
be built in) – carefully lifting floor boards adjacent to the chimney will usually suffice,
• inspecting the mortar joints in the masonry chimney to check their integrity and resistance to heat,
• inspecting the space below hearths supporting combustion appliances to check distances to combustible
material,
• in the case of a listed building, listed building consent may be required before opening-up of historic fabric
for inspection.

Relationship of combustible material to existing flues and chimneys

Where joists and beams are built into a chimney, and the thickness of the masonry wall is such that the distance
from the end of the joist to the inside of the flue lining is less than 200mm, the end of the joist should be cut back
to provide the appropriate gap. As a traditional stone-built chimney will generally have relatively slim construction
surrounding the flue, it is likely that additional support, in the form of a metal bearer built into the wall, will be
required to allow for a 200mm separation, as
shown in Illus 3.19.3. There is a significant
risk of combustion where the ends of
beams and joists are built into slender
masonry chimneys, as the gap between
the end of the joist and the flue may be
incompletely sealed. The temptation to
avoid investigation and possible subsequent
alteration to joist or beam support should
be resisted.

Illus 3.19.3 Alterations to built-in floor joists to

provide a minimum gap between the joist and flue
where an existing masonry chimney is used for a
combustion appliance.

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Relationship of combustible material to hearths

The space below a hearth should be investigated to determine the risk there to any combustible material. The most
likely risk will be to timber supports to a lath and plaster ceiling. It is unlikely that the gap below the hearth can be
increased, as this would mean either increasing the depth of the floor (or installing a suspended ceiling) or raising
the height of the hearth. Either option will affect the historic character of the construction, thus it may be necessary
to open up the space and replace the affected timber with metal support brackets where appropriate.

3.19.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.3 Structural protection
• Standard 3.18 Combustion appliances: protection from products of combustion
• Standard 3.20 Combustion appliances: removal of products of combustion

3.20 Combustion appliances – removal of products of combustion

Standard 3.20
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the products of combustion are carried
safely to the external air without harm to the health of any person through leakage, spillage, or exhaust nor
permit the re-entry of dangerous gases from the combustion process of fuels into the building.

3.20.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

3.20.2 Commentary
The technical requirements for the construction and termination of flues from combustion appliances are very
prescriptive in this mandatory standard and are well detailed within the guide to the standards, and also in the
publications referred to within the guide. There can, however, be particular difficulties in complying with the
requirements in historic building conversions. The notes below are intended to provide guidance on the range of
options that are open to designers.
Two main categories of circumstance often arise:
1. Conversion to create a number of small units with independent heating systems and so a number of smaller
boilers (eg a building converted into flats).
2. Conversion to provide a single user building with a central heating installation, usually incorporating a
relatively large central boiler plant.
The options for flues are most flexible with natural gas or LPG fired boilers. Oil fired boilers have less flexibility,
and the heavier the grade of oil used and the larger the boiler the less flexible the options become. Finally, solid
fuel boilers have the most onerous restrictions on flue terminations and the least flexibility in terms of how the
flues can be arranged.
The main issue with the creation of a number of small unit heating systems is finding a satisfactory way of
terminating the flues from the individual boilers. It is most common now for domestic boilers to be wall mounted
with fan assisted, balanced flues designed to be terminated at a wall. For conversions to create a number of separate

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units, each with its own heating installation, the penetration of external walls to accommodate flues and flue
terminals will usually be damaging to the character of historic walls.
The positioning of an outlet from a flue is strictly controlled, which may create difficulties in the following
circumstances:
a) Existing chimneys: Most traditional chimneys will comply with the minimum height requirements above the
roofline, but where the height has to be increased the character of the roof may be compromised. This is more
likely to be a problem with flammable traditional roof coverings, such as thatch and shingles.
b) New chimneys: Unless very carefully located, the flue outlets can be very obtrusive and adversely affect the
character of a historic roof.
New metal chimneys are required to be routed within the building to reduce the possibility of condensation in the
chimney. Routing a chimney within a historic building can be difficult to achieve without considerable disruption
to fabric and spaces. Alternatively, a metal chimney may be fixed externally if it is insulated and constructed of a
material suitable for such use. However, such flues will inevitably be of quite large diameter and may be difficult
to position on an external wall in a way that does not detract from the architectural and historic character of the
building.

3.20.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Installation of new flues • Both horizontal and vertical flues can be difficult to accommodate internally without
disruption to historic spaces and fabric.
• External chimneys and flues can be damaging to the character of historic buildings if
poorly located.
2. Location of flue terminals • Flue terminals to new chimneys are usually carried above roof level and can be
visually intrusive within a historic roofscape.
• Increasing the height of historic chimneys to meet the requirements of the standard
may affect the architectural character of the building.
• Multiple flue terminals (balanced flues), for example in a conversion to separate
apartments, may be damaging to both the fabric and aesthetics of a historic wall.

3.20.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Natural gas or LPG fired boilers have the most flexible flue options. Many of these boilers now have the ability to
run the flues for several metres horizontally, and so the boiler itself need not actually be located on an external wall.
The location of the terminal must take into consideration the aesthetic impact on the building and the intervention
with the fabric involved in forming the hole for the flue, as well as the normal technical requirements set out in
the guide to the standards.
An alternative to the wall-mounted flue is a vertical flue arrangement. This can be individual flues for each boiler
or, under certain circumstances, a combined flue arrangement for a number of boilers. Individual flues can be fan
assisted, balanced flues working on a similar principle to the horizontal versions described above, but the range of
boilers capable of utilising this system are more limited. They can also be conventional flues connected to open-
flued boilers, but these are becoming less common in domestic sized boilers.
Combined flues can be designed for either conventional flues or fan-assisted balanced flue boilers. Proprietary
systems now exist for this, and tend to handle up to ten or so boilers in each stack. Such systems have been in use on
the Continent for a number of years but are new to the UK. Partly because they are new, these installations require
special designs and, to be acceptable to verifiers, it is likely that detailed calculations would have to be submitted
to demonstrate that the installations were satisfactory. Utilising these systems requires the boilers to be stacked, and
this is often not possible in the irregular floor plans often required in historic building conversions. There are also
several fire separation issues associated with vertical flues that pass through separating floors. The flues require to
be housed within a fire-protected duct.
When dealing with a larger central boiler plant for a whole building, the options for boiler flues tend to be:
a) Utilising an existing chimney by lining the flue and installing a conventional or fan-assisted conventionally

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flued boiler. This is often a good solution in terms of minimising the visual impact on the building, but it does
rely on finding and successfully lining an existing flue, which can be problematic if the flues are structurally
unsound.
b) Installing a fan-assisted flue terminal at the top of the flue, which is a variation on (a) above. Within limits, this
can help overcome problems of the flue diameter being too small to permit a normal, conventionally flued
boiler to operate correctly. The modern terminal fans can be quite neat, but they are usually clearly visible on
the chimneystack and so the aesthetic impact of this would have to be assessed.
c) Installing a commercially sized, fan-assisted balanced flue boiler. These are now available in much larger
capacities than even five or six years ago, but require a suitable flue termination point on an outside wall
within a few metres of the boiler location. They are also exclusively natural gas or LPG fired due to the
restrictions on the height for terminals associated with large oil fired appliances. They are very useful where
installing a vertical flue is not possible or would be highly disruptive.
d) Utilising a flue dilution system is also possible for natural gas or LPG fired appliances only. In this system,
the flues from conventionally flued boilers (natural draught or fan assisted) are connected into a duct and the
combustion products are mixed with a large amount of fresh air, which is drawn through the duct by a fan
to dilute the concentration of the combustion products to a level which can be discharged at a relatively low
height. These installations require an intake and a louvered exhaust opening in a wall of the building. Silencers
can be installed at the inlet and exhaust to reduce the noise from the fan, but, typically, these systems tend
to create more noise than any of the other flue arrangements. Care must therefore be taken over planning
restrictions and the like.

3.20.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.2 Separation
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.19 Combustion appliances: relationship to combustion materials
• Standard 3.20 Combustion appliances: removal of products of combustion

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4.1 Access to buildings

Standard 4.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that all occupants and visitors are provided with
safe, convenient and unassisted means of access to the building.
Limitation:
There is no requirement to provide access for wheelchair users to:
a) a house, where there are no apartments on the entrance storey;
b) a house, where it is not reasonably practicable to construct a level or ramped access route between the
point of access to, or from any car parking within, the curtilage of a building and an entrance to the
house; or
c) a domestic building not served by a lift, where there are no dwellings entered from a common area on
the entrance storey.

4.1.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

4.1.2 Commentary
The implementation of this standard has the potential to make an adverse impact on the character of a historic
building if changes to access are made without regard to the cultural significance of the building and its environment.
In addition to the Building Standards, other legislation, which makes no allowance for the nature of historic
buildings, should be taken into consideration. In particular, for conversions that will be used to provide a service,
account should be taken of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995; the recommendations in the supporting Code
of Practice, Rights of Access, Goods, Facilities, Services and Premises is particularly relevant to non-domestic buildings.
This Guide, however, is intended to provide advice only on those elements specifically covered by the Technical
Standards. The full range of provision required under the DDA can have far-reaching effects on historic buildings,
and those with a duty within the DDA should be aware that their responsibility to cater for the needs of people
with disability extends beyond matters addressed here.
Standard 4.1 is concerned with issues related to car parking, the approach to buildings, length of access routes, width
of approach to houses and to buildings containing flats and maisonettes, and principal entrances, all of which have
the potential to affect the historic environment. The provision of parking for houses is a matter for the planning
authority.

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From May 2007, draft amended standard 4.1 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that all occupants and visitors are provided with
safe, convenient and unassisted means of access to the building.
Limitation
There is no requirement to provide access for wheelchair users to:
a) a house, between the point of access to, or from any car parking within, the curtilage of a building and an
entrance to the house, where it is not reasonably practicable to do so; or
b) a common entrance of a domestic building, not served by a lift, where there are no dwellings entered from
a common area on the entrance storey.

This standard will extend the requirements for access to more dwellings, but the guidance offered is still fully
applicable.

4.1.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Car parking • Parking within the curtilage of a historic building may be restricted by the nature
of the historic environment, which may be damaged if parking recommendations are
implemented fully.
• Provision of parking (and associated construction works) may disturb hidden archaeology.
• Historic surfaces may be unsuitable for car park purposes, or for travel over the surface
by disabled people – replacement of such surfaces with modern materials may be
unacceptable.
2. Approach to buildings • The provision of a level or ramped access to the principal entrance can mean loss of
historic features at the entrance, such as steps, railings and paving.
• Existing surfaces to the access route may be of historic importance and their replacement
with modern ‘access-friendly’ surfaces could result in loss of historic character.
• Replacement of historic surfaces may disturb hidden archaeology.
3. Length of access route • Reducing the length of an access route for disabled people by extending the road or car
park may adversely affect the historic environment and any hidden archaeology.
4. Width of approach to • Creating an unobstructed width for an access route of 1.2m (or 1000mm for 1 or 2
buildings dwellings) may not be practically possible without unacceptable alteration to historic
surfaces or other features.
5. Principal entrances, • Altering the principal entrance of a building to comply with this standard is likely to
accessible entrances to houses have a significantly adverse effect on historic features and character.

4.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Historic buildings and their immediate environment do not lend themselves easily to alteration that will satisfy the
functional requirements of this standard. However, the flexibility offered by the standard does mean that action may
be taken in most situations to ameliorate the access difficulties of disabled people without damage to the historic
environment or building. Every historic building is unique and, therefore, each building and its access must be
subjected to an access audit, drawn up in conjunction with the conservation plan for the building, to ensure that
the needs of both disabled persons and building are catered for as far as possible. As with other standards of this type,
a ‘do nothing’ approach will not be acceptable. Additional guidance on accessing historic properties is contained
in Young and Urquhart 1996 Technical Advice Note 7, Access to the built heritage and Jester et al, Preservation Brief
32: Making historic properties accessible and CADW Welsh Historic Monuments 2002, Overcoming the Barriers: providing
physical access to historic buildings.

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(a) Parking
The provision of parking within the curtilage of a historic building, with a proportion of spaces designated for use
by disabled people, may or may not be possible. However, where space is available for parking, due regard must be
paid to the design of the facility to reduce the possibility of accidental damage to the historic environment from
careless parking of vehicles. The use of upstand kerbs and bollards that are sympathetic to the building may be
required to prevent contact with historic fabric.

(b) Approach to buildings

In the approach to buildings, the nature of the surface of the access route should allow unassisted access for
everyone. Surfaces are of considerable importance to people with mobility impairments, as are routes between
car parks, or setting down points, and the principal entrance. The approach should be graded as appropriate with
a stable, firm and slip resistant surface. Existing paths should be modified to provide a suitable surface wherever
possible, without adversely affecting the historic character or destroying historic materials and features. The most
easily negotiated, slip resistant surfaces are:
• tarmacadam,
• asphalt,
• concrete paving blocks or slabs,
• bricks,
• natural stone slabs with a droved or rough finish.
For many conversions, the use of these modern surface materials may be acceptable. However, selection of the
surface should recognise the importance of the particular historic setting and the use of the above materials may
have to be reconsidered, in favour of a surface more appropriate to the setting. Some traditional surface finishes
found within the curtilage of a historic building may be unsuitable for disabled access. It is usually possible to
replace part of such surfaces, when they form an access route, with a more appropriate firm surface that will allow
ease in manoeuvring. Existing surfaces can often be made accessible by providing a new base and resetting the
paving materials, or otherwise modifying the surface.

Illus 4.1.1 Natural stone paving forming access for disabled people to Duff House (Photo: D Urquhart).

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Examples of traditional historic surfaces that may present barriers to wheelchair access include:
• loose gravel,
• rubble paving,
• horonising,
• setts (with or without recessed joints) unless they are modern smooth-finished setts with flush joints,
• cobbles.
Obstructions to access should be carefully assessed. Kerbs, steps and steep gradients (exceeding 1 in 12) are
obvious hazards for people with ambulatory difficulties. The needs of people with visual impairments must also be
considered, where features such as chain link fences and bollards, which can cause problems for this group, should
be removed from the access route.
The introduction of drop kerbs can usually be accommodated without difficulty. However, many historic buildings
have steps forming part of the approach to the principal entrance. Such features are often an essential part of the
character of the building and their removal or alteration may be unacceptable. However, it may be possible with
sympathetic design to retain the original historic feature while introducing an alternative ramped approach.

Illus 4.1.2 Design recommendations for ramped approach to a main entrance (from TAN 7 Fig 5).

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Illus 4.1.3 Sympathetically designed access ramp and steps to 1801 Category A listed converted bank building (Photo: D Urquhart).

(c) Platform lifts and ramps

Many Georgian and Victorian properties, with direct access from street level, have a flight of steps spanning over
an open basement well. Such an approach to a building will present a particularly difficult challenge to achieve a
solution that provides access to wheelchair users and retains the historic character of the entrance. In such a case,
the use of a platform lift constructed within the basement well may be an acceptable solution (Illus 4.1.4). Platform
lifts tend to be visually intrusive but can be readily removed when necessary. Platform lifts can be used when it is
not possible to construct an access ramp. For very sensitive situations, a more expensive solution is to provide a lift
with retracting railing that lowers into the ground, minimising the visual impact. A significant drawback with an
external platform lift is their exposure to the elements and the need for frequent maintenance.
Ramps are typically employed at principal entrances. In addition to the normal access design features (such as
gradient, surface materials, kerbs and handrails), the location of the ramp, its materials and its detailing are critical
for its compatibility with a historic building. For compatibility, the ramp should be arranged adjacent and parallel
to the main façade where possible. The exposed sides should be constructed of the same material as the façade and
have similar materials, colours, textures, proportions and scale to the main wall of the building.

(d) Length and width of access route

The 45m maximum travel distance from a road or parking space may not be achievable in some situations. Where
this is the case it may be possible to construct a dropping-off point that is closer to the principal entrance. Where
this cannot practically be achieved, and the length of access route exceeds 45m, either the width of access route
should be increased or a passing area for wheelchairs or pushchairs be provided (which can also act as a rest area
for people with disabilities).

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Illus 4.1.4 Access to platform lift installed at Bute House,

Edinburgh. Note the reuse of iron railings to form the access gate to
the lift. (Photo: NTS).

(e) Principal entrances

The principal entrance to a historic building is the feature that is likely to present the greatest difficulty to designers
in achieving accessibility while conserving the cultural integrity of the entrance. The main difficulties that may
have to be addressed are:
1. A raised threshold, either in the form of a step or deep threshold plate. Where the entrance steps are not
historically significant, a step at the threshold may be overcome by the provision of a platt, laid to a slight
gradient to provide a smooth entrance to the building (Illus 4.1.5(a)). Where the steps are of historic masonry,
and there is no alternative to providing a smooth level entrance, the steps should be retained wherever
possible and buried under the new accessible entrance (Illus 4.1.5(b)).Where a door threshold exceeds the
recommended height, it can be altered or removed and replaced with one that meets the standard and is
compatible with the historic entrance. However, if the threshold is historically significant it can be made
accessible by adding a bevel to each side to eliminate the raised step.

Illus 4.1.5(a) Typical arrangement at a principal entrance to prevent a trip hazard.

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Illus 4.1.5(b) New ramped entrance that preserves the existing historic entrance steps.

2. The recommended door leaf width to provide a clear opening width of at least 800mm may not be achievable
without major alterations to the historic door opening. In such a case, it may be possible to gain a few
millimetres of width by reducing the depth of doorstops. As a general rule, historic doors should not be
replaced and door openings and frames should not be altered.
3. Many historic doors contain a glazed panel that will meet the requirements of the standard. However, in
the case of other panelled doors, each situation must be individually assessed and, where the character of the
door is not compromised, it may be possible to insert a glazed panel or panels into the door. In other cases
where the historic character of the door will be affected, the door should be fitted with an automatic opening
mechanism, which can make single or double-leaf doors fully operational by disabled people.
4. In a situation where it is not practically possible to alter an existing entrance, there may be a case for forming
a new entrance in an appropriate location, which does not affect the historic character. Alternatively, a window
opening may be modified to form an accessible entrance. Such solutions should, however, be considered only
as a last resort and after all other possibilities have been exhausted.

4.1.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 3.6 Surface water drainage
• Standard 4.3 Stairs and ramps
• Standard 4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents

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4.2 Access within buildings

Standard 4.2
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that:
(a) in non-domestic buildings, safe, unassisted and convenient means of access is provided throughout the
building;
(b) in domestic buildings, safe and convenient means of access is provided to each dwelling and throughout the
common areas;
(c) in residential buildings, a proportion of the rooms intended to be used as bedrooms must be accessible to
wheelchair users;
(d) in dwellings, safe means of access is provided for occupants throughout the dwelling; and
(e) in dwellings, safe and unassisted means of access is provided for visitors throughout at least one storey and
to sanitary facilities.

Limitation
There is no requirement to provide access suitable for wheelchair users:
(a) in a non-domestic building not served by a lift, to a room, intended to be used as a bedroom, that is not
on an entrance storey; or
(b) in a domestic building not served by a lift, to common areas, other than on an entrance storey.

4.2.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

4.2.2 Commentary
The application of this standard to the conversion of historic buildings has the potential to cause significant
disruption to the historic character and fabric of a building.While this standard is one that is classified as a ‘reasonably
practicable’ standard, there is a danger that, in trying to satisfy the requirements of the standard and other related
legislation, such as the provisions and supporting Code of Practice of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995,
access provision takes precedence over preservation of historic character. Historic buildings and landscapes were not
designed to be readily accessible to disabled people and thus introduce complex contradictions when attempting to
adapt such buildings to modern accessibility needs while preserving their historic character.
However, with careful analysis of the building and sympathetic design it should be possible, in most conversions, to
make the building (or parts of the building) accessible to people with disabilities. It is obvious that most difficulties
will be caused by the need to make the building accessible to wheelchair users, such as in the provision of:
a) Corridors of sufficient unobstructed width (the standard is 1.2m for common access to dwellings within
buildings and for non-domestic buildings).
b) Internal doors of sufficient clear opening width (750mm minimum width) may be impracticable. Even
when this minimum width is available, there is the potential for damage to historic fabric as wheelchairs are
manoeuvred through narrow openings.
c) Unassisted access at changes in level. Many historic buildings have been extended over the years with floors
between various parts having differences in level. Accommodating wheelchair access between changes in level
may be difficult or even impossible.

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d) Access for wheelchair users in public areas such as in self-service restaurants.

e) Access to storeys above and below the main entrance level, usually through the provision of a lift. The
accommodation of a passenger lift within many historic building conversions may be problematic, possibly
causing serious disruption to character and fabric.
Experience suggests that most buildings can be successfully and effectively altered as part of the conversion process,
but this does require a good knowledge and understanding of both historic building conservation and the needs
of people with disability. For the successful implementation of this standard it is recommended that an access audit
is undertaken, which considers both the features of the building and the wide range of disabilities likely to be
encountered.
Every effort should be made to preserve the features that make the building historically important. These features
include:
• materials,
• form and style of the property,
• principal elevations,
• major architectural features and
• significant spaces both inside and outside the building.

From May 2007, draft amended standard 4.2 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that:

a) in non-domestic buildings, safe, unassisted and convenient means of access is provided throughout the building;
b) in residential buildings, a proportion of the rooms intended to be used as bedrooms must be accessible to a
wheelchair user;
c) in domestic buildings, safe and convenient means of access is provided within common areas and to each
dwelling;
d) in dwellings, safe and convenient means of access is provided throughout the dwelling; and
e) in dwellings, unassisted means of access is provided to, and throughout, at least one level.

Limitation
There is no requirement to provide access for wheelchair users:
a) in a non-domestic building not served by a lift, to a room, intended to be used as a bedroom, that is not on an
entrance storey; or
b) in a domestic building not served by a lift, within common areas and to each dwelling, other than on an
entrance storey.

This standard will extend the requirements for access within dwellings, though it makes more allowance in
dwellings for changes in level within a storey. Otherwise, the guidance offered is still applicable.

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4.2.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Access between storeys • The unsympathetic installation of lifts and accessible stairs can be destructive to
historic fabric and visually intrusive within important spaces.
• Accommodation of lift cars and lift motors etc. may require structural strengthening of
the building, with associated damage to historic fabric.
2. Common access to dwellings • While a building of up to four storeys may be constructed without a lift, stairs in
within buildings containing flats common access areas should be accessible to ambulant disabled people (designed to
and maisonettes standard 4.3 – refer to guidance in Part II, 4.3 of this book). Alteration of existing stairs
to comply with this standard may result in unacceptable damage to historic fabric and
spaces.
• Where lifts are installed – see note 1 above.
3. Internal doors • The standard states that the minimum clear opening widths of doors are required to
be between 750mm and 800mm, depending on the situation. Increasing the opening
width of a historic door may require extensive alterations to the supporting structure,
doorframe and door leaf.
• In non-domestic buildings, the provision of a 300mm unobstructed space on the side
next to the leading edge of an internal door accessible to disabled people may not be
possible without major alterations to spaces.
• The requirement for a door across a corridor or passageway to have a clear glazed
vision panel may have a deleterious effect on the historic character of the door.
4. Accessible storeys and lobbies • In domestic buildings, the provision of an accessible storey to allow access to all
apartments may result in the loss or damage of historic features. In particular, the
provision of level or ramped access throughout the storey needs to be treated carefully.
Minimum corridor and internal door widths may not be achievable without significant
damage to historic finishes.

4.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

In addressing this standard, and also Standard 4.1, the first step must be to conduct an access audit of the existing
building, to identify barriers to accessibility and the potential impact on historic fabric and character of any
improvements to access that may be required. It is outside the scope of this guide to identify all the features of an
access audit, as this will cover issues that are unlikely to impinge directly on the requirements of the standard. For
further information, reference should be made to the Code of Practice of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995
and to the Code of Practice BS 8300: 2001, Design of buildings and their approaches to meet the needs of disabled people.
For larger and more complex buildings an access audit should be conducted by a person experienced in this work.
Persons with disabilities can be particularly helpful in assessing specific barriers.
The extent to which a historic interior can be modified depends on the cultural significance of the building and
features such as its materials, doors, finishes (panelling, decorative plaster work and the like), and the importance
of spaces and their arrangement. The principal rooms and spaces (such as entrance halls) are likely to be difficult
to alter without affecting their character. Less significant rooms and spaces may generally be changed without
adversely influencing the building’s historic character.

Providing access to and between storeys

It is the installation of accessible stairs, ramps and passenger lifts that creates the greatest challenge to designers.
Stairs in common areas should be designed to be accessible by ambulant disabled people. Stairs often present
insurmountable barriers to many people with disabilities and it may be difficult to modify the physical characteristics
of existing historic stairs. However, some relatively simple improvements can be made that will improve their
accessibility, such as:
• adding a handrail if none exists – ends of rails should return to the wall to avoid catching on clothing or bags,
• filling-in open risers,
• fitting colour contrasting, non-slip strips for people with visual impairments.

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To accommodate differences in level within a storey, a moveable ramp is sometimes employed. This is unlikely
to be an acceptable long-term solution for historic buildings and a ‘permanent’ ramped access will be required.
However, the design of the ramp should respect the principle of reversibility and avoid the destruction of important
historic features. Historically important steps should be retained where possible and hidden within the design of
the ramp.
As an alternative to a ramp, a wheelchair platform stairlift or a powered lifting platform may be appropriate for some
situations where a stair cannot be altered. Provided space is available, such installations can often be accommodated
without disruption to historic features. Inclined stairlifts, which carry a wheelchair on a platform up a flight of stairs,
tend to be visually intrusive. They are, however, a reversible installation.
The recommended clear opening width for internal doors, which may be between 750mm and 800mm depending
on the situation, may not be achievable without major alterations to the historic door opening. In such a case, it
may be possible to gain a few millimetres of width by reducing the depth of doorstops. As a general rule, historic
doors should not be replaced and door openings and frames should not be altered.
Many historic doors contain a glazed panel that will meet the requirements of the standard. However, in the case
of other panelled doors accessible to disabled people in non-domestic buildings, each situation must be individually
assessed and, where the character of the door is not compromised, it may be possible to insert a glazed panel or
panels into the door. Where it is not possible to provide an unobstructed space of at least 300mm next to the
leading edge of the door, the door should be fitted with an automatic opening mechanism, which can make single
or double-leaf doors fully operational by disabled people.
There will be many conversions of both domestic and non-domestic buildings where access to storeys will require
the installation of a passenger lift. The viability of the conversion will frequently depend on such a provision. The
positioning of the lift is one of the key decisions that will have to be addressed at the earliest stage in the design
process if an accessible building is to be achieved with the minimum disturbance of historic fabric. Clearly there can
be no standard solution to this problem and each situation must be assessed on its individual circumstances. Ideally
a lift installation should be located within a secondary space, such as a store or office, and not in a primary space.
The most recently developed lifts use lightweight, flexible, polyurethane-covered steel belts to replace conventional
steel ropes. These weigh up to 20% less than conventional ropes and are more flexible. This means that the system
eliminates the need for a separate, costly machine room because the mechanism can fit on top of the shaft and may
offer significant advantages where weight and space saving are necessary in a historic building conversion. All the
bearing loads can be transferred to the pit, thus reducing loads at roof level and reducing structural costs. Where it
is not possible to install a lift within the existing envelope without serious disruption to historic spaces and fabric, it
may be appropriate to accommodate a passenger lift within a sympathetically designed extension to the building.
Some buildings may have existing historic passenger lifts that do not comply with the standard required because
of their size (too small for a wheelchair), operational features or detailing. These lifts are part of the history of the
building and should be retained whenever possible, provided their use does not compromise safety. It is usually
possible to upgrade them to improve their accessibility; for example, control panels can be made more accessible
and modern signalling systems installed.

4.2.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings
• Standard 4.3 Stairs and ramps
• Standard 4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents

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4.3 Stairs and ramps

Standard 4.3
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that every level can be reached safely by stairs
or ramps.

4.3.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

4.3.2 Commentary
This regulation covers the provision of stairs and ramps to give safe access between different levels within and
adjacent to a building. It covers the geometry of stairs and ramps, giving maximum and minimum dimensions
for flights, treads, risers, landings, pitch line, handrails and headroom. In the conversion of a historic building, it is
possible to satisfy the requirements of Standard 2.9 ‘Escape’ by building a completely new stair or ramp within a
new enclosure (for instance as an extension to the existing historic fabric), this new stair or ramp will be expected
to fulfil all the requirements of the standard. Where it is necessary to insert the new stair or ramp into the fabric of
the historic building, it will have to fulfil as many of the numerous requirements of this regulation as is ‘reasonably
practical’.
Where an existing stair or ramp is being retained in the conversion it should be improved as much as possible to
satisfy as many of the numerous requirements of this regulation as practicable, taking into account the limitations
imposed by its historic shape and geometry. However, it is likely that many important historic stairs, which it is
necessary to retain in any conversion, will not meet all the requirements of this regulation. It is important, therefore,
to assess carefully all the various features of a historic stair to ensure that, in introducing alterations, the important
character of the stair is retained.

4.3.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Width of stair flights • The space available for a new stair or the width of a retained existing stair may not comply
with the widths prescribed in this regulation.
2. Rise, going, tread & • The space available for a new stair and the existing retained floor levels may mean that the
pitch of stairs rise, going, tread or pitch dimension cannot be made to match those given in this regulation.
Similarly, where an existing stair is retained in a conversion, its rise, going, tread or pitch are
quite likely to vary from the criteria recommended in this regulation.
3. Number of rises in a • It is common to find open risers in industrial and in some humble commercial and
flight residential historic buildings. These are not recommended in the regulations but it is often
damaging to the historic fabric and aesthetically unacceptable to close them in.
• The requirement to have contrasting nosings to assist those with visual impairment can be
damaging to the historic fabric and be aesthetically unacceptable in most important historic
buildings.
4. Stair Landings • The requirement to provide a landing at the top and bottom of every flight should not cause
difficulty in most conversions of historic buildings, as most original and historic stairs were so
provided.
• Providing a landing to comply with the requirements of Standard 4.3.7 may, however, be
impossible given the existing dimensions of the stair or space available within the historic
fabric for a new stair.

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5. Width of stair landings • The requirement to provide a landing equal to the width of the stair should not cause
difficulty in most conversions of historic buildings, as the landings to most original and historic
stairs do match the width of the stair.
6. Lengths of stair • In some cases, it may not be possible to achieve a landing length of 1200mm due to the
landings geometry of the existing stair or the space available within the historic fabric for a new stair.
7. Tapered Treads • Many historic buildings are served by existing taper-tread stairs, many of which will be built
of stone or brick and will not comply with the geometric requirements of this regulation.
8. Pedestrian Ramps • Many historic buildings incorporate ramps to connect one part on one level with another
part at another level. Often these will be ‘short and steep’ and will not comply with this
regulation.
• Existing ramps within historic buildings may be less than the recommended effective width
of 1m and it is likely that it will be impossible to increase this width without severe damage to
the historic fabric.
9. Ramp landings • The requirement to have a landing at the top and bottom of every ramp flight should not
cause difficulty in most conversions of historic buildings as most original and historic ramps
were so provided.
10. Width of ramp flights • The requirement to provide a landing at least the width of the flight should not cause
difficulty in most conversions of historic buildings, as the existing landings are likely to be of
this width.
11. Length of ramp • The requirement to provide landings of a minimum length of 1.2m or 1.0m, where serving
landings only 1 or 2 dwellings, may be impossible given the existing dimensions of the ramp or space
available within the historic fabric for a new stair.
12. Handrails to stairs & • Where a new stair is being constructed either in an extension to the historic building or
ramps within a new stairwell within the historic building, it is likely that a handrail or handrails can
be provided to satisfy the requirements of this regulation.
• Where, however, an existing stair is to be incorporated into the conversion it is quite possible
that the height and geometry of the existing handrails will not match the requirements of this
regulation.
13. Headroom on stairs • Fitting a new stair into a historic building can be geometrically extremely challenging to
and ramps the designer, especially where it is needed to serve many different floor levels and when the
distance between floors is not regular. Where the stair serves a top attic floor within existing
roof pitches it is possible that the requirements of this regulation will be breached over part of
the width of the stair.

4.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

As stated above, new stairs or ramps constructed in new-build extensions to historic buildings should comply with
all the requirements of this regulation.
Where an existing stair is being retained within a historic building conversion each individual regulation must be
studied and, where possible, the existing stair should be improved to come as close to the regulation as reasonably
practicable. The following points should be noted:
a) It is usually impossible to change the major geometry of the stair or ramp and things like the width, rise,
going, tread, pitch, number of rises in a flight, and the location, width and length of landings will all have to
remain as existing.
b) It may be possible to re-hang doors so they do not swing out across the stair, ramp or landings.
c) It may be possible to form lobbies to contain doors so that they do not swing out across the stair, ramp or
landings, as illustrated in the diagrams in Standard 4.3.1.
d) For less historically important stairs, where some change is aesthetically and historically acceptable, subtle
changes to the pitch and rise can be made by adding material to each tread, but this needs great care not to
compromise any adjacent stringer, balustrade or panelling design.
e) For less historically important stairs, open risers can be closed by the simple addition of a new riser board or

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boxed in by plating the underside of the whole flight.

f) The requirement to have contrasting nosings can be effected by:
- paint,
- tape (not recommended as it has a very short wear-life and looks very untidy when worn),
- a proprietary metal nosing, or
- for particularly sensitive locations a carpet with a woven-in strip can be used.
g) It is rarely possible to increase the width or length of a landing but it is sometimes possible to remove
obstructions that encroach onto the arc of the ‘effective width of landing’
h) Stairs incorporating tapered treads are usually narrow and may not comply with the requirements for width
or minimum tread width at the narrow end. Where a taper tread stair is actually wider than required under
Standard 4.3.2, and where acceptable historically and aesthetically, a handrail can be added at the narrow end
to stop people using the innermost part of the tread and thus complying with the requirement for a minimum
tread width at the narrow end.
i) It may be preferable to substitute single steps for short steep ramps or in other situations to substitute sharp
shallow ramps for very low steps which are deemed a trip-hazard.
j) It may be possible to raise the height of existing balusters or handrails to comply with attractive and
sympathetic additions.
Where a new stair is being inserted into a historic building it should comply as closely as possible with the
requirements of this regulation. Some leeway may be acceptable for one or more of the following aspects provided
some others comply:
• width,
• rise,
• going,
• tread,
• pitch,
• number of rises,
• location, width and length of landings and
• heights and positions of handrails.

4.3.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings
• Standard 4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents

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4.4 Pedestrian protective barriers

Standard 4.4
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that every sudden change of level that is
accessible in, or around, the building is guarded by the provision of pedestrian protective barriers.
Limitation
This standard does not apply where the provision of pedestrian protective barriers would obstruct the use of
areas so guarded.

4.4.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

4.4.2 Commentary
This regulation covers the provision of walls or balustrades (‘barriers’) at the edges of sudden changes of level
between adjacent floor levels, specifying when they are required, their height and the resistance to penetration by
children.
Many historic buildings incorporate partially guarded changes of level, which are the very essence of the building,
its history and importance. Also, many historic buildings are actually groups of separate buildings of the past brought
together over decades or centuries to form the ‘building’ we know today. In many cases, the separate buildings were
on different levels and joining them together has resulted in sudden changes in level at the interface. In domestic
and commercial buildings balustrades of some sort or other guarded most of such sudden changes of levels because
the owners wanted safe buildings for their family or staff.

4.4.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Partially unguarded changes of • The improvement of the existing balustrade or barrier to comply fully with this
level in existing buildings. standard may be unacceptable spatially, historically or aesthetically.
• Many historic buildings incorporate partially guarded changes of level which are
the very essence of the building, its history and importance. Many historic buildings
are actually groups of separate buildings of the past brought together over decades or
centuries to form the ‘building’ we know today. In many cases the separate buildings
were on different levels and joining them together has resulted in sudden changes in
level at the interface.
2. Unguarded changes of level in • Historic industrial buildings often incorporate sudden totally unguarded changes of
existing buildings level due to the industrial process they were designed for, or the requirement for the
easy movement of goods. These tend to be less sensitive historic environments and
suitable barriers can usually be incorporated to comply with this standard.
3. Introduction of ramps to • The introduction of ramps within a historic building often means that there is a
provide accessible routes about change in level between the edge of the ramp and the surrounding floor or ground
the building to satisfy Standard and, where this exceeds 600mm, a balustrade or barrier is required. Visually this may
4.1 be unacceptably intrusive within an important historic building.

4.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Whether an existing balustrade or barrier can be improved to comply fully with this standard will depend on the
status and importance of the historic building and its sensitivity to change.

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a) Existing balustrades can be made safer, particularly for young children, by inserting additional balusters
between existing widely spaced balusters. Usually it is better to insert strong, thin, plain and simple, obviously
modern bars rather than to try to replicate the historic fabric. When painted a dark colour the new bars can
almost merge inconspicuously with the other components of the balustrade. Safety may also be improved by
inserting thin tensioned wires into the balustrade, although the balustrades may require alteration.
b) Existing non-compliant balustrades can be made safe by the application of steel or non-ferrous mesh to one
side but this has to be carefully chosen to accurately fit the opening or to fit between framing members.
c) Existing balustrades can be raised in height by the addition of secondary raised handrails of a similar design to
the original or of an overtly modern design that does not pretend to be part of the original.
d) New balustrades at the edges of very slight changes in level and where the 100mm sphere rule does not apply
can be both functional and decorative and contribute to the space.
e) Balustrades with horizontal members are tempting and easy for young children to climb. Such balustrades in
historic buildings, used as schools, can be made safer by the addition of fine grid metal mesh or glass sheeting
(laminated or toughened) applied to the stair side.
f) At the edges of ramps for wheelchair users, and where it is spatially, historically or aesthetically unacceptable
to provide a full height barrier or balustrade to comply with this standard, it may be reasonable to provide a
sufficiently high upstand to the edge of the raised area that will stop a wheelchair running off the edge.
g) The need for full height barriers or balustrades to the edges of new external ramps can often be avoided by
adjusting the surrounding groundscape to reduce the difference in height to less than 600mm. The edges of
such ramps should still be provided with a raised kerb sufficient to prevent a wheelchair running off that edge.

4.4.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 2.9 Escape
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings
• Standard 4.3 Stairs and ramps
• Standard 4.8 Danger from accidents

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4.8 Danger from accidents

Standard 4.8
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that:
(a) people in and around the building are protected from injury that could result from fixed glazing,
projections or moving elements on the building;
(b) fixed glazing in the building is not vulnerable to breakage where there is the possibility of impact by
people in, and around, the building;
(c) both faces of a window and rooflight in a building are capable of being cleaned such that there will not
be a threat to the cleaner from a fall resulting in severe injury;
(d) a safe and secure means of access is provided to a roof; and
(e) manual controls for windows and rooflights can be operated safely.

Limitation
Standards 4.8(d) & 4.8(e) do not apply to domestic buildings

4.8.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

4.8.2 Commentary
The guidance is intended to prevent the creation of dangerous obstructions, to allow safe cleaning of windows and
to provide safe access to roofs. It is therefore specifically intended for the design of new buildings. The conversion
of historic buildings, where existing features may present an inherent risk of accidents, will set challenges to the
designer that will not occur in new build. While the requirement is to make improvements to as close as reasonably
practicable to the standard, a safe environment must be achieved without adversely affecting the historic character
of the building. Glazed features on roofs, typically cupolas and rooflights, may require special measures such as access
ladders, walkways and protective barriers to be incorporated to provide safe access for cleaning and maintenance.
These features can be disruptive to the historic roof and, where permanent access is not required, alternative access
options may be considered, for example the use of a hydraulic platform.

From May 2007, a draft amended standard 4.8 is being considered:

An amendment to require manual controls for all ventilation, not just windows and rooflights, is being
considered. It may also apply to domestic as well as non-domestic buildings. The guidance offered remains
applicable.

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4.8.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Collision with projections • Many historic buildings have important projecting features where their alteration or
removal would damage the historic character of the building. Examples include:
- low door lintels,
- a balcony projecting over a path,
- a stone oriel window where the base of the projecting stonework intrudes into the
circulation space.
• The standard states that a door that swings both ways across a route of passage should
be glazed or have a vision panel. The alteration of a historic door in this way may be
unacceptable.
2. Collision with glazing • Glazing in doors or in glass screens should be designed to resist impact. However,
the replacement of historic glass (such as crown or plate glass) with modern impact
resistant glass will result in a loss of authenticity.
3. Cleaning of windows and • A window or rooflight that is more than 4m above the adjacent ground or internal
rooflights floor level, and which is to be cleaned from inside the building, may require anchor
points for safety harness. Fixing of anchor bolts may cause damage to sensitive surfaces.
• Fitting external window access systems to walls and roofs may be unacceptable.
4. Guarding of windows for • For windows on the second floor and above, where cleaning is from the inside,
cleaning require permanent guarding to be fixed 1.1m above floor level. This will be invasive
within a historic space and may be unacceptable on an external façade.

4.8.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

1. Collision with projections

Obstructions may be indicated by way of warning signs or markings, additional lighting and mirrors.
The technical standard refers to a door that swings both ways across a route of passage and the requirement is that
the door should be glazed or have a vision panel. Difficulties may arise in converting an existing building. The
existing door may be of particular significance and altering it may be unacceptable in relation to the appearance of
the existing building. A ‘peep’ hole may be less damaging than a vision panel to comply with clauses 4.1.5 (non-
domestic building) or 4.1.8 (domestic building – common entrance to flats or maisonettes).

2. Collision with glazing

Where collision with historic glazing is a risk and the glass has to be retained, it may be possible to reduce the risk
of collision by applying:
• a clear polycarbonate screen in front of the glass, which can be removed at a later date if appropriate – the
disadvantage is its flammability;
• a removable wire guard;
• a clear safety film to the glass to prevent shattering in the event of a collision;
• hazard warnings attached to the glass.

3. Cleaning of windows and rooflights

The method of cleaning traditional sash and case windows, using simplex fittings is illustrated in Historic Scotland’s
Guide for Practitioners 3 Conservation of Timber Sash and Case Windows (2002). Diagrams show how a sash and case
window may be safely cleaned from the inside, following guidelines in BS 8213. The guide also illustrates a system
that allows an upper sash to open inwards for cleaning.
Compliance with the Technical Standards may be difficult and alternative methods of cleaning may have to be
considered in conversion. Risk assessments and method statements may be required to demonstrate that cleaning
operations can be carried out safely for cleaning windows that are difficult to access.
Anchor points for safety harnesses and lanyards may be used. The anchor points must be professionally installed, and

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routinely examined and tested. Careful consideration should be given to the mounting positions of anchor points.
Anchor eye bolts should not be fixed to the external façades of listed buildings. Internal mounting is preferable to
external mounting on a window inband rybat. Within historic interiors, bolting the eyebolt into a floor joist is less
obtrusive and less damaging to interior finishes than, for example, forming a recess in lath and plaster so that the
eyebolt can be secured to the inside face of the stone wall. One specialist supplier and installer of safety systems
includes a demountable door jam kit for installation between door stiles, which allows window access. This is used
in conjunction with a harness, front and rear anchorage D-rings, a lifeline and rope grab.
Every effort should be made to clean windows safely from indoors and, if this is not possible, the use of extension
pole systems and of mobile elevating work platforms should be explored. If, due to the design of the existing
windows or their positions on roofs, these alternatives to cleaning from indoors are not possible, leaving certain
windows uncleaned may be the only option.

4. Guarding of windows for cleaning

In BS 8213: 1991 it is noted that windows in historic buildings may be exempt from some of the recommendations
contained within the BS. Guarding of windows as required by the Building Standards will, where this standard
applies, entail the introduction of some form of guard to the window. This can be very damaging to the historic
character of existing windows and may be an unacceptable addition to a window opening.
No system of guarding is available that will not disturb the original appearance of the window. However, the use of
externally-fixed grilles or guard rails may be appropriate in cases where, after careful assessment of the impact on
the historic character of the window and its opening, it is considered appropriate to provide a window guard (see
Illus 3.16.1). This option tends to be less intrusive than options such as laminated glass, acrylic or polycarbonate
sheets, which tend to be reflective. The guards should be set into the window opening and not flush-mounted
on the outer surface of the wall. They can also be colour matched to the window or walling, as appropriate; for
example, a dark colour tends to get ‘lost’ against the black appearance of window glass. Guard grilles (screens) and
rails should be so designed that the structure of the window behind can be clearly ‘read’, that is, they unobtrusively
merge into the overall façade of the building. Where a mesh guard is used, the pattern of the mesh should be square
rather than diagonal.
It is sometimes appropriate for a window guard to be located internally, although this can make cleaning of an
inward opening window difficult. Should an internal guard be considered, a laminated glass guard is unobtrusive
and may be appropriate in some circumstances.

5. Building maintenance
Health and safety is a complex issue and the Health and Safety Executive has published guidance which is available
on their website. Under the CDM Regulations, designers have to ensure that the design of the conversion does not
cause unnecessary danger to those who will build, maintain and repair the building. Employers of tradesmen and
craftsmen, who will be carrying out the conversion and maintenance of the building in the future, face increasingly
tough guidelines and the opportunity should be taken during a building conversion contract to improve safe access
to all parts of the building to enable the building to be properly altered and maintained in the future.
A range of specialist equipment is available including roof anchors, horizontal lifeline systems, and fixed vertical
ladders with safety systems and edge protection. Whenever these are suggested for installation on listed buildings
designers should seek specialist advice to ensure that the system proposed is appropriate to the location. A system
suitable for one particular situation may be impractical elsewhere. The impact of fixings into the historic fabric
should be considered in visual terms and in relation to the damage that may be done to the fabric itself. Any access
and safety system that is installed will need to be fully tested and regularly inspected to comply with all current
legislation.
While not a requirement of the Building Standards, safe access in order to clean and paint cast iron gutters and
downpipes where, for example, a person could fall a distance of 2m or more may involve the use of fall arrest
equipment and, possibly, high-level specialists. A wide range of fall arrest blocks for rope and wire rope, both manual
and automatic, are available, as well as a variety of harnesses, lanyards, karabiners, shock absorbers, connectors and
snap hooks. Specialist advice is required to specify descenders and ascenders for rope work. All equipment must
comply with European Standards and carry the CE mark.
Ladders and their method of use should comply with HSE guidelines. Ladders may only be used for short duration
tasks. The operative must have sufficient protection equipment and maintain three points of contact on the ladder.

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Ladder-safe equipment is available to stop outward slip, reduce bounce, ensure the correct ladder angle and improve
stability. At General Register House on Princes Street in Edinburgh, a specialist safety system (a continuous
horizontal lifeline system with wire passing through carriers, with carriers mounted against lead inserts with welted
joints to the existing lead to allow movement) was installed as a retro-fit round the main dome to allow safe access
to clean the perimeter lead gutter (Illus 4.8.1). Ladder ties to the building secure a removable ladder, which hangs
on an adjacent wall. Access to the gutter is by means of a removable ladder, which when not in use hangs on an
adjacent wall. Ladder ties to the building secure the ladder while it is being used to provide access to the gutter.

Illus 4.8.1 Continuous horizontal lifeline fixed to lead-work at General Register House, Edinburgh (Photo: J Cunliffe).

4.8.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 4.1 Access to buildings
• Standard 4.2 Access within buildings

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 5. NOISE

5.1 Resistance to sound transmission

Standard 5.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that each wall and floor separating one dwelling
from another, or one dwelling from another part of the building, or one dwelling from a building other than a
dwelling, will limit the transmission of noise to the dwelling to a level that will not threaten the health of the
occupants of the dwelling or inconvenience them in the course of normal domestic activities provided the
source noise is not in excess of that from normal domestic activities.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
• fully detached houses; or
• roofs or walkways with access solely for maintenance, or solely for the use, of the residents of the
dwelling below.

5.1.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

5.1.2 Commentary
The issue of sound insulation in the conversion of a building to dwellings, or in the conversion of a single
dwelling into separate apartments, presents significant challenges to the designer. The recommendations set out in
the Napier University Report (2005), Improving the sound insulation in dwellings, provide a good basis for meeting
the requirements of this essential standard. The most common type of development for a historic building is its
conversion into smaller residential units, which makes this standard particularly important.
Designers should recognise that as historic buildings are not of a standard design or construction, each building will
display unique characteristics as far as sound transmission is concerned. The presence of hidden voids within the
construction, back-to-back fireplaces and cupboards, gaps between construction elements in floors and walls and
similar unpredictable features mean that to use standard sound-insulating construction, selected from manufacturers’
product specification information sheets, may prove to be unsatisfactory when the conversion has been completed.
The costs of post-construction remedial treatment will be significant, both in terms of direct labour and material
costs and in the loss of time, which adds to development costs. It is therefore strongly recommended that a pre-
conversion or deterministic sound test be carried out prior to the start of conversion work, ideally during the
site survey process. The acoustic performance of the existing construction can then be established and problems
defined, which will allow the design of tailored acoustic solutions and costs to be determined at an early stage in
the project.
Planning of the accommodation can go some way to reducing noise nuisance, for example:
a) Locate rooms of similar use above and below each other (living rooms and kitchens located above bedrooms
are a major source of complaint).
b) Arrange, if possible, for each apartment to occupy the full height of the building to avoid the need for sound
insulation in separating floors: separating walls are required to resist airborne sound only. The treatment of a

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separating floor to resist airborne and impact sound transmission can be particularly destructive to historic
fabric.
Lightweight timber floors will tend to be the most commonly encountered floor type in the conversion of a
historic building into individual flats or apartments. The guidance offered here will, therefore, place emphasis
on how best to deal with this floor type, as these floors provide little sound insulation and will usually require
substantial intervention to achieve a satisfactory performance.
Conversions of buildings with concrete and fireproof brick-arched floors are typically encountered where former
warehouses, office buildings, hospitals etc. offer opportunities for conversion to flats. The mass of concrete floors
generally provides good airborne sound insulation. The Napier Report advises that ‘where the floor slab has a mass per
unit area greater than 300kg/m2 and a minimum thickness of 150mm, it is likely that airborne sound insulation will achieve
the requirements of...the Building Regulations.’ However, impact sound insulation will require to be upgraded.
In the case of separating walls, existing masonry walls normally found in historic buildings, which are likely to
be of either stone or brick construction, will normally meet sound insulation standards if they are over 215mm
in thickness. Pre-1919, heavy, thick stone rubble walls perform well in sound tests. Walls below this thickness, for
example half-brick thick with 30mm lath and plaster finish, will not achieve the required standard. A number of
factors influence the sound insulation of party walls:
• joists spanning into separating walls (particularly thin spine party walls),
• flues, fireplaces, recessed cupboards and other recesses in separating walls provide concentrated weak spots for
sound transmission,
• damage to lath and plaster finishes, or their replacement with plasterboard, reduces the acoustic performance
of the wall,
• penetration of services,
• poor workmanship, such as partially filled mortar joints.

5.1.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Flanking transmission • The major risk to historic buildings from flanking sound transmission is the need to
provide sound insulation at external wall-separating floor junctions. The fire stopping at
such junctions is also a factor. Sealing these junctions reduces or prevents air movement
within cavities and behind dry linings and may lead to stagnant air conditions promoting
raised moisture contents in adjacent timber. Prevention of conditions conducive to dry rot
must be a priority.
2. Separating floors • Potential loss of floor finishes when a floating floor is used to combat impact sound,
• Alterations to historic doors (door heights and proportions) and wall finishes due to raised
floor levels,
• Potential loss of ceiling finishes and decorative features when an acoustic ceiling is
installed,
• Reduction in floor to ceiling heights may affect historic character,
• Increased floor loading may mean structural intervention to strengthen floor,
• Reduced air movement in voids (see above).
4. Separating walls • The risks are mainly associated with lightweight or slender party walls where the
application of sound insulation will mean loss of existing finishes and changes in room
dimensions.
• The application of acoustic wall lining to lightweight common access stairs where a large
house, for example, is converted to flats can mean the loss of decorative cornicing to both
sides of the wall.
• Blocking up of doorways that are no longer necessary. False openings, however, can be
constructed within the acoustic wall to house the original door and its architraves.
5. Ventilation of voids See 1. above.

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5.1.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

In many situations where a building is being converted into a number of separate apartments, alterations to the
floor to improve the sound insulation will almost certainly be required if the standard is to be met. Where the
historic importance and character of the construction is such that the loss of features is unacceptable, this form of
development may not be a viable option for the building.
Upgrading an existing separating floor, which may or may not already have some form of sound insulation, for
example ash pugging, will not be a common requirement in a conversion involving a change of use and is not
addressed here. This guide concentrates only on separating floors in buildings being converted to flats or apartments
and separating walls.
The Building Standards identify three means of meeting the standard, refer to Part I, Section 6.2.2 of this guide
for further information:
a) Specified constructions (walls and floors),
b) Performance testing and
c) Robust Details Scheme
The use of specified constructions is not usually directly applicable to conversions (especially of historic buildings)
and is essentially designed for new build, but may be adopted for some separating-floor situations. The Robust
Details Scheme does not cover conversions or alterations. To satisfy the standard it will normally be the case, that
due to the unique nature of historic buildings, performance testing will be required. This should include pre-
conversion testing of the existing construction, so that sound insulating construction is designed that will cause least
disruption to historic finishes, and post-conversion testing of the completed conversion.
The details illustrated below are for guidance only and may have to be amended to suit particular site conditions.

Separating floors

Timber separating floor

Illus 5.1.1 A historic timber

floor that is to become a
separating floor.

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Illus 5.1.2(a) Sound insulation of existing timber floor using resilient battens where the floor level can be raised. Note: the use of an
intumescent strip and vent slot at wall floor junction, as shown here, will only be acceptable with a very narrow gap and the construction
passes a sound insulation test.

Notes associated with Illus 5.1.2(a).

a) The floor level has been raised and will present problems at internal doors, which will have to be reduced in
height.
b) The entrance door to the apartment will require a shallow ramp to be constructed inside the entrance to
accommodate a possible difference in floor level between the common access and the apartment.
c) The use of heavy-weight granular material between the joists will be possible only where the timber floor
structure can carry the additional loads.

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d) Sealing the junction between wall and floor will reduce flanking sound transmission and act as a fire stop.
However, there is the potential to create stagnant air voids behind the plasterwork and skirting-level where
ventilation may have to be introduced to maintain a low level of air movement. The use of a proprietary
ventilating membrane, as shown here, is a source of weakness in the sound insulating properties
of the floor. This construction will be acceptable only if it passes appropriate sound tests.

Illus 5.1.2(b) Alternative floor–wall junction to that shown in Illus 5.1.2(a). Note the air- tight seal at floor perimeter and the use of vent
slots at ceiling and skirting level to permit ventilation of void behind lath and plaster.

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Illus 5.1.3 Alternative floor finish using a resilient layer to minimise the increase in floor level and retain the existing ceiling.

Notes associated with Illus 5.1.3.

a) The use of a resilient layer on top of the existing flooring may, when combined with other sound insulating
measures, provide a minimum level of impact sound insulation and will be the preferred option for most timber
floor situations.
b) The resilient overlay should not be screwed or nailed to the flooring.
c) A resilient flanking strip must be installed at the perimeter of the overlay at the junction with skirting or wall.

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Illus 5.1.4 Sound insulation of existing timber floor with reduced ceiling height.

Notes associated with Illus 5.1.4.

a) This system is used where an alteration to the floor level cannot be accommodated.
b) The dense mineral wool insulating slab may be used where additional imposed loads must be kept to a
minimum.
c) The existing ceiling is retained (where it is in sound condition).
d) The shallow lining ceiling system will reduce the floor to ceiling height by approximately 70-75mm.
e) Existing plaster work to walls is reinstated and any feature cornices that have to be removed are replaced with
a matching replica cornice, run in situ.
f) Alternative ceiling treatments are suspended from an independent frame. The independent frame provides the
most substantial level of improvement.

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Illus 5.1.5 Lowered acoustic ceiling to cover but retain historic finishes.

Where an existing ceiling contains important features that have to be retained (Illus 5.1.5), such as ornate cornices,
but where the installation of a sound insulating ceiling would result in their loss, an acoustic ceiling system using
acoustic hangers may be adopted as a reversible measure if all other options are first explored. This is a form of
suspended ceiling in which the existing ceiling, together with its important features, is retained in place but covered
by a new ceiling suspended below the cornice level using an acoustic hanger support system fixed to the joists
through the plaster lath. While the original ceiling is lost from view, it remains in place and may be exposed at a
later date should the use of the building change. However, such an approach may be only possible where there is
sufficient height between the head of a window opening and the cornice to accommodate the new ceiling. Where
it is possible to raise the level of the floor, the preferred solution, which retains in view the important ceiling
features, is shown in Illus 5.1.3.

Concrete separating floors

Concrete separating floors are often encountered in the conversion of historic buildings: typical examples being the
conversion of industrial, warehouse and office buildings into flatted dwellings. With respect to noise transmission,
the conversion of such buildings may be less disruptive to historic fabric than the conversion of other types of
historic buildings, due to the normally high floor-to-ceiling heights, the utilitarian nature of floor and ceiling
finishes and the inherent structural strength and stability of the floor.
Floors will generally have adequate airborne sound insulation but improvements will be required to the impact
sound insulation. A number of options are available to improve impact performance:
a) Where there is a restricted floor-to-ceiling height, a resilient floor overlay, as described in Illus 5.1.3, can be
laid on the concrete floor surface. However, any gaps within the concrete floor construction must be sealed
up, to reduce airborne transmission, before the overlay is placed.
b) Where the floor-to-ceiling height is not an issue, a floating floor, consisting of chipboard set on resilient
battens as shown in Illus 5.1.6, may be constructed on top of the concrete slab. This is the preferred method
and has the added advantages that the floor can be levelled and services can be accommodated within the
floor void. Impact resistance is also better than for the resilient overlay system.
c) If the concrete slab does not provide the required level of airborne sound insulation, the installation of an
acoustic ceiling system will be necessary, such as the shallow lining ceiling system shown in Illus 5.1.4.

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Separating walls
Masonry separating walls over one brick (215mm) in
thickness will generally provide sound insulation that
will meet the requirements of the Building Standards,
provided that there are no open joints in the masonry
and the plasterwork is sound.
Masonry walls that are less than 215mm in thickness,
for example a half-brick wall plastered ‘on the hard’
or with lath and plaster, will not meet the required
standard of sound insulation. Any remedial treatment
to improve sound insulation will necessitate the use of
a mineral fibre backed board, resilient wall lining or the
construction of a free-standing partition on one side of
the wall (as shown in illus 5.1.7), which will encroach
into the room and result in loss of original finishes and
features.

Illus 5.1.6 Floating floor on existing concrete slab.

Illus 5.1.7 Typical methods of upgrading half-brick separating walls.

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Illus 5.1.8 Blocking up an existing door opening in a wall that is changed to a party wall (from Napier University Report 2005).

Illus 5.1.8 is an example of a door opening in what is now a party wall. The door is to be retained as a feature,
complete with all the original features, and the in-fill to the door opening on the other side is matched to the
existing finish. In this example the airborne test performance was 54 dB DnT,w.

5.1.5 Related standards

Other standards that may be influenced by this standard, or which may have an influence on this standard are:
• 1.1 Structure
• 2.2 Fire separation
• 2.3 Structural protection
• 2.4 Concealed spaces
• 3.14 Ventilation (air movement in voids)
• 3.15 Condensation
• 4.2 Access within buildings (thresholds)

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 6. ENERGY

6.1 Policy

Standard 6.1
Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that provision is made for energy conservation
in accordance with the Building Standards Circular on Energy, 2004.

6.1.1 Type of standard

Mandatory standard
In the case of conversions, the building as converted must meet the requirement of this standard.

6.1.2 Commentary
This standard sets out the thinking underlying all the standards within the Energy section of the Building Standards,
where the aim is to achieve a total saving in terms of carbon emissions. The application of the standards is designed
to achieve a 25% improvement on the energy performance of buildings as required by 5th Amendment to the 1990
Building Standards Regulations. Standard 6.1 therefore requires that ‘new buildings, conversions, extensions to buildings
and alterations should be designed and constructed so that the energy performance is 25% more efficient than would have been
the case if the construction or conversion had been under the standards in force on 3 March 2002.’
This standard, as worded, does not seem to provide the opportunity to allow a reduction in the standard when
addressing the conversion of a traditional building. There are therefore potentially serious implications for the
building if the prescribed levels of envelope insulation have to be implemented. However, the idea that this is a
standard that must be met has been included to set a level of performance and to make all the other standards in
the Energy section (Section 6) apply. It is considered that the wording of this standard is in essence couched in
terms of a national objective.
The intention of the Scottish Building Standards Agency, with respect to the conversion of historic buildings, is
that Schedule 6 will allow the energy standards to be applied to conversions in a flexible way. In other words, in
the case of conversions, a common sense approach to this standard, while requiring improvements to be made to as
close as reasonably practicable, will recognise the need for protection of historic character. Annexes 6H (Alterations
and Extensions) and 6N (Conversions) of the Building Standards make specific reference to historic buildings
and stress that each case will have to be dealt with on its own merits. This approach may reduce the impact of
the 25% improvement in energy performance requirement over the standards in force on 3 March 2002 for some
conversions, but should be compensated by others. However, it is important to recognise that, although standards
6.2 to 6.6 can be viewed with a degree of flexibility, in the application of all standards a ‘do nothing’ approach
should not be considered as the starting point. It is only in very exceptional cases that the use of innovative and
practical solutions on energy efficiency will not be able to be incorporated to provide an overall improvement in
performance. Therefore, the opportunity exists within Section 6 to address the conversion of a traditional building
in a holistic way, which will result in an alternative package of energy measures that will provide improvements in
energy efficiency.
For further advice on methods of achieving energy savings in the conversion of historic buildings, reference should
be made to the following sections contained within Part II, Section 6, Energy. The under noted points summarise
some of the key considerations:
a) A detailed assessment of the energy performance of the existing building, prior to conversion, is

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recommended so that a holistic energy plan for the conversion of the building is established. This plan should
be read in conjunction with the conservation plan before the detailed design is completed, to ensure that the
historic character of the building is retained.
b) All new buildings or conversions of existing buildings for which warrant applications are submitted after May
2007 will require energy certificates. This is a requirement of Article 7 of the Energy Performance in Buildings
Directive 2002/91/EC, in which buildings are required to have energy ratings produced using national
calculation methodologies. For dwellings, a reduced version of the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) will
be used. This requirement for an energy performance certificate will also apply to the conversion of historic
buildings where the total useful floor area is over 1000m2.
c) The insulation of the building envelope will, in most cases, fall short of the requirements set out in the
Standards (Annex 6N2) and emphasis will have to be placed on improvements to energy efficiency and
carbon emission reductions in other areas. It is appropriate to recognise that for many conversions – such as
for residential and commercial buildings – modern standards will be expected by users. For some other types
of buildings, or parts of a building, a less demanding standard of comfort (and therefore energy use) may be
acceptable; for example parts of a building used for display or storage.
d) Energy efficiency measures are likely to include;
• improvements to envelope insulation where this can be achieved without loss of historic fabric,
• zoning of buildings for heating to reflect use and orientation of spaces (taking account of the effect of solar
gain),
• high-efficiency central heating boilers with a minimum SEDBUK rating of band A for domestic buildings,
• controls on boilers, emitters and hot water systems to manage effectively temperature and operational timing,
• reduced pipe runs to hot water installations whenever possible and consider the use of local water heaters
– usually most appropriate for buildings with low/intermittent occupancy,
• efficient insulation of pipes and hot-water vessels,
• installation of energy-efficient ventilation,
• avoiding the installation of air-conditioning systems whenever possible (to save energy use and to avoid
damage to historic fabric),
• use of dedicated energy-efficient lighting (fittings may, however, be incompatible with the historic character of
the building),
• Use of renewable energy sources where appropriate (refer to the Energy Saving Trust for further information).
The constraints imposed by a traditional building on energy saving measures will affect the choice of options
available – options that would be normal in a new-build situation.

From May 2007:

The whole of Section 6 is being rewritten. Standard 6.1 will no longer apply to conversions, but the other
standards in this guidance will apply, as will two additional standards. For details see comments after each
standard in this section. The general comments made in this guidance remain applicable

6.1.3 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation

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• Standard 6.2 Envelope insulation

• Standard 6.3 Heating systems
• Standard 6.4 Insulation of pipes and ducts
• Standard 6.5 Artificial and display lighting
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning.

6.2 Building envelope insulation

Standard 6.2
In order to comply with Standard 6.1 every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the
insulation envelope resists thermal transfer.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
(a) buildings, other than dwellings, which will not be heated nor cooled, other than heating provided for the
purpose of frost protection; or
(b) buildings which are ancillary to a dwelling which will not be heated, other than heating provided for the
purpose of frost protection.

6.2.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

6.2.2 Commentary
Refer to Commentary in Section 6.1.2, which provides an overview of the approach to this standard.
While Standard 6.2 is concerned with new building work and consequently the design of the insulating envelope
of new buildings, it nevertheless offers considerable flexibility in how the standard will be met. The wording of
the standard, and the associated Annexes 6H (Alterations and Extensions) and 6N (Conversions), will mean that,
in nearly all situations involving the conversion of historic buildings, it will be possible to allow a reduction in
the thermal transmittance of the envelope in exchange for a heating system with improved energy efficiency. The
approaches specified in the standards for domestic and non-domestic buildings, Elemental Method, Target U-value
Method (domestic), Heat Loss Method (non-domestic) and the Carbon Index Method are applicable only to new
buildings and are not appropriate for use in the conversion of historic buildings. In most cases, upgrading of fabric
insulation will be done on an elemental basis, only upgrading where it can either be hidden or accommodated in
keeping with the historic nature of the building and where there is very little or no technical risk associated with
the work.
When considering the envelope insulation it is possible to consider the potential reduction in carbon dioxide
emissions and energy efficiency benefits that can be achieved by
• high efficiency central heating boilers with a minimum SEDBUK efficiency as defined in Table 2 of the
standard,
• including solar heat gains,
• community heating schemes,

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• photo-voltaic systems† (will need to be carefully located in consideration to their impact on historic buildings),
• wind-power generated electrical heating (Note: wind power is unlikely to be used for electric heating unless
the turbine is substantial and, if used, will need to be carefully located in consideration to their impact on
historic buildings),
• energy efficient artificial lighting and air conditioning systems,
• solar water heating,
• heat pumps etc.
It is thus important to think about the building in a holistic way and adopt an integrated approach that considers the
interaction of insulation, heating (including solar gains) and ventilation in providing satisfactory internal conditions
and improving energy efficiency. Improvements to envelope insulation should not consider each element in
isolation, as improvements to one element may lead to surface temperature differentials with an adjoining element
and result in cold bridging and related condensation problems.The application of internal insulation to walls should
be considered only when little or nothing of historic importance survives.
In the majority of buildings, the least problematic means of improving the envelope insulation is by applying
insulation at roof level. For pitched roofs with ventilated roof spaces (cold roof), it will not be practicable to install
a vapour check on the warm side of the insulation (unless it is to an inclined roof surface in an attic room), which
makes efficient roof-space ventilation essential if moisture levels in the roof are to be controlled. However, for flat
and low-pitched roofs improving insulation may be more difficult.
Most historic flat and low-pitched roofs are covered with lead, but copper and zinc coverings are also encountered.
Providing that these historic metal coverings and the supporting decks are in sound condition they should be
retained, which will reduce the options available for improving the roof insulation. Frequently, however, repairs
and replacements to such roofs have involved the use of felts and bitumastic materials, which are not compatible
with the metal roof coverings or the historic character of the roof. In this case, the opportunity is available to both
improve the thermal performance of the roof and reinstate the roof covering with a more sympathetic material.
Historic flat roofs have a variety of designs and many are contained behind an upstand parapet or blocking course
that may influence the design and construction of applied insulation, especially roof ventilation. Most historic flat
roofs may be described as ‘cold roofs’, having a small roof space that may or may not be ventilated (apart from
fortuitous air leakage).
Upgrading the insulation of a flat roof using a cold roof design, where the insulation is placed at ceiling level, is not
normally the best option. Stirling (BRE 2002) makes the following points:
• ‘The cold deck roof is a poor option in the temperate, humid climate of the UK, where sufficient ventilation may
not be achieved in sheltered locations or in windless conditions, even when the roof is correctly designed.’
• ‘It is usually not possible to upgrade the thermal insulation value of an existing cold deck roof. The preferred option
is to convert it to a warm deck flat roof.’
To be effective, a cold roof must have efficient cross-ventilation, which usually means open eaves-type vents at
each end of the roof span.Ventilation of this form is therefore extremely difficult to achieve if the roof is contained
within parapets or abutment walls.The fact that historic lead roofs of this type have survived for centuries with little
(usually fortuitous) ventilation does not mean that insulation may be installed with impunity. Adding insulation and
increasing roof ventilation can upset the previous balanced environment within the roof space, increase the moisture
content of roof timbers and induce corrosion of the lead.
Stirling (2002) recommends either a warm deck or an inverted warm deck flat roof construction.Ventilation is not
required as the insulation is bedded on a continuous vapour control layer.This type of construction works well with
modern felt and asphalt roof membranes, but where a sheet metal roof covering is used ‘thermal pumping’ effects
can occur where moisture is drawn into the sandwich resulting in decay of timber and underside lead corrosion
(ULC).The problem of ULC is described in the English Heritage and Lead Sheet Association advisory note (1997).
The thermal upgrading of a metal-covered flat roof needs great care and the Lead Sheet Association recommends
the use of a ventilated warm roof, with the creation of a new insulated and ventilated roof deck structure that is
completely isolated from the underlying structure. However, there will be situations where the raised roof level
will not be acceptable, either because it will obstruct another roof feature or where detail and appearance are
important.
†
For further guidance on micro-renewable systems refer to Scottish Executive PAN 45 Planning for micro-renewables.

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From May 2007, draft amended standard 6.2 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that an insulation envelope is provided which
reduces heat-loss.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to buildings and to ancillary buildings, other than conservatories, which will not be
heated other than by heating provided solely for the purpose of frost protection.

The guidance offered remains applicable.

6.2.3 Issues to be considered

When considering the application of the energy standards to historic buildings, the potential impact of increased
insulation, reduced ventilation rates and more tightly sealed buildings, resulting in possible timber decay, should
be considered. These effects may create a potential conflict with other aspects of the regulations, for example,
Regulation 8 Durability and Section 3 Environment.

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Improving Externally applied insulation.
insulation to walls • As the external appearance is one of the most important features of a traditional building, the
application of externally applied insulation systems will change the character of the building and
will not be acceptable in most situations.
• Moisture transpiration to external air will be reduced and may cause raised moisture levels in
embedded timbers.

Internally applied insulation.

• Loss of historic finishes such as plaster, paint, panelling and mouldings.
• Dimensional changes to room sizes may affect historic character.
• Applied insulation at window and door openings may affect features such as shutters, window
and doorframe dimensions.
• Reduced thickness of insulation (or no applied insulation) at openings and junctions can
produce thermal bridges.
• Incorporation of vapour checks and reduction (or elimination) of air movement behind the
insulation can trap moisture within the construction.
• Sealed construction as a result of applied insulation and draught stripping of doors and windows
can reduce levels of ventilation leading to higher vapour pressures in rooms and an increased risk
of interstitial condensation.
• Very few historic buildings will have cavity walls, and while envelope insulation will be
improved by the insertion of cavity fill insulation, this may increase the risk to construction of
this type through moisture transfer from the outside and interstitial condensation from the inside,
leading to wall-tie corrosion.

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2. Improving Pitched roof: ventilated roof space.

insulation to roofs • Improved insulation at ceiling level results in a colder roof space and increased risk of
condensation.
• Insulation may reduce air infiltration at eaves.
• In low-pitched roofs additional ventilation has the potential to further reduce roof space
temperature without reducing sufficiently the humidity level of the roof space to control
condensation.
• Installation of roof ventilators can affect the appearance and character of the roof.

Pitched roof: sarking level insulation.

Used where rooms are provided within the roof space.
• For a traditional building with a slate or tile roof, the installation of insulation within the depth
of the rafters will be destructive to existing internal finishes.
• The provision of additional roof vents at wallhead level to ventilate the space above the
insulation may be difficult to achieve without adversely affecting the historic character of the
wallhead detail.
• Modern roof vents for slated roofs will be aesthetically damaging when installed in a historic
roof structure.
• Where the roof is penetrated by dormer windows or rooflights, maintaining airflow over
insulation may be difficult.
• Modern roof insulation details may be acceptable only when applied to the conversion of
utilitarian buildings and attic spaces.
• Sprayed insulating foams can lead to decay of timber and prevent reclamation of slates and tiles
– not recommended for historic buildings.

Flat roof: cold roof.

• Underside lead corrosion.
• Introduction of ventilation may be damaging to appearance.
• Installation of insulation will normally require removal of ceilings.

Flat roof: warm roof

• Removal of the original (historic) metal covering.
• Raised roof level can affect appearance and detail.
3. Improving Solid floors.
insulation to floors • Traditional floors such as flagstone, brick etc cannot be insulated without lifting, excavating to a
new level and relaying the original finishes on rigid insulation and DPM. This should generally be
avoided unless required to remedy an existing defect.
• Installation of a damp proof membrane can drive moisture up porous walls at the perimeter of
the floor.
• The only practicable method of insulating an existing concrete floor is to add insulation to the
top of the concrete and a new floor deck: the raised floor height means adjustments to doors
and wall finishes. Unequal step heights at stairs and raised thresholds at doors are likely to be
unacceptable.

Suspended floors.
In most situations, the installation of underfloor insulation will be possible and is a key method of
improving envelope insulation.
• Possible damage to existing flooring if insulation cannot be applied from below. Some types of
historic boards cannot be lifted and re-laid without damage.
• Ventilation pathways may be sealed off, particularly at the perimeter walls where air movement
behind lath and plaster is required. Underfloor ventilation must be checked.
• Lifting floorboards may affect the structural integrity of the floor where the flooring acts as a
structural membrane.

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4. Windows The standard of insulation recommended for windows cannot be achieved with historic sash and
case timber windows or metal windows.
• Draught stripping existing windows and sealing gaps around windows can reduce ventilation
rates within rooms and hidden voids.
• Installation of secondary glazing can be visually unacceptable and/or may adversely affect
internal finishes.
• In most historic buildings the use of thermally efficient double-glazing in replica sash and case
or casement windows will result in unacceptably thick glazing bars and frames.
• Modern replacement windows, whether timber, PVCu or aluminium, are not appropriate for
historic buildings.
• Improved envelope insulation can lead to increased condensation on single glazed windows and
encourage wet rot in timber frames.
5. Reduced air See notes in Issues 1 to 4 above.
infiltration

6.2.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

While this is a standard that must be achieved to as close as is reasonably practicable, and therefore gives a degree of
flexibility in its compliance, it provides significant challenges to the designer of a conversion. The aim is to improve
envelope insulation without loss or damage to building fabric that is of historic value. The advice contained in the
following diagrams and descriptions cannot cover all situations but addresses the issues outlined in Section 6.2.3
above. In addition, the broad guidance contained within Annex 6N (6N3, Conversion of historic buildings) of the
Technical Handbooks are relevant to assessing the level of fabric insulation (if indeed any) necessary to comply
with standards.
Note: The details given below are composite details and are not confined to advice on envelope insulation alone.
They are designed to show the interaction of issues such as insulation, ventilation, moisture transfer etc. with historic
construction. For this reason, key junctions of walls and ground floors, and walls and roofs are provided to enable
the reader to fully appreciate the combined influence of various standards. The details, where relevant, are repeated in
other parts of the guide.

Walls and floors

Illus 6.2.1(a) Insulation

of a wall with no pre-
existing historic finishes and
treatment of a traditional
stone flag floor. Note: This
illustration is relevant
to a situation where a
traditional flagstone floor
has to be retained. No
insulation has been added
and improvements to energy
conservation are achieved
elsewhere.

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Notes associated with Illus 6.2.1(a).

i. The insertion of a DPC within the wall is not recommended.
ii. No DPM is inserted under the re-laid stone-flag floor to prevent excessive moisture rise within perimeter
walls. Installing insulation below this floor will require the use of a DPM and is not recommended in this case.
In the same way, laying flagstones on a concrete base will create a similar effect.
iii. Applying insulation to a wall may be acceptable where the existing wall finishes and features are of no
significant historic value.
iv. Insulation must be continued into recesses in the external wall, such as window and door openings and under
lintels, to prevent the formation of cold bridges.
v. In the case of solid floors, air movement behind the insulation is likely to be very low or non-existent. There
may be fortuitous air leakage at skirtings, door and window openings but, as this is not always the case, it is
important to ensure that external stonework and roof drainage is kept in good repair to minimise rain water
penetration into walls.
vi. A French drain and/or surface paving may be required to control ground water adjacent to external walls and
to limit moisture transfer to the wall from the ground.

Illus 6.2.1(b) Floor and wall insulation when existing wall and ground floor finishes are replaced.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.1(b).

i. Notes associated with Illus 6.2.1(a) apply, with the exception of note (ii).
ii. Insulation at the floor slab perimeter is required.
iii. The DPM, positioned under the concrete slab, should be returned up the edges of the floor and lapped with a
DPC dressed up behind any timber sole plates forming part of an inner-framed wall.

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Illus 6.2.1(c) Insulation of suspended timber floor with all existing structure and finishes retained.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.1(c).

i. Insulation applied in this way is appropriate when access can be obtained to the sub-floor space.
ii. Maintaining a flow of air in the sub-floor space and behind lath and plaster finishes on external walls is
an important feature of the construction. Ensure that installation of the insulation does not obstruct free
movement of air. This construction is not the most thermally efficient approach, but maintains an essential
moisture balance within the construction.
iii. Moisture from the wall and from the solum is able to transpire into the ventilated spaces.
iv. Because insulation of the wall is not improved, energy efficiency gains can be achieved by the installation of
heat-reflective films fixed behind radiators.

Illus 6.2.1(d) Suspended timber floor insulation at a common entrance with an accessible threshold (see also Standard 4.1.8 for thresholds).

Note associated with Illus 6.2.1(d)

It is recommended that insulation is not packed into the space below the floor at the threshold. This would prevent
air movement in the void and raise the moisture content of adjacent timbers.

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Illus 6.2.1(e) Insulation applied to an existing concrete floor.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.1(e).

i. Doors will have to be cut to accommodate the thickness of the applied floor finish. Skirtings will have to be
removed and re-fixed, which may affect other wall finishes such as wood panelling.
ii. A change in floor level at entrances may be difficult to accommodate.
iii. Where a staircase rises from the floor, the alteration in the height of the bottom riser will create uneven rises
and will be unacceptable without further major adjustments.
iv. Leave a 10mm gap between the edge of the chipboard flooring and the room perimeter to accommodate
thermal and moisture movement of the flooring (this will be covered by the skirting).
v. If polystyrene insulation is used, ensure that any electrical cables do not come into contact with the
polystyrene.

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Roofs

Illus 6.2.2(a) Cold roof: Traditional wallhead detail with ceiling level insulation.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.2(a).

i. Traditional roofs do not normally have built-in ventilation, but the nature of the construction is such that a
degree of fortuitous air leakage is normal.
ii. The quilt insulation is most effective when laid in two layers, with one layer laid between the ceiling joists/
ties and a second layer laid across the joists/ties.
iii. Roof space ventilation is essential. In this case a continuous proprietary vent inlet is built into the wallhead,
and sarking is cut back to allow a free flow of air into the roof space. A ventilator of this type is least damaging
to the character of the slated or tiled roof.

Illus 6.2.2(b) Cold roof: Parapet wallhead detail with ceiling insulation.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.2(b).

i. The raised parapet influences cross ventilation of this roof.Ventilators therefore have to be installed on the roof
slope, which may affect the historic character of the slated or tiled roof.
ii. Ventilators should be installed at as low a level as possible to prevent stagnant air pockets forming under the
sarking, below vent level.
iii. Ventilators should not be located directly opposite each other on opposite sides of the roof, to prevent the
occurrence of a ‘wind-tunnel effect’.

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Illus 6.2.2(c) Flat roof: ventilated warm roof with lead covering.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.2(c).

i. In warm roof construction incorporating a sheet lead roof covering, ventilation below the boards supporting
the lead is required to prevent underside lead corrosion (ULC).
ii. The incorporation of insulation and a ventilation space above the insulation will mean that alterations will be
required to the roof fascia to accommodate the increased depth of roof.

Illus 6.2.2(d) Flat roof: ventilated cold roof. Used where lead roof is retained and removal of existing ceiling is appropriate.

Notes associated with Illus 6.2.2(d).

i. This form of insulated roof may be used when the existing lead is retained and when removal of the existing
ceiling can be achieved without adversely affecting the historic character of the building.
ii. All voids within the roof must be ventilated, which will require either a continuous vent at fascia or eaves
soffit level, or individual fascia vents with ventilation between individual roof joists.

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Windows and doors

As a rule, during the conversion process, traditional windows and doors in historic buildings should be retained,
and repaired where appropriate. Window openings and frames are a significant factor in establishing the character
of a building’s elevation and should not be altered in their proportions or design. Where new openings have to be
formed, the new openings and frames should match the proportions, materials and design on the existing windows.
For further information on issues relating to windows, refer to Part I, Section 3.2.5.
In the case of a conversion, windows, doors and rooflights will form part of the insulation envelope. Although
required to be ‘improved to as close to the standards as is reasonably practicable’, the guidance on compliance
gives advice not only on whether it is necessary to upgrade but also different values depending on whether the
existing building was heated or not. The values are also area weighted averages, so not all parts of an element such
as windows has to meet the standard. Therefore, although the standard is to be met, the standard is applied to
conversions in a very flexible way. Note that historic buildings have special guidance indicating some elements may
not be suitable for upgrading at all.
In situations where unsuitable high-performance double-glazed windows have to be replaced, the advice set out in
Part 1, Section 3.2.6 should be followed. Where this is the case, compensatory measures will be required elsewhere
because, to comply with the standard, envelope insulation must be no worse than before the conversion.
The following steps to improve the thermal performance of windows and doors can be considered:
a) Air infiltration through old windows and doors is often significant and modern draught proofing systems can
be very effective in reducing air leakage and heat loss. For advice on upgrading the performance of timber
sash and case windows, refer to the Historic Scotland Guide for Practitioners: Conservation of timber sash and
case windows (2002). Draught strips for doors and windows are covered by BS 7386. However, care is required
to ensure that adequate ventilation is maintained to remove moisture and pollutants from internal spaces and
to achieve the minimum number of air changes per hour (ach).
b) Secondary glazing may be acceptable if its design and construction are unobtrusive. However, such installations
may not be suitable where internal window sills or window reveals have insufficient width, where shutters are
present or where windows are oddly-shaped.
c) Night-time heat loss may be reduced by bringing back into use traditional shutters, or replacing shutters that
have been lost. Shutters can be draught stripped to improve further their performance.
d) Insulated and/or reflective blinds may be used where their installation can be accommodated without
seriously affecting the character of the window.

6.2.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.15 Condensation
• Standard 6.1 Energy Policy
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems and
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning

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6.3 Heating systems

Standard 6.3
In order to comply with standard 6.1 every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the
heating and hot water service systems are designed, installed, and capable of being controlled to achieve
optimum energy efficiency, having regard to the thermal transfer of the insulation envelope.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
(a) buildings which do not use fuel or power for controlling the temperature of the internal environment;
(b) buildings, or parts of a building, which will not be heated, other than heating provided for the purpose
of frost protection;
(c) heating systems provided for the purpose of frost protection; or
(d) individual, solid-fuel stoves or open-fires, gas or electric fires or room heaters (excluding electric
storage and panel heaters) provided in domestic buildings.

6.3.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

6.3.2 Commentary
Refer to Commentary in Section 6.1.2, which provides an overview of the approach to this standard. This standard
is concerned with the design, installation and control of heating and hot water systems and, as such, is primarily
designed for new building work and consequently new buildings. However, the use of energy-efficient heating
and hot water systems is an essential feature of a holistic approach to the conversion of a traditional building,
where deficiencies in the insulating envelope can be partially offset by energy savings in the heating and hot water
systems. It is important to demonstrate that everything else that reasonably could be done to improve the energy
performance of the building has been considered.
The guidance within the standards for domestic systems and the table within the non-domestic system guidance to
Standard 6.3 (which indicates the carbon emission factors for natural gas and other fuels) have the effect of setting a
preference order for different types of fuel. Everything else being equal, it can be seen by inspection that the forms
of heating fuel preferred on purely carbon dioxide emissions grounds would be:
• biogas (eg methane generated from decay of organic material) and biomass (eg wood chips/pellets from
sustainable sources),
• mains natural gas,
• liquid petroleum gas,
• oil,
• coal,
• mains electricity.
To this could be added any form of energy from completely renewable sources such as electricity generated by
wind power or photovoltaic cells, or water heating by solar panels.
The exclusive use of biogas, biomass or energy from renewables alleviates all concerns on carbon intensity because
the net carbon emissions of these energy sources is zero. It would be unusual however, to find that it was possible

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to rely exclusively on these. How practical and how economically viable it is to utilise these energy sources, and to
what extent they should be used in a development, depends very much on the particular circumstances.
Controls for heating and hot water systems are unlikely to have a direct, significant impact on historic fabric,
provided they are discreet in both design and location. In assessing the energy needs of the building as converted,
the heating regime of each part of the building should be determined. For example, the heating requirements of
storage areas such as basements will be different from living rooms and office accommodation. For buildings other
than small dwellings it is normal to fit zone controls that will maximise the energy efficiency of the installation.
This, in turn, may mean that smaller diameter pipework can be used, which can result in a reduction of the impact
on historic fabric through the use of smaller holes in walls and fixings.
The physical installation or replacement of services must be carefully planned to prevent unnecessary damage to
historic fabric. It is also essential to recognise the relatively short service life (in relation to historic buildings) of
service elements, and therefore the need for future upgrading and replacement, which may damage fabric if the
principles of reversibility and minimum intervention are not recognised in the design of installations. This means
that in the design of the systems great care must be taken to ensure that pipe runs, for example, do not cause direct
and indirect damage to fabric and that holes, chases and fixings are designed in a way that is least damaging to the
building.
In the case of hot water systems, the opportunity should be taken to simplify and reduce the lengths of pipe
runs, provide effective controls and enhance the insulation of pipes to improve the overall energy efficiency of
the conversion. In some situations it may be desirable to install more local water heaters to reduce the need for
damaging pipework installations.

From May 2007, draft amended standard 6.3 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the heating and hot water service systems
are designed, installed, and capable of being controlled to achieve optimum energy efficiency.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
a) buildings which do not use fuel or power for controlling the temperature of the internal environment;
b) heating provided solely for the purpose of frost protection; or
c) individual, solid-fuel stoves or open-fires, gas or electric fires or room heaters (excluding electric
storage and panel heaters) provided as secondary heating in domestic buildings).

This standard is simplified, but the guidance remains applicable.

6.3.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Compensating for reduced • Increased size/capacity of heating systems may be more intrusive and affect historic
envelope insulation character. However, efficient, modern installations are likely to be more compact than
existing systems that are being replaced.
• Increased number of heat emitters of larger size (as a result of only limited
improvements to the envelope insulation).
• In replacing existing heat emitters, for example cast-iron radiators, with more efficient
modern appliances, there may be a loss of part of the history of the building.
• Some alternative energy solutions may affect the character of the building, for
example, solar panels on roofs.
2. Zoning of buildings • Only becomes a risk if existing spaces are altered to meet zoning requirements.
3. Location of controls • Require to be carefully sited to avoid adversely affecting character of spaces.
4. Condensing boiler flues • Condensation plumes can damage historic fabric.

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6.3.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

As a rule, the requirements of this standard may be achieved without significant impact on historic fabric or
character. The following points, however, should be considered:
a) Electrical heating systems are cheap to install and maintain, but running costs and environmental impact are
higher than for other fuels. For this reason, electrical systems for space and hot water heating are discouraged.
Energy Saving Trust Good Practice Guide 192 (2003), which goes some way beyond minimum building
regulation standards, recommends that ‘buildings with electrical heating will need to have better insulation levels.
Only small sheltered dwellings... are likely to meet the relevant minimum CI rating given in the Good and Best Practice
standards using the maximum U-values given in the standards. For buildings other than dwellings where the CI targets
do not apply, electric heating should only be used if the fabric U-values are no worse than those given in the Best Practice
standard.’ The main advantage of electrical systems is that, in the case of historic buildings, their installation
will be less destructive to building fabric and, in some situations, may be the only viable system.
b) When designing for heating plant and controls for larger buildings, or groups of buildings, consideration
should be given to the user patterns and periods of occupation. If a large single or centralised plant is used
the plant may be operating inefficiently for long periods of time. An alternative approach may be to use
hybrid or multiple boiler systems, which could be more efficient. In commercial-scale buildings it may be cost
effective to separate the domestic hot water heating from space heating. However, the particular layout and
characteristics of a traditional building may influence the choice of heating system as, for example, a multiple
boiler system may not be able to be accommodated within the available spaces.
c) Zone controls should be properly integrated to take into account the influence of solar gain and user patterns
in the building. In zoning the building and its controls, the different aspects of the building and any shading
effects should be taken into account. Zone controls will limit overheating effects in well-insulated buildings
and will produce energy savings in those historic buildings where improvements to envelope insulation are, of
necessity, limited.
d) Improvements in the condensing performance of space-heating boilers can be secured by sizing the heating
system radiators and pipework on a greater than normal water temperature difference between the flow to
return pipes. The conventional temperature difference in the industry is 10oC or 11oC. By increasing this
to 20oC, the return water temperature to the boiler is reduced and so the condensing performance further
enhanced. This means that the size of the system pipework can be reduced in many areas. In historic buildings
the advantage of this is that it can ease problems associated with pipework distribution, especially the depth of
notches in joists. The disadvantage of this is that radiator sizes must increase somewhat to give the same heat
output. Generally the order of increase over a radiator sized on conventional flow and return temperatures is
20 – 25% in nominal output.
e) There are some important issues relating to the flues from condensing boilers, which must be considered
when locating the terminals. The normal requirements for terminals under the standards are set out in
Sections 3.19 and 3.20, but these provisions only address safe discharge of combustion gases. Condensing
boiler flues produce a very prominent plume of condensation, particularly in cold weather. These plumes
can be damaging to the historic fabric if they result in parts of the building being almost permanently wet.
They are mildly acidic and so the reaction with materials (such as lime mortar) must also be considered. For
example copper is known to corrode rapidly when exposed to this condensate. Then there are the aesthetic
implications of these plumes, which can appear intrusive, and can cause a nuisance to those located in such a
way that the plume is particularly obvious.
In larger buildings with a relatively large central boiler plant, the flues will normally be vertical with outlets at
roof level. In these instances the plumbing is usually less problematic.
In smaller buildings, or buildings divided into a number of smaller individual units, the associated smaller
boilers will often have wall terminals and the location of these is very important. This is of special concern
in flats, where the plume from a wall terminal located in the flat below can become an almost permanent
feature passing the window of a flat above (whilst still complying with all of the requirements for safe location
of the terminal). One possible solution to this problem is to utilise a proprietary vertical flue system which
gathers the individual boiler flues into a combined stack which then discharges at roof level. This creates
other practical problems with aligning boiler locations on different floors and so on. This is often problematic
in historic building conversions, but may be possible in certain buildings. The penetration of walls with

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individual flues is, however, also destructive to the character and fabric of historic buildings.
f) Alternative energy solutions, of which there are a number of possibilities, may be used to reduce carbon
dioxide emissions and, while not directly related to this standard, could be appropriate for some historic
building conversions. Perhaps the most viable solution is the use of biomass and bio-gas-burning boilers. This
is not a ‘low-tech’ solution: it requires specialist design and installation. At 2006 energy costs, wind power
and photovoltaic cells are rarely cost effective unless the capital cost of the equipment is heavily subsidised.
Also to be considered, in the case of listed buildings, is that listed building consent may be required for such
installations. Refer to Section 4.6.2 of this guide for further information on alternative energy solutions.
g) There may be a desire to eliminate the use of open-flued appliances by sealing up fireplace openings and
replacing them with modern, energy efficient balanced-flue appliances. While this will be appropriate in
some situations, it is possible that the effects of such installations will be damaging to historic fabric. The risks
associated with such a change may be from damage caused by forming the hole for the flue, the potential
disturbance within a rubble-filled wall, the aesthetic damage of the external flue terminal and excessive drying
of an earth wall where the flue passes through the wall (i.e. disturbing the moisture balance within the wall).

6.3.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.19 Combustion appliances; relationship to combustible materials,
• Standard 3.20, Combustion appliances: removal of products of combustion,
• Standard 6.1 Energy policy,
• Standard 6.2 Envelope insulation,
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning.

6.4 Insulation of pipes ducts and vessels

Standard 6.4
In order to comply with standard 6.1 every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that
temperature loss from heated pipes, ducts and vessels, and temperature gain to cooled pipes and ducts, is resisted.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
(a) buildings which do not use fuel or power for heating or cooling either the internal environment or
water services;
(b) buildings, or parts of a building, which will not be heated, other than heating provided for the purpose
of frost protection;
(c) pipes, ducts or vessels that form part of an isolated industrial or commercial process; or
(d) cooled pipes or ducts in domestic buildings.

6.4.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

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6.4.2 Commentary
It will normally be the case in a conversion of a traditional building that, where the building is to be heated,
upgrading of the heating and hot water system will be necessary. As a result, the insulation of all heating pipes
and ducts and hot water pipes and vessels will require to be insulated to as high a degree as is possible, within
the constraints of the historic fabric. However, it is recognised that complete insulation of all pipes and ducts
will not always be possible where services penetrate walls, pass through or around other structural elements and
where minimal damage to surface finishes is required. The planning of service routes to achieve the most efficient
performance, while respecting historic fabric, needs to be carefully carried out at design stage to ensure that
buildability is achieved. The routing of pipes and ducts should not be left to the discretion of site operatives, who
may not have the necessary understanding of the needs of historic buildings.

From May 2007:

The draft amended Standard 6.4 removes the link to Standard 6.1, so the standard remains applicable to
conversions, as does the guidance given.

6.4.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Routing of pipes The routing and insulation of new pipework may be disruptive to fabric in the following ways:
and ducts. • Covering up historic features or details,
• Causing direct damage during installation or subsequent maintenance,
• Inducing pattern staining of plaster finishes (improved pipework insulation will reduce this effect),
• Increasing the diameter of pipework, by adding insulation, which may make it more intrusive and
may create dirt traps when pipes are close to the surface.

6.4.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Insulating pipes and ducts is one of the key energy conservation options available in a historic building conversion.
Where improvements to envelope insulation may have to be limited, it will be essential to provide energy reduction
measures elsewhere as a trade-off when this can be achieved without loss of historic character, including the
insulation of pipes and ducts.
In historic buildings the key concern in complying with the requirements of this standard is that insulation of
pipework increases the diameter of the pipes and so exacerbates the problems with routing of the services through
the building. The best way to minimise the impact of the insulation is to select high-performance insulation
material that is manufactured in convenient pre-formed sections. High performing materials have low thermal
conductivities and so the same insulation value can be obtained using thinner layers. The guidance to the standard
is worded pragmatically and it is acknowledged that where pipes and ducts pass through parts of the building fabric
such as walls or floor joists the insulation need not be carried through. Using the thinnest insulation layer that will
meet the standards will allow notches in floor joists to be somewhat shallower than they otherwise might have
been.

6.4.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 6.1 Energy Policy
• Standard 6.2 Envelope insulation,
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems and
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning.

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6.5 Artificial and display lighting

Standard 6.5
In order to comply with standard 6.1 every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that
artificial or display lighting must operate and be capable of being controlled to achieve optimum energy
efficiency.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
(a) process and emergency lighting components of a building; or
(b) domestic buildings.

6.5.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

6.5.2 Commentary
Given the possibility that improvements to envelope insulation are likely to be limited, energy saving measures must
be sought elsewhere. While this standard is applicable to only non-domestic buildings, artificial lighting can account
for a significant proportion of the electricity used in both domestic and non-domestic buildings and, in the case of
some non-domestic buildings this can also apply to lighting used for display purposes. The use of energy-efficient
lighting for domestic buildings, although not a requirement of this standard, must be considered along with other
energy reduction measures.
By considering the total lighting needs of a building, including natural light, appropriate lighting design can reduce
energy requirements and costs. In addition, the heat gain in well-insulated buildings from artificial lighting can be a
significant proportion of the total heat gain in the building, leading to the need for air conditioning. Good energy
efficient design of lighting can reduce the need for air conditioning, which, as well as creating an energy demand,
can be both difficult to install and destructive to historic buildings.
Most historic buildings were constructed before electric lighting became common in buildings, therefore any
electric lighting that is present is not likely to be contemporary with the building and fittings, and wiring will have
been renewed several times since the original installation. However, the design of energy-efficient lighting must
recognise the impact that a modern system could have on the character of a traditional building, be designed in a
way that minimises the aesthetic impact and, as far as possible, be compatible with its character.
There may be temptation to concentrate on the aesthetics of lighting design and select ‘traditional’ incandescent
tungsten filament lighting (the oldest form of electric lighting) in the belief that these are more compatible with
historic character. This, however, is probably more a matter of personal taste rather than a true reflection of historic
accuracy. Modern compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), and the even more efficient fluorescent tube lighting, will
normally not be readily accommodated by existing tungsten light fittings. It is important to consider the character of
each space and to design an installation that achieves the correct balance between aesthetic and efficiency criteria.

From May 2007, draft amended standard 6.5 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that artificial or display lighting are designed,
installed and capable of being controlled to achieve optimum energy efficiency.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
a) process and emergency lighting components of a building; or
b) alterations in domestic buildings.

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This standard will now require some energy efficient lighting in dwellings as well as non-domestic buildings. The
guidance given remains applicable.

6.5.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

Detrimental effect of historic • Good design and selection of lamps and fittings should mean that their impact on
character character is minimal (refer to notes in 6.5.2 above), with little risk to historic buildings.

6.5.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

As each building is unique, the design of the lighting should recognise the historic character of the individual spaces.
However, the use of energy efficiency lighting and controls, as identified in Standard 6.5, will be an important
feature of improved energy efficiency in the conversion and can, in most situations, be implemented in full.
When considering an energy efficient lighting installation the following key areas must be considered (for further
guidance refer to Good Practice Guide 192):
• the use of daylighting to reduce artificial lighting needs,
• lighting design that balances the functional needs of the user with the aesthetics of the space,
• luminaire and lamp choice and
• lighting controls to ensure that artificial lighting is used only when it is required.
There are sometimes aesthetic concerns over the use of luminaires that use efficient light sources such as compact
or linear fluorescent lamps in historic buildings. In conversions to commercial uses such as offices it is usually
possible to design new lighting schemes using efficient luminaires which are clearly modern, but not intrusive or
incongruous.

Illus 6.5.1 Discreet, energy-efficient lighting supplements natural light to a gallery in a converted historic building
(Photo: courtesy of iGuzzini).

6.5.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 6.1 Energy Policy
• Standard 6.2 Envelope insulation
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems and
• Standard 6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning.

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6.6 Mechanical ventilation and air conditioning

Standard 6.6
In order to comply with standard 6.1 every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that the
form and fabric of the building minimises the use of mechanical ventilating or cooling systems for cooling
purposes, and the ventilating and cooling systems are designed, installed, and capable of being controlled to
achieve optimum energy efficiency.
Limitation:
This standard does not apply to:
(a) domestic buildings; or
(b) buildings which do not use fuel or power for ventilating or cooling the internal environment.

6.6.1 Type of standard

Reasonably practicable standard

Every conversion, to which these regulations apply, must be improved to as close to the requirement of the standard
as is reasonably practicable, and in no case be worse than before the conversion.

6.6.2 Commentary
For most Scottish historic buildings, compliance with this standard should not present significant difficulties, or pose
unmanageable risks to historic character. The aim of the standard is to reduce the installed capacity of mechanical
ventilation and cooling equipment. As traditional buildings normally have high thermal mass, high levels of natural
ventilation and relatively small areas of external glazing, they have a slow thermal response to solar gains. Thus
the thermal mass of the fabric acts as an effective control and reduces the need for excessive air conditioning and
mechanical ventilation (ACMV) installed capacity, which should be designed accordingly. Care, however, has to be
exercised in the case of conversions that retain only the external walls, which are then insulated to current standards.
While solar gains may still remain modest, the highly insulated nature of the fabric when associated with large
thermal gains from occupants and equipment, such as in offices, call centres and the like, will increase the need for
mechanical ventilation and cooling.
However, the installation of ACMV within a traditional building will generally mean very careful handling of the
design of the installation to minimise the impact of features such as extract vents and roof-located plant on historic
character. New ACMV systems must be able to be installed with minimum damage to existing fabric and should
be aesthetically compatible with the spaces in which they are located. The system should be sized to work within
the physical constraints of the building as oversized plant in small spaces are difficult to install and maintain, and
there is a risk of damage to fabric during these operations.
The use of through-wall air conditioning units for individual spaces is visually disfiguring, destroys historic fabric
and should be avoided. In addition, condensation run-off from these units can cause further damage to historic
materials. Condensation can also be a problem where humidification is required, for example in museums, as
condensation can occur on single glazing, and interstitial condensation can be encouraged.
Because ACMV systems will tend to change the natural moisture balance within the building and its fabric, it is
advisable to set up a system of regular monitoring to ensure that deterioration of historic fabric is not accelerated.
This may be either a manual system or an automatic system for complex buildings. Whenever possible, natural
ventilation systems are the preferred option.
Where a traditional building already has an ACMV system, the opportunity should be taken to assess the form and
fabric of the building from the viewpoint of both energy efficiency and historic character. The condition, energy
efficiency, capacity of, and controls for, the system should be evaluated and, if necessary, a new system installed that
is more energy efficient. Plant, ducts and other equipment may be reduced in scale, which should minimise the
impact of the installation on historic fabric. It may even allow for the restoration of previously hidden or damaged
fabric.

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From May 2007, draft amended standard 6.6 is:

Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that:
a) the form and fabric of the building minimise the use of mechanical ventilating or air conditioning
systems for cooling purposes; and
b) in non-domestic buildings the ventilating and cooling systems are designed, installed, and capable of
being controlled to achieve optimum energy efficiency.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to buildings which do not use fuel or power for ventilating or cooling the
internal environment.

This standard has been extended to dwellings as it is intended to discourage the use of air conditioning. The
guidance however remains applicable.

6.6.3 Issues to be considered

Issue Risks to historic/traditional buildings

1. Location and installation of • Oversized plant in small spaces may damage fabric during installation and maintenance.
plant, ducts and extractors • Installation may damage historic finishes or obscure historic features.
• Vents in external wall are visually disfiguring and destroy historic fabric.
• Accommodation of ducts can be very damaging by visual intrusion into spaces or by
the use of suspended ceilings.
• Systems operate more efficiently when the fabric is sealed, but sealing of traditional
windows and other means of preventing infiltration can be damaging to historic fabric.
• Condensers, stacks, vents or other equipment can be damaging to character if poorly
sited on roofs or at other significant locations on the site.
• Plant may overload the existing structure, and strengthening work must be carefully
planned and executed.
• Vibration from the plant must be dampened to avoid damage to fabric.
2. Humidification • Humidification, if used, can cause condensation (surface and interstitial) that is
damaging to fabric.

6.6.4 Recommendations to meet the standard

Because this standard is concerned with reducing the excessive installed capacity of mechanical ventilation and
cooling systems, and due to the nature and construction of historic buildings, it is probable that the standard can be
met without too much difficulty. However, the successful installation of any new ACMV system into a traditional
building can present significant challenges. There are situations that require a highly controlled climate – such as
in museums and for operations housing large, complex computing equipment generating large amounts of heat
– where both the visual and physical damage to historic character can be considerable.
In converting a traditional building careful consideration should be given to minimising the potential for over
heating of the spaces, which might result in the need for mechanical ventilation or air conditioning to reduce
unacceptably high temperatures. This is primarily a problem in non-domestic buildings, to which this standard
mainly relates.While being good practice, and a requirement of the technical standards, it should also be appreciated
that the installation of mechanical ventilation or air conditioning usually requires significant interventions with
historic fabric, and so they are to be avoided whenever possible for this reason.
A major contributor to overheating is solar gain through windows. Often in conversion work the size and
orientation of windows is fixed. However, while space planning the converted interiors, consideration should be
given to the potential for over-heating due to large south-to-west-facing windows. It may be possible to arrange
circulation spaces and the like such that they are next to the southern or western elevations, so that higher internal
temperatures are less concerning than for the normally occupied areas.
Solar shading should also be considered. External shading designed to block direct sunlight at high sun angles (in
summer), but admit sunlight at lower angles (in winter) are most effective, but incorporating such shading devices

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into a historic façade is rarely possible. The next most effective methods for shading are blinds and internal ‘light
shelves’. Light shelves are reflective horizontal panels, typically positioned between one quarter and one third of the
way from the top of the window and projecting into the room by between 600mm and 1200mm. These shelves
provide shading to much of the building interior while reflecting some light upwards to the ceiling. They are a
prominent feature in any room however, and the effect of these on the enjoyment of any historic building interior
would need to be assessed.
A further major contributor to heat gains is artificial lighting and equipment (eg office machines) within the space.
Selecting the most energy efficient light sources and other possible equipment can reduce the heat output from
these. Also, being realistic when planning the occupancy of spaces is essential so that attempts are not made to cram
too many occupants (and their heat-producing equipment) into rooms.
There are sometimes aesthetic concerns over the use of luminaires that use efficient light sources, such as compact
or linear fluorescent lamps, in historic buildings. In a domestic context this concern is sometimes justified, but in
historic building conversions to commercial uses, such as offices, it is usually possible to design new lighting schemes
using efficient luminaires that are clearly modern, but not intrusive or incongruous.
If, after doing everything practicable to limit the heat gains, it is still thought that ventilation is required, the first
option that should be considered is maximising natural ventilation opportunities. Ensuring that as much as possible
of the area of each window can be opened is an obvious first step, although in historic buildings this will often
be determined by existing window configurations. The practicality of using openable windows also depends upon
the location of the building and the immediate external environment. In noisy and/or polluted urban areas, for
example, it may not be possible simply to open windows.
If openable windows alone are insufficient for one reason or another then other forms of natural ventilation can
be considered. Generally these will rely on creating other ventilation openings in the building, and ducting air
from these openings into the spaces. These ventilation openings will often be at roof level to avoid pollution,
noise, and to minimise interference with the historic fabric. These installations may work on a purely ‘passive’ basis,
relying upon the natural forces created by wind movements and temperature differences to draw fresh air into the
building and then up an exhaust stack to discharge at roof level. For further information on ventilation systems,
refer to Part II of this guide, Standard 3.14 Ventilation. If there are periods during which these natural forces are
not adequate to generate the necessary air movement, fans can be installed at the head of the exhaust stack to draw
the air through the system. This is one type of what can be termed a ‘mixed mode’ system. Mixed mode systems
utilise comparatively low fan power, and then only when fan assistance is required, and so can assist in achieving
the requirements under this section which relate to the efficiency of mechanical ventilation systems.
Passive or mixed mode ventilation systems require complex calculations and usually dynamic thermal modelling to
ensure that they will work correctly, and so suitably qualified engineers would be required to prepare the designs.
Where the installation of an ACMV system is likely to cause serious disruption to a traditional building, the planned
conversion to the new use must be questioned. However, should an ACMV system be necessary, the design of the
system will involve a compromise between conflicting requirements. The design must be matched to the physical
constraints and historic character of the building. It is therefore essential that, to achieve a balance between the
conservation needs of the building and an energy-efficient ACMV system, specialist advice is sought from an ACMV
engineer who has knowledge and experience of working with historic buildings.
It is also essential to recognise that ACMV systems have a relatively short life and must be designed with planned
obsolescence in mind. Future removal or replacement must be able to be carried out without loss of historic fabric.

6.6.5 Related standards

Other related standards are:
• Standard 3.13 Heating
• Standard 3.14 Ventilation
• Standard 3.16 Natural lighting
• Standard 6.1 Energy policy
• Standard 6.2 Envelope insulation
• Standard 6.3 Heating systems
• Standard 6.5 Artificial and display lighting.

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Draft amended standard 6.10 and new Regulation 17

From May 2007 there is a further draft standard that applies to conversions.

Standard 6.10
6.10 Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that each part of a building designed for
different occupation is fitted with fuel consumption meters.
Limitation
This standard does not apply to:
a) domestic buildings;
b) communal areas of buildings in different occupation;
c) district or block heating systems where each part of the building designed for different occupation is
fitted with heat meters; or
d) heating fired by solid fuel or biomass.

Unlike the other standards in Section 6, conversions are required to meet this standard in full.

In addition, a further regulation is introduced to take effect only when, and to the extent that, Scottish Ministers
direct. The intention is to introduce this requirement in stages, applying to the largest first. Few historic buildings
are expected to fall into the likely categories of control.

Regulation 17
Continuing requirements
1. Subject to paragraph (2), the owners of buildings shall ensure that:
a) Every air-conditioning system within a building is inspected at regular intervals; and
b) Appropriate advice is given to users of the buildings on reducing energy consumption of such an air
conditioning system.
2. This regulation shall not apply to:
a) Air conditioning systems with a total effective output rating of less than 12kW; or
b) Air conditioning systems solely for processes within a building.
3. In terms of section 2 of the Building (Scotland) Act 2003 the provisions of paragraph (1) are designated
provision in respect of which there is a continuing requirement imposed upon owners of the buildings.

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Historic Scotland Technical Advice Notes
1 Preparation and Use of Lime Mortars (revised 2003)
2 Conservation of Plasterwork (revised 2002)
3 Performance Standards for Timber Sash and Case Windows (1994) (Deleted)
4 Thatch & Thatching Techniques (1996)
5 The Hebridean Blackhouse (1996)
6 Earth Structures and Construction in Scotland (1996)
7 Access to the Built Heritage (1996)
8 Historic Scotland Guide to International Conservation Charters (1997)
9 Stonecleaning of Granite Buildings (1997)
10 Biological Growths on Sandstone Buildings (1997)
11 Fire Protection Measures in Scottish Historic Buildings (1997)
12 Quarries of Scotland (1997)
13 The Archaeology of Scottish Thatch (1998)
14 The Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Historic Buildings (1998)
15 External Lime Coatings on Traditional Buildings (2001)
16 Burrowing Animals and Archaeology (1999)
17 Bracken and Archaeology (1999)
18 The Treatment of Graffiti on Historic Surfaces (1999)
19 Scottish Aggregates for Building Conservation (1999)
20 Corrosion in Masonry Clad Early 20th Century Steel Framed Buildings (2000)
21 Scottish Slate Quarries (2000)
22 Fire Risk Management in Heritage Buildings (2001)
23 Non-Destructive Investigation of Standing Structures (2001)
24 The Environmental Control of Dry Rot (2002)
25 Maintenance and Repair of Cleaned Stone Buildings (2003)
26 Care and Conservation of 17th Century Plasterwork in Scotland (2004)
27 Development and Archaeology in Historic Towns and Cities (2004)
28 Fire Safety Management in Heritage Buildings (2005)
29 Corrugated Iron and other Ferrous Cladding (2005)
30 Scottish Turf Construction (2006)

Guides for Practitioners

Stonecleaning – A Guide for Practitioners (1994)
Timber Decay in Buildings – The Conservation Approach to Treatment (1999)
1 Rural Buildings of the Lothians: Conservation and Conversion (1999)
2 Conservation of Historic Graveyards (2001)
3 Conservation of Timber Sash and Case Windows (2002)
4 Measured Survey and Building Recording (2003)
5 Scottish Iron Structures (2005)

Available from:
Publications Department
Technical Conservation, Research and Education Group
Historic Scotland Conservation Bureau
Longmore House, Salisbury Place
EDINBURGH EH9 1SH
Tel 0131 668 8638
Fax 0131 668 8669
email [email protected]