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Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 2XS, England.
 Building Maintenance
Technology

Lee How Son and George C. S. Yuen

Building Department,
Ngee Ann Polytechnic,
Singapore

M
!50th YEAR

MACMILLAN
© Lee How Son and George C. S. Yuen 1993

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of

this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or

transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1P 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this

publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.

First published 1993 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-48993-2 ISBN 978-1-349-23150-8 ( eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-23150-8
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
Contents

Foreword ix

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Overview of Building Maintenance 1

1.1 Definition of maintenance 1
1.2 Concept of building maintenance 1
1.3 Role of maintenance in the building process 3
1.4 Nature of maintenance 4
1.5 Characteristics of maintenance sector 5
1.6 Growth factors 6
1.7 Issues to be addressed 8

2 Causes and Agents of Deterioration 11

2.1 Primary causes 11
2.2 Weathering agents 17
2.3 Chemical agents 24
2.4 Biological agents 25
2.5 Mechanical agents 26

3 Diagnosis and Investigation Techniques 29

3.1 What is building diagnostics? 29
3.2 Need for building diagnostics 30
3.3 Approach to diagnostic assessment 31
3.4 Principles of diagnosis 32
3.5 Client's instructions 34
3.6 Process of investigation 34
3.7 Surveying equipment 36
3.8 Sources of information 39

v
vi Contents

3.9 Reports 40
3.10 Recommending remedies 41

4 Foundations 44
4.1 Movement of soil 44
4.2 Movement due to loading, 47
4.3 Other causes of movement 47
4.4 Differential settlement 51
4.5 Assessment of foundation defects 54
4.6 Foundation repairs 59
4.7 Methods of underpinning strip foundations 61
4.8 Underpinning pad foundations or column bases 68
4.9 Underpinning floors 70

5 Concrete Defects 74
5.1 Durability of concrete 74
5.2 Permeability of concrete 75
5.3 Human factors causing concrete failures 76
5.4 Corrosion of reinforcement 79
5.5 Chemical aggression 84
5.6 Cracking of plastic concrete 88
5.7 Cracking of hardened concrete 90
5.8 Physical aggression 92
5.9 Dusting 94
5.10 Honeycombs 94
5.11 Weathering 96
5.12 Colour variations 96

6 Concrete Defects: Inspection and Diagnosis 100

6.1 The survey 100
6.2 In situ testing 106
6.3 Tests of internal condition and integrity 119
6.4 Selection of test methods 119
6.5 Interpretation of results 120
6.6 Recommendations for action 121

7 Repair of Concrete Structures 124

7.1 Performance requirements of repair system 124
7.2 Selection of repair method 126
7.3 Materials for repair 127
7.4 Repairs to spalled concrete 130
7.5 Sprayed concrete 134
7.6 Large volume repair 136
7.7 Drypacking 138
7.8 Sealing of cracks 140
 Contents vii

7.9 Surface coatings 141

7.10 External reinforcing 148
7.11 Cathodic protection 152
7.12 Repairs to fire-damaged structures 152

8 Timber and Timber Components 157

8.1 Structure of timber 157
8.2 Moisture content 160
8.3 Mechanical strength 160
8.4 Factors affecting durability 163
8.5 Defects in timber 163
8.6 Fungal attack 168
8.7 Insect attack 171
8.8 Termite attack 172
8.9 Preservation of timber 174
8.10 Repair of timber components 178
8.11 Use of substitute materials 180

9 Brickwork and Stonework 184

9.1 Bricks 184
9.2 Mortar 188
9.3 Brickwork 194
9.4 Repairing damage to brickwork 203
9.5 Other repairs 205
9.6 Special treatments 207
9.7 Stonework 212
9.8 Cleaning of brickwork and stonework 214

10 Steel and Other Metals 222

10.1 Corrosion 222
10.2 Prevention of aqueous corrosion 230
10.3 Atmospheric corrosion 236
10.4 Corrosion in the soil 236
10.5 Abrasion 241
10.6 Fatigue 241
10.7 Loosening of connections 241
10.8 Weld defects 241
10.9 Impact failure 242
10.10 Repair procedures 242
10.11 Planned maintenance 245
10.12 Non-ferrous metals 246

11 Roofs and Roof Drainage 248

11.1 Flat roofs 248
11.2 Flat roof coverings 252
viii Contents

11.3 Pitched roofs 265

11.4 Pitched roof coverings 268
11.5 Rainwater discharge systems 272

12 Wall Claddings 277

12.1 Failure of structural members 277
12.2 Fixing failures 285
12.3 Failure of joints 288
12.4 Sealant failures 290
12.5 Workmanship problems 293
12.6 Remedial work 295

13 Finishes and Decorations 299

13.1 Floor finishes 299
13.2 Repair of concrete floors 308
13.3 Wall finishes 311
13.4 Paintwork 316
13.5 Repainting existing surfaces 321

14 Dampness in Buildings 326

14.1 Rising damp 326
14.2 Rain penetration 331
14.3 Condensation 340
14.4 Other sources of dampness 343
14.5 Diagnosis of dampness 345

15 External works 353

15.1 Flexible roads 353
15.2 Rigid roads 356
15.3 Paving slabs 360
15.4 Fences and gates 361
15.5 Boundary walls 361
15.6 Drainage 362
15.7 Trees and turfed areas 362
15.8 Pest control 364

Index 367
Foreword

Some six years ago I was privileged to meet Lee How Son and George
Yuen, when I was engaged as a United Nations Consultant to advise
Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Singapore, on the development of building
courses. Since then I have been closely involved with the authors as an
External Examiner and I soon became very impressed by their thorough
understanding of the technological aspects of building maintenance,
the high standard of excellence that they achieved in their lecturing
and examining work, and their dedication and enthusiasm. Hence I
was delighted when they agreed to write a book on this subject in the
Macmillan Building and Surveying Series.
There can be no doubt as to the immense importance of this subject
to architects, surveyors, contractors, maintenance personnel, building
owners and many other related professions. In addition, the text has
been skilfully produced to provide a wealth of information in a
systematic and readily assimilated format, supported by numerous
high quality and very informative diagrams, aimed to assist the many
students concerned with this subject in a most helpful and
enlightening way.
The numerous building defects, many of them with major
implications for the building owner, which occur daily, bear testimony
to the great need for an authoritative and detailed exposition of this
subject. Lee How Son and George Yuen have accomplished this task in
a truly workmanlike and very professional manner, identifying the
defects, their characteristics and causes, and the remedial measures
required to rectify the problems that can arise, in this lucid yet detailed
exposition.
I believe that this book will have a universal appeal and that it will, in
the fullness of time, become the recognised text in this important and
developing area of building work. Any book which assists in the
improved maintenance of buildings must be of great value, and this

ix
x Foreword

text will help significantly in this task by providing a sound

technological base and a better understanding of the underlying
problems and their prevention or cure.

Professor IVOR H. SEELEY

Series Editor for the Macmillan Building and Surveying Series
Preface

In The Seven Lamps of Architecture, John Ruskin wrote: 'When we

build, let us think that we build forever'. This statement may well have
been true in the nineteenth century. But in the context of modern
times, it is hard to believe that we can ever create Ruskin's Utopia of
maintenance-free buildings.
Surprisingly, building maintenance has been a much neglected
sector of the building industry universally. Because of its non-
glamorous nature, it is unlikely to attract the attention of the different
parties in the building process compared with new construction.
Architects, for example, seldom have an extended interest in the
buildings they designed beyond their defects liability period, nor do
they retain a long-term responsibility for their maintenance. Owners,
on the other hand, usually attempt to keep maintenance expenditure
to the minimum, in the popular belief that maintenance costs
invariably erode profits.
Admittedly, maintenance commences with the service life of the
building and is the accepted responsibility of the owners. But it is also
necessary to incorporate maintenance considerations at the design
stage so that potential maintenance complications can be arrested at
their source. Furthermore, the contractor has a duty of care in
ensuring that he complies with specifications, drawings and
instructions and supervises the progress of the construction diligently.
In other words, effective building maintenance requires a conscious
effort undertaken collectively by all parties of interest in the building.
While accurate figures are hard to come by, it has been estimated
that the annual costs of building maintenance and repair in some
developed countries already account for at least half of the total build-
ing market. This is the result of a gradually growing realisation that the
existing building stock represents sizeable economic resources that
must be managed and maintained efficiently to prevent their
premature failure and to extend their useful life.

xi
xii Preface

This scenario reinforces the importance of building maintenance.

There is evidence of its increasing awareness by government depart-
ments, universities, polytechnics and professional bodies associated
with building in the number of conferences and seminars and the
amount of documentation on maintenance related issues all over the
world. Nevertheless, the main problem now lies in giving increased
emphasis to the teaching of building maintenance technology at both
degree and diploma levels.
Building maintenance technology essentially deals with the study of
the occurrence of building defects and the remedies which such de-
fects would require. It involves the application of the principles of the
physical sciences to the process of determining the effects on building
performance produced by both human and environmental factors.
This book is an attempt to present as logically as possible the events
that occur from the onset of symptoms of defects to their ultimate
rectification. One outstanding feature of our book is the generous use
of illustrative diagrams which we believe should help the reader along.
Most of these diagrams are extracted or adapted from authoritative
sources which we have acknowledged separately.
It is also intentional on our part to exclude aspects of building
maintenance management in this book since the subject matter is
sufficient to warrant a separate text.
Finally, it should be made known that this book is the culmination of
our many months of motivated research and documentation. Although
both of us have been involved in the teaching of building maintenance
technology in a polytechnic in Singapore for many years and have
practical experience in building diagnostics and estate management,
this is our first attempt at writing. However, it is hoped that our efforts
will go some way towards producing a single comprehensive textbook
on the subject that both building students as well as practitioners will
find useful. It is also our hope that the book will provide the yeast for
more research and documentation on the area of building mainten-
ance technology.

LEE HOWSON
GEORGEYUEN
Singapore
Acknowledgements

The authors and publishers wish to thank the following who have
kindly given permission for the use of copyright material:

Butterworth-Heinemann ltd for Table 14.2 from T. A. Oxley and E. G.

Gobert, Dampness in Buildings, 1983;
Chapman & Hall Ltd for Table 2.2 from W. H. Ransom, Building
Failures, 2nd Edition, E. & F. N. Spon, 1987;
The Chartered Institute of Building for Table 7.3 from G. Taylor,
Maintenance Information Service Paper No. 87, 1981, reprinted in
Managing Building Maintenance;
Palladian Publications Ltd for Table 6.1, D. Higgins, 'Diagnosing the
causes of defects or deterioration in concrete structures' and Table
7.1, D. Higgins, 'Repairs to cracks in concrete' in Concrete Repairs,
Vol. 1, Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1984.

We are also greatly indebted to the many individuals and organisa-

tions to whose works we have made reference. Details of these refer-
ences are given at the end of the appropriate chapters.
Tables and figures from Building Research Establishment publica-
tions are reproduced by permission of the Controller of Her Majesty's
Stationery Office. Copies of the digests and other papers mentioned in
the book are obtainable from the Building Research Establishment,
Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford, Herts WD2 7JR.
Extracts from BS 5250: Part 1: 1989 are reproduced with the permis-
sion of the British Standards Institution. Complete copies of the stan-
dard can be obtained through National Standards bodies.
We are grateful to the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors for
their consent to the reproduction of RICS copyright material, particu-
larly from Malcolm Hollis, Surveying Buildings (third edition); and the
Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office for permission to use

xiii
xiv Acknowledgements

figures from Property Services Agency, Defects in Buildings.

Our special thanks and appreciation are accorded to Professor lvor
H. Seeley, Emeritus Professor, Nottingham Trent University, and Series
Editor for the Macmillan Building and Surveying Series, for his constant
encouragement and valuable guidance, comments and advice that
were instrumental in the completion of this book; and to Ngee Ann
Polytechnic, Singapore, for providing the conducive environment
necessary for academic staff to excel in areas of research and other
development programmes.
Finally, it must be mentioned that it is truly impossible to name all
the people who influenced and contributed to the preparation of this
book without overlooking some. To all these people we express our
sincere gratitude.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright holders but if
any have been inadventently overlooked the publishers will be pleased
to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.