Geeren 1

Introduction

fron the word "compute which

cones means, "to
oomputer calculate. Hence,
Ester to be calculating device uhat
a
can perform arithimeticoperations
high

a computer was to create a fasttcalculating device,we now define

s
people usually
at

speca. lhough the

ective of inventing
upon data because more than 80%
of work done by today's lerasa
ooeraies cornpaters isdata
thing of applicants when computer is used for shot listing Candida
like bio-data processin
subjccts when used for preparing results; TecruitingE
ined by students in vanious details (name,age,
malking airline or railway reservations; ornumber of different narameter
when used for used for
enger problems, etc. Notice from the examples that data can be
entific research either numeric

miXture ofboth.
BODeca ora
ofen referred to as a data processor because can store, process, and retrieve data whenever
it

e narme data processor is more inciustve because moden computers not only compute in the l

For example, data processon

perform other functions With data that tioWs to and trom them.
m

t lso

anons incoming sources, merge (process of mixing or putting together) them all, sort (process
data from varit
cher
and finally print them in
ir
in some sequence ascending or descending) them in the desired order,

esied forat. Notice

e
that none of these operations involves arithmetic computations in the usual sense but a
device for performing them.
cuter the most suitable
s

consists of three uih

activity of
computer is called data processing. Data processing
processing data using a
The As used in data processing.
input data, manipulating the data, and managing output results.
tivities capturing Hence, data is raw material
in rder and forn that is useful to people receiving it.
an orde
inforation is data arranged
data processing (sce
processing and information is processed data obtained as output of
input to data
d
Sed as

Fgure L.I.
 Cunuter Dupt Tnfermati
ished peet
(Raw mteriah

eorverts data into itormaion

Figure t.t, A enpter (alo known as fata procesor)

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
and useful tool. The power and usell
hreasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful
of this popular tool are mainly due to its following characteristics

human intervention. Computers are auto

Automatie. An automatic machine works by itself without
ut the job (normally without any hurnan assi
machines because onee started on a job, they carry out
being machines cannot start thermselves
and cannot go out
unil it is inished. However, computers coded instructions
Tind their own problems and solutions,
We necd to instruct computer
a using
sof
specify exactly how it will do a particular job.
Some of the other characteristics of computers (such a

e
and work on a problem without any hun
peed and accuracy) are because they are automatic
intervention.
seconds, the amount of work that
2. Speed. A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few
night and did nothing clse. In othe
human being can do in an entire year- if helshe worked day and

words,a computer can do in a few minutes what would take a man his entire lifetime

While talking about the speed of a computer we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds

((0)but in terms of microscco (10 ) and even picoseconds (10),A powerfal

omputer is capable of veranoscconds

(10), even
several billion trillion (10), simple arithmetic operations
per second.

1 Aceuracy. In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. Accuracy of a computer is

consistently high and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design. A computer performs every
calculation with the same accuracy.
rather than technologicat
However, errors can occur in a computer. These errors are mainly due to human
(a person who
weaknesses.For example, errors muy occur due to imprecise thinking by a programmcr
a
writes instructions for a computer to solve particular problem) or incorrect input data. We often refer to
progams as garbage-in-garbage-og
computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable

(GIGO.
Diligence. Unlike human from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration
beings, a computer is free
4.
can continuously work for hours without creating any error and without grumbling. Hence,
computeny
It
of jobs that require great accuracy. If ten million
score over human beings in doing routine type
the last one with exactly the same accuracy
caleulations have to be performed, a computer will perform
and speed as the first one.

Versatility. Versatility is one wonderful things about a computer. One moment it is preparing
of the most
5.
results of an examination, next moment it is busy preparing electricity
bills, and in between, it may be
All that is required to change its talent
helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
sio sin in a new program (a
is

capable of performing almost

sequence o
any task, if the task can
tod
for the computer) into it. In brief, a computer is
to a Fnite series of
logical steps.

Power of remembering. As a human being acquires new knowledge, his/her brain subconsciously sclects
What it feels to be important and worth retaining in memory. The brain relegates unimportant details to
 dndo jd
o niete
t
forpees thets
becmuse ecary
the cae Thie
skn s i
comters A omguter can slere and cll
tse of detachihle oge a
he
hald
a eee infonation
reqne Een aftes everal vears, s
iethe copte eveal years
& desies and the

n copet
NE
CaR recall exucly the
et the infoa
maton hat hefshe
m
mat
ks i os A forgets oe looses certain snfor
HecE, is etirely up to the user to make a conptet retain only een n

or forget some

Ne L0 Aconpter is ota magicaldevice t pssesses o intellgchee of ts own lts LO

e ntt oday h as to e teld what te do and in
Kero,at
whal sequence Hence, only a user determineswhat
lsacnputer will perform A compuer cannot take its own decision in this regard

Ne feelings Compters are devoid of emoions They have no feelings and to snstincts because they
are
hines Althgh men have sccoeded in building a menory fot computer, buttno conputet
n
qualent ot a human beart and Noul Rased our feelines te

tn ence we
e
make certan judgeents in our day to-day life whereas,computers cannot make such judgements
their own They make judgement based on the instructions given to them in the form of
programs that
a Winen by us (human beings).

ere I ovidesasumary of characteristics of computens

ASAD/A

Characteristics Deseription

Aulomatic It carries out a job nornally without any hunan intervention

Speod MiIS It can perform several bilion (10, even trillion (0), simple arithmetic
operations per sccond

Accuracy t pectoms every caleulation with tie same accurcy

Diligence Itis free fram monotonv,tirednesand lack of concentratiop

Versatility
It can pertormawide variety of tasks

t can stone huge amount of information and can recallany piece ofthis information
Menory
whenever rcquired

cannot take oWn and has

7 IQ its decisions, to be instructed what to do and in what
lt
No
Sequence
Nofeelings It cannot make judgments based on feelings and instincts

Figure 1.2. Characteristicsof computers

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
Necessity is the mother of invention. The saying holds true for computers too, Researchers invented computers
becae
eofmun's search forfast and accurate calculating devices.

Blaise Pascal invented

the first mechanical adding machine in 1642, Later, in the year 1671,
Baron Gottfriec
Wilhelm von Leibniz of Germany inventedthe first calculator for multiplication. Keyboard
machines originatec
in the United States around 1880and we use them even today.Around
the same period., Herman Hollerith came
up with the concept of punched cards that computers used extensively as input medium even in
late 1970s
Business machines and calculators made their appearance in Europe and America towards the
cnd of he
ninetecnth century
 Chares Rahbuge anineteemh cetry Pee Canbridge Univety, snd
ed e
emputers He had empleyed a grop of clerks for preni
hors checking these tahles becune ever
m
fr
mahec
became disatisfed and exapersted and
Pel he sted thinkine abeutFild this ih d care
of
pre Ralbape designet a -Dfl
DiflerenceEngine"in that eldepule tables
the year 1822 hat could
pir eed to he moncn

Rabbuge came out with his new a

prodocr
dbce iile te
enoes
completely utenatic
function forany mathemats Analytical Engine for
ca oOleiat an average speed of 60 perfiorning h
unable to produce a working model of this additions per
nachine because the neeisio
achine was not available during
that period. ering equiredla mn
fundamental to the design of any However. his eflots
digital programmable estabiied a numher of princ
computer.
Amajor drawback of the carly
autogatic calculating machines
made it dificult to change was that their
program In 1940s, Dr. John Von ram were wied
that helped in
overcomingg hard-wired peogram Neumann intro uced onbees
the soned
and data can b
problem. The basic idca peogn
instructions behintthis conceptis that aseo
feature considerably StoredLin.memoryofa computer,for
influenced automatically direçting low of opern
development of modern digital
programs can be loaded and computers because of case with whr
executed on a single computerjDuc
to this feature, we
computers as stored program digital ofien refer to modeU
computers
Figure 1.3 provides basic
informationabout some of the well-known carly computers.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
-Generation" in computer talk provides a
framework for the growth of computer
industry based
technologies developed. Originally, it was used to
distinguish between hardware technologies but
extended to include both hardware and software technologies.

The custom of
totally five computer
referring to computer era
in terms of generationscame into wide use only afer 1964

generationsknown until today. Below we describeeach generationalong with its identi.

Th
characteristics. Although there is some overlap between different generations, the
approximate period
againsteach is normally accepted.

In the description below, you

will come across several new terminologies. Subsequent chapters will deal
these terminologiesin The idea here is to provide an overview of the major developments and technol
detail.

during the five generations of computers and not to explain them in detail. Hence, this section provites

overview of what all you are going to learn in this entire

book.

First Generation (1942-1955)

The carly computers of Figure I.3 and others of their time were manufactured using vacuum tubes aselectro
Switching device. A vacuum tube [see Figure 1.4(a)] was a fragile glass device using filaments as a source

electronics and could control and amplify electronic signals. It was the only high-speed electronic switchir
device available in those days. These vacuum tube computers could perform computations in milliseconds an

Were known as first-generation computers.

 The Mark I
Key featores
1937-44 Howard A. Aiken of
Computer It wias an
electro-mechanical
Harvard University in device:
it used over
3000 electrically atund
switches;it was about 50 feet
long and & feet high: it
collaboration with IBM
subtraction, multiplication, divivision and
table reference on
could perfi ald
decimal digits: it took about 0.3 ombers large a 2
multiply two numbers
second to add two numbhers and
secomls &S
The Atanasoff Berry 1939-42 John Atanasoff and his
It used vacuum tubes for
Computer (ABC) internal logic and capacitors for storage, it
assistant Clifford Berry certain
coeld sole
mathematical equations
The Electronic 1943-46
A groupof scientists It was the first all electronic
computer, it used about 18,000 vacuum tubes; it
Numerical Integrator headed by took
Presper
J. up wall space in a 20x40 square feet room, it could add two sunbers in 200
And Calculator Eckert and John Maulchy microseconds and multiply them in 2000 was
microscconds it used to sobe
(ENIAC) of Moore School of ballistic problems
Engineering, University

of Pennsylvania. USA
The Electronic 1946-52 John von Neumann It was the fist computer based on stored program concept it could also sore

Discrete Variable botn instructions and data in binary form instcad of decimal mumbers or hua
readable words
AutomaticComputer
(EDVAC)
1947-49 A group of scientists It could add two numbers in 1S00 microsecondsand maltiply them in 4000
The Electronic Delay
headed by Maurice microseconds
Storage Automatic
Wilkes of Cambridge
Calculator (EDSAC)
University Mathematical
Laboratory
firs inallatn
It was the firstcomputer that was not "one of a kind" its
digital
1951 UNIVAC Corporation 10 yearsc its first business se
was in the Census Bureau, which was used for
The Universal

Automatic Computer 1954: it marked the arival of commercially

by General Electric Corporation
One (UNIVAC ) available computers
digital
for business and scientific appicatiens

and scienfic
available digital computer for husiness
was another commercially
Intemational Business It
1952
IBM-701 (IBM) applications
Machines
Corporation its re thn 10 anits

of IBM-700 series machines

lt was an improved model
Business agplications
business and scientific
International
1953 were sold for use in
IBM-650 Machines (IBM)
Corporation

wel-known early computers

 principle of storing
computers worked on the program
Most of the first-generation
program concept) sothat they
could
instruction
memory of computer (stored automatically
used electromagneticrelays, and users execute a
of these computers fed
intervention. Memory wrote instructions in
all
cards. Programmers machine and data
the system using punched
peogratnw
in those days. Since machine and
andind
of high-level programming languages assembly
lack assembly
langage
ork with,only a few specialists understoodhow to program these early computers.
languag%
computers are as follows:
Characteristic features of first-generation

They were the fastest calculating devices of their time.

1.
2. They were too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for instalation.

3. They used thousands of vacuum tubes that enitted amount of heat and
large
burntout
therooms/areas in which these computers were located had to be properly
airconditioned.
frequesty
Each vacuum tube consumned about half a watt of power. Since a computer
4.
typically Use
thousand vacuum tubes, power consumption of these computers was very high.

5. Asvacuum tubes used filaments, they had a limited life. Because a computer used
tubes, these computers were prone to frequent hardware failures. thousandsot

6. Due to low mean time between failures, these computers required constant maintenance

7. Inthese computers,thousands of individual components were assembled manually by hand

circuits. Hence, commercial production of these computers was difficult and costly.

8, Since these computers were difficult to program and use, they had limited commercial ne

Second Generation (1955-1964)

Jobn Bardeen, Willian Shockley,and Walter
(see Figure 1.4(b)]

than vacuum tubes

at Bell Laboratories

due to their following

in
Brattain

properties:
invented a new
1947.Transistors soon proved to be
electronic
a better electronic :
switching device callt.

switching

1. They were more rugged and easier to handle than tubes since they were made
of
semiconductormaterial rather than glass. germatin

They were highly reliable ascompared to tubes since they had no parts like a
2.
filament that could hur
3. They could switch much (almostten times faster)
faster than tubes. Hence, switching circuits md
transistors could operate much faster than their counterparts made of tubes.
4. They consumed almost one-tenth the power consumed by a tube.
5. They were much smaller than a tube.
6. They were less expensive to produce.

They dissipated much less heat as compared to vacuum

7.
tubes.

Second-generation computers were manufactured using transistors.

expensive,
They were more powerful, more reliable,
smaller, and cooler to les
operate than the
first-generation conmputers.

The second generation also

experienced a change in storage technology.
composed of magnetic cores. Memory of second-generation
Magneticcores are small rings compulen
made of ferite that can be
magnetized in elte
 theving storage capecity of few en od
e sntichckwise diection Large random acess menory
e of wires
cores stung on R mesh
1ees had several magnetic
convenient secondary
storags edu Late
and more
magnetic tape asa faster strage
were the main secindary feedin
rS7.researchers introduced disk and magnetic tape
developed,and magnetic for preparing and
ECC
ea
disk storage
also

used in second-generation
computers Users still used punched cards
widely

data to a computer and SNOBOL) and

pregrams and
languages (like FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL,
languages made second
programming programming
Os software front, high-level generation. High-level of batch operating
emerged during second computers. Introduction
hatch operating
system first-generation processing.
and use than
resulting in faster
easier to program mnultiple jobs
eeneration computers processing
reducing human intervention while computers.
WStem hclped in easier operation of
second-generation
throughput, and
enhanced increasingly

industry users used sccond

geeraton cop planning
computations,business and and
e addition to scientific inventory control, marketing,
like payroll,
applications
data processing
for commercial
of programmers and systems analysts
computers gave birth to a new profession triggered introduction of
of computers.
rather than design
Ease of use of second-generation
towards usage
in computing that is more oriented
in several colleges
and universities.
related courses
computer science
computers are as follows:
of second-generation
Characteristic features

than the first-generation

computers.
1. They were more than ten times faster
smaller space,
computers and required
2. They were smallerthan first-generation

heat than the first-generation computers. The rooms/are

power and dissipated less
They consumed less
3.
required to be properly air-conditioned.
computers were located still
in which the second-generation
the first-generation computers.
to hardware failures than
4. They were more reliable and less prone
computers.
secondary storage as compared to first-generation
5. They had faster and larger primary and
and use than the first-generation computers. Hence, they had w
6. They were easier to program
commercial use.
transistors had to be assembled manually
by hand
7. In these computers, thousands of individual
difficult and costly.
electronic circuits making commercial productionof these computers

(a) A vacuum tube (b) A transistor (c)An IC chip

Figure 1.4. Electronics devices used for manufacturing computers of different generations.
 ChapHer li lnisi

Third Generation (1964-1975)

la158, Jack St. Kilby and Robert Noyce inventedthe first integrated circuit.
Clair
intesrated
IC0 are circuits consisting of several electronic components like transistors, resistors, and circa
capacitry
single chip of silicon eliminating wired interconnection between components. IC technology
was
"microclectronics" technology because it made it possible to integrate largernumber of circuit alsok
very small (less than 5 mm square)surface of silicon, known as "chip" (see Figure 14(c)). 1Initiallycompee
circuits contained only about ten to twenty components. This technology was named small. the
-scale integ
(SSD. Later with the advancement in technology for manufacturing ICs, it became possible
Inteegro
about hundred components on a single chip. This technology was known as medium scale integration
(MS
Third generation computers were manufactured using 1Cs. Earlier ones used SSI technology andlater
MSI technology. 1Cs were smaller, less expensive to produce, more rugged and reliable, faster in
dissipated less heat, and consumed less power than cireuits built by wiring electronic cornponente r

Hence, third-generationcomputers were more powerful, more reliable, less expensive, srnaller,
and
operate than second-generationcomputers. cooe

Parallel advancements in storage technologies allowed construction of larger magnetic core based rand

memory as well as larger capacity magnetic disks and tapes. Hence, third-generation computers typicale
megabytes (less than 5 Megabytes) of main memory and magnetic disks capableof storing few tens of
of data per disk drive. regaby

On software front, standardization of high-level programming languages, timesharing operating

of softwarefrom hardware, and creation of an independent software industry
unbundling happened during thi
generation. FORTRANand COBOL were the most popular high-level programming languages in those
American National Standards Institute (ANSD standardized them in 1966 and 1968 respectively,
standardized versions were called ANSI FORTRAN and ANSI COBoL. The idea was that as lon
programmer follows these standards in program writing, he/shecould run hisher program on any computer
an ANSI FORTRAN or ANSI COBOL compiler (seeChapter
12 for details). Some more high-level nroe
period. Notable among these were PLU1, PASCAT
languages were introduced during the third-generation

BASIC.
their dat
Second-generation computers used batch operating system. In those systems, users had to prepare
The operator at the computer centre enll
nrograms and then submit them to a computer centre for processing.
users then col
in batches at scheduled intervals. The respective
these user jobs and fed them to a computer
from this batch processing ann
iob's output from the computer centre. The inevitable
delay resulting
their

because often they had to wait for days to loeat

was very frustrating to some users, especially programmers,
John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz of Dartmouth c
correct a few program errors. To rectify
this situation,
us
introduced the concept of timesharing operating system. Timesharing operating system enables multiple
that no on
access and share a computer's resources
simultaneously in a manner that each user feels
directly
relatively low-speed. o

is using the computer. This is accomplished by using a large number of independent,

terminals connected to the computer simultaneously.
A separate user uses each terminal to gain direct ac
all user programs have
the computer. Timesharing operating system allocates CPU time in such a way that
speed CPU allows it to switch from one us
share (known as a time slice) of CPU time in turn. Processing
of

another in rapid succession and execute a small portion of each job in allocated time slice until the

mpleted. Each user gets the illusion that he/she alone is using the computer. Introductionof timesharingc
elped in drastically improving the productivity of programmers and made on-line systems feasible, esul
new on-line applications like airline reservation systems,interactive query systems, etc.
 Cope Ce

106S, computer manufacturerssold their hardware along with all

heing for
associted software witht sepraby
softwre For example. buyers received langusge translators for all langusges
ter theypurchased Prom user's tandpoint,software wa free. However, the sihutionchanpd e
spported

Whee IBM and othet computer manufacturersbegan to price their hardware and software products separately
This unbundling of softwarefrum hardware gave users an to invest
n

in oftware of their need and iy

1
purchase 1anguaer
aie Fot example, now buyers could only the translators they needed and not all language
trsators supported on the purchased computer.This led to the creation of many new softwarehousex and the
teginning of an independentsoftwareindustry.

Another important conicept introduced during was that of backward compatible family of
third-generation
oomputers. Durnng this period, IBM introduced its System 360 as a family of computers with backward
compatibiliny as they were different sizes of mainframe systems based on the same machine language. This
enabled businesses to upgrade their computers without incurring costs of replacing peripheral cquipment and
modifying programs to run on new systems

Develomentwere
and introduction of minicomputers also took place during third generation, Computers built until
early 1960s
maintrame systems that only very large companies could afford to purchase and use. Clearly, a
heed existed for
low-cost smaller computers to fil the gaps left by the bigger, faster, and costier mainframe
systems.Several innovators recognized this nced and formed new firms in 1960s to produce
Smallercomputer.
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the fist commercially available minicomputer, the PDPS
(Programmed Datan Processor), in 1965. It could casily fit in the corner of a room and did not
require attcntion of a
full-ime computer operator. It used timesharing operating system and a number of users could access

simultaneouslyfromdifferent locations in the same building, Itscost was about one-fourth the cost of a traditional
maintrame system making it possible for smaller conpanies to afford computers.It confimed the tremendous
demand for
Small computers
for business and scientific applications, and by 1971, there were more than 25
computer manufacturersin minicomputer market.

Characteristic features of third-generation comnputers areas follows:

1. They were more powerful than second-generation computers.They were capable of pertorming about 1
million instructions per second.

2. They were smallerthan second-generation computers requiring smallerspace.

3. They consumed less power and dissipated less heat than second-generation computers.The rooms/areas in
which third-generation computers were located still required to be properly air-conditioned.
4. They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than second-generationcomputers requiring
lower maintenance cost.

5. They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage as compared to second-generationcomputers.
6. They were general-purposemachines suitable for both scientific and commercial applications.

7. Their manufacturing did not require manual assembly of individual conponents into electronic circuits
resulting in human labor and cost involved at assembly stage. Hence, commercial
productionof
these systems was easier and cheaper. However, highly
sophisticated technology and expensivesetup was
required for the manufacture of IC chips.

8. Standardization of high-level programming languages allowed programs written for one computer to be
casily ported to and executed on anotherrcomputer.
9. Timesharing operating system allowed interactive usage and simultaneous use of these systems by
multiple users.
 10 Chapt

inproving he
belped in
drastically

oerating systenm
several fold
prodeey
10 Timesharing development by
eot of program
down the time and on line sydem feasihle resing
also made sytem
operating
11 Timesharing
new online applications
user of
hese yteme an
hardware gave
of sofware from
12 Unbundling
of their need and value
software
made compulers aflordable even saller
by
of third-generation
13 Minicomputers

(1975-1989)
Fourth Generation
on a silicon chip dubled each year after
of electronic components packed 195 T o
Averagenumber (US)when it was possible
integrate over
integration
soon led to the
components on a
about one million
era of large-scale
single chip, followed
electronic componcnts
by very-large-scale integration
on single chip.

contains all circuits

This a
(VLS) when it was
progress led to sdramatie
nceded to perfom arithetic
develpea
a
pe
A microprocessor it became possihle
of a microprocessor.
on a singie chip. Hence,
the core activities of all computers, and other suppont
functions, prinary storage chips,
a few additional circuitry
computer with microprocessor,
a
Overnight computers became
computer (PC revolution inetedily
new social revolution - personal to own a comnouter
it becarme possible for many
inexpensive to make, and suddenly
They became
the Radio Shack
the TRS-80 model from
II from Apple
Computer Inc. and that
Divisi
the personal computer
By 1978, Apple By 1980, IBM realized
dominant personal computers. 1981, popularly known as IBM PC
Corporation were its own PC in
to ignore and came out with popularly known Seri
their own PCs, TBM compale
as
too promising
IBM's specification and designcd
manufacturers used for the PC industry during the fourth
popular standard
and its clones became
a

clones. The IBM PC

magnetic core mermories resulting in large
memories replaced
fourth generation, semiconductor becarne cheaper, smaller, and arger
in
During Hard disks
very fast access time. capcs
mnermories
with
as a portable medium for porting programs and a
access becarme popular
tapes, floppy disks
addition to magnetic
system to another.
one computer comIputer i
in the area of large-scale
place during fourth generation
also took the fouth-genera
Significant advancements of mainframe systems,
processing and storage capabilities multiprocessing
teche
addition to improved vector processing and symmetric
based on parallel a smallnumber of custom-desie
advent of supercomputers technologycontains
on parallel vector processing memory module through a Cal
supercomputer based data accessshared
of high-speed on s
to a number
the other hand, a
supercomputer based
nlcn are conncctco network. On
processoshigh-bandwidth crossbar switch mermory through
a hih

microprocessors connected to a shared A

uses commodity inclade
multiprocessing technology
of the former category
builders of supercomputers
Primary and Graphics, D

bus or a crossbar switch network. included 1BM, Silicon

category
Systems, whereas of the latter

Rescarch and ETA

DEIent Corporation.
This enabled interconecti
during fourth-generation.
also developed networks (LANs) bece
computer networking of data among them. Local
-speed area

multiple computers for communicationand sharing

within a campus. Similarly, wide area
netn
or
withín an organization
connecting comnputers This gave rise to ntwort
Dopular for at larger distances.
for connecting computers located
Ns) became popular
ers and distributed systems.
 Compuer Generstions 11

osare tent seveal new developmentsemetged to manch he new technologies of fourth generation, For
ple, vens devekyed several new A Nocable ones atone were MS-DOs
SWws
essas onpaes
and Aple's non OS Sice PCs o
wene for individuals who were not computer
graphical user interfaces foeiaking eomputers none ser friendly (easerto
developd
Aphicalaeiee (GUn pvides ions (pictures) and menus (list of choices) that sers can select
Ah a mose Nmaufacturers and aplication sotware developers PC-based
co developed several new
make PSa powerfal tool Nocable among these were powerful wond processing packages that
wel casy developmentefdocuments, sprcadsheet package that allowedcasy manipalationand analysis of data
pni colusand rows and graphics packages that allowed casy drawing of pictures and diagrams.
ber ve scful concept that became popular during fourth-generation was that of multiple windows on a
ingle terminal screen This feature allowed sers to see the status of several applications simultaneously in
enarae idows on sameterminal soreen.

the arca of sofware for large-scale computers, key technolegies that became pogularincluded mulipneessing
eaing sytems and concurent programming languages With maltiprocessing operating systems, a matnirame
Sstem could ese multiple processors (a main procesorand several subondinate processors) in such a manner that

be subordinate processors could manage the user terminals and peripheral devices, allowing the main processrto
nceerste on he main performance. Supercomputers also used
processing
pOnom
abprocessing operating systemn to extract the best
the overall
the lange number ot p cessors used in

hese systems Concuent programing languagesfurther belped in effectively using the multiprocessine
capabiliies of these systems by allowing programmers to write their applications in such a way that different
processons coald execute parts of theapplication in paalel. The most ambitiouslanguage of this type was ADA.

During fourth-generation, theUNIN operating system also became very popular for use on large-scale systems.
Additiocally, due to proliferation of computer networks,seveal new features were included in existing operating
systemsto allow maltiple computerson the same networkto communicate with cach other and shareresources

Sene other software technologiesthat became popular

during fourth-generation are C programming language.
software design, and object-oriented programming C language combines features of high-level
bject-oriented
programming languages with efficiency of an assembly language The primary objectives
of object-oriented
tare desigrare to make programs generalized and to build software systems by combining reusable picces of
Pogram codes called objects. To facilitate object-oriented softa are design, several object-oriented programming
anguges were introduced. Out of these, C+*emerged as the most popularcbject-oriented language

Characteristic features of fourth-generation cumputers are as follows:

L POS were smaller and cheaperthan mainframes or minicomputersofthird generation.

mainframes and supercomputers required proper air-conditioning of the

2 Alchough the fourth-generation
rooms/anreas in which they were located, no air-conditioning was required for PCs.

3 They consumed less powerthanthird-generation computers

4 They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures than third-generation computers equiring
neglhgible maintenance cost

5. They had faster andlarger primary and secondary stomge as compared to thind generation computers.

6 They were general-purpose machines

7 Their manufacturing did not require manualassembly individual components into electronic circuits
of

reduced human labor and cost involved at asembly stage. Hence, commercial production of
resulting in
these systems was easier and cheaper. However, highly sophisticated technology and expensive setup was
required for manufacturing LSl and VLSl chips
 8 e
exile
o stndant hah
ied
pgnia
ad eeed otaher
languagea
emer
level

es quckly lean how

enabled nee
inerfce (GUb

Net aytkas Neil

8 Cokal user
oot n Ioth offie and hone ae
e

enabled sharina of roounes

ike disks, einters, ete ang
Newk of comyputers iypes of applior cations
H

and iheit es They aleeabled

seeal new
Cmywer Suyoriel CiNyeve
nvolving lilple

r
al
re
myler e at erhically

is one eh

cistant kwations cNyee

distant

applcatien in which
with each oier
lcations
mliple montbers working on a siogle Irking
Iy sing a newok of eomute

thee xystems ato used add

lon burdware featare
lat
iect

13 lnadtitkn o unbuntled soniware, of heir need and value all

ivest onty in the hatwane coniguraion and sotware

dividuds
nde conputes afondable even by
o
their
11 NSof futh geneation personal ue
of different
4 Suenvwutex
large nunbee of
of fouhgenenationenbled
wesons used in these
parallel
systems
processing
This, in tum, enabled running
parts of
an
of ak
ylcations uch tasten

Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

components, dramatie increase in power of
The trendof urther miniaturization of electronie
memory and hard disk contied during finhgeneration VLSI
chis, and increasein capcity of main
in inh generation resultiog in
became LS (Chre large Soule Iegrutlm) technology pod
components. Infact,the spced of microprocessoN&
microproxessor chips having ten million electronie andthe
every eighteeh months, As a result, Iany
of main memory and hard disk doubled almost features found
Nystems became part of
CPUs of large mainthme xystems of thind and fourthgeneration
rOstled in availabiliy of very powerful and
mictopro
This ultimately
architecure in inh generation Compact
conpu
ecoming available at cheaper rates and death of traditional large maintame kystems. Recentiy
mulicore processor chips instead of increasingly powertul (faster) pxe
anufacturers started building
chips improve overall pertormance by handling more work in parallel
rocessor chips. The multicore

Due to this fast pace of advancement in computer technology, we see more COmpact and nore
poWet
computers being introduced almost every year at more or less the same price or even cheaper, Notable
hese are porrable notebook computers that give the power of a PC to their users even whiletaveling, b
lesktop PC% and workstations, powerful servers, powertul supercomnputers, and handheld computers. (see Ch
C0 for a detailed description of these types of computers).

Storage technology also advanced making larger main memory and disk storage available in newly intood

ystenms. Curently, PCs having few Gigabytes (GB)of main memory and 80 to 320 Gigabytes (GB) of huta
capacity are comnon, Similarly, workstations
having 4 to 64 Gigabytes of main memory and few hundre
igabytes of hard disk
capaciy common. KAID (Redundant Array efnepensive Disks) technology enab
are
configuration of a bunch of disks as a single large disk. It, thus, supports larger hard disk space with
better in
reliability. During fifh generation, optical disks (popularly known as Compact Disks or CDs) emerged as a
popular portable mas storage media.

In the area of large-scale systems, fifth-generation

saw the emergence of more powerkul
allelpocessing supercomputers based o
technology. They used
processos and were of two types
multiple
huied memory
shared memory and
parallel computers. Ina shared memory parallel computer, a
Bion network interconnects a number high-speed bus a
of processors to a
common main memory, whereas in
 umber of
processors,
each with
a orotle
network interconnects into smaller
a problem
to break
a communication
techhique memory parallel
emory aratlel conputer, programming of a shared parallet

Nue
ey
rihuted
These syxtems
theim in arallel
on
use parallel
multiple processors
for communication,
whereas
Processors
of he system. those of a distributed memory
memory parallel computers
have
by
access mechanism Distributed and are now built
se memory for communication.
memory parallel
computers, This is
passing mechanism
silee

er use message than shared switched network.

in capability) commodity
grow larger by using a high-speed
Rer scalaility (can workstations
powerfulcommodity
stering together for
technology. It made it possible
Dwn as chsterine applications.
technologiesand by use of electronic
mail
Internet emerged with associated
cach other within minutes the
the
During fith generation, the globe to
communicate with to computer
users through
across became readily available clectronic
puter Users applications like
sitting
A vast ocean of information
nwn as e) tacility.

(nown as Www). Moreover, several new types of exciting

during the period.
World
Web
Wide distance education,etc. emerged
virtual classrooms,
them
oerce, virtual ibraries, computers also made
capacity of fifth-generation
containing
and the massive storage dealing with information
tremendous processing power applications much larger
a wide range of multimedia size for multimedia information
The is
and popular tool for data form
useful
very
audio, and video data. In general, audio, or video media in digital
ext, graplhics, animation, of graphics, animation, of this, multimedia
text intormation because representation of plain text. Because
plain representation
good graphics teminal,
than
that required for
requires much larger
number of bits than devices, larger main memory,
larger storage
faster processor, a multimedia application
omputer systemts require audio or video associated with annlications
required
devices
to play any
in
oroth of mulimedia
a tremendous
and inputoutput resulted
computer systems
The avatlabiity of muitimedia
during fifth-generation.

gained popularity during fifth-generationinciude

that
systems, some new concepts enabled designers to
In the area of operating operating systems. Microkernel technology and
and multicore
systems easier to design
microkernels, multithreading. fashion. This makes operating
systems in a modular their oWn service.
model and design operating to implement and use
or add new services, and allows users In
modify
performance through parallelism.
implement, easier to
a popular way to improve application
multithreading operating systems,
technology is
Multithreading
operating systems,basic unit of CPU
scheduling is a process but in
n
address space
systems, a process consists of an
traditional

CPU scheduling is a thread. In such operating

same address space. Hence, these systems
basic unit of
data, and one or more threads sharing
containing its instructions and of same process more
threads, and share resources between threads
can create a new thread, switch CPU between A
better overall system performance.
resulting in faster execution and
efficiently than between processes, each core
programs at the same time on a multiocre chip with
ulticore operating system can run multiple
handling a separate program.

of programming languages, concepts that gained popularity during fifh generation

are JAVA
In the area
programming language, and parallel programming libraries like MPI (Message Passing
Interface) and PVM
Paralel Virual Machine). JÀVA s used primarily on the World Wide Web. It supports Java-based applets
allowing web pages to have dynamic information and more interactivity with users of web information. MPI and
PVM enable development of standardized parallel programs, so that a programmer can easily port and
libraries

execute a program developed for one parallel computer on other parallel computers.
parallel MPI is used for
distributed memory parallel computers and PVM is used for shared memory parallel computers.

Characteristic features of fifth-generation computers are as follows:

1. Portable PCs (called notebook computers) are much smaller and handy than PCs of fourth generatior
allowing users to use computing facility even while travelling.
 Key hardware Key aofiware Key
(ieneatan lechnalgles harsctiitie
fechnologles
(Pelod)

ulay Machine and aenily langunges, Halky in s

Vacuun bes,electgnte sored perm oncepl; mmly highly unceliaile,

eory,punched cadu seconlary

(1942195sy wientife applicaions
producio difeslt and costly:

ditficalt use

eyweil 40, 156M

sallr, ellile ad caserto
sysem, hiplh level
Pastet,
70),CDC J006
con memory Bach
Woan han previae geneatim syaems
operating

Second
Tranistos, magnote
progmning lanyuag, UNIVAC LARC
and disks secondary
seientifie nd conmecal
anetic lapes
(955 196) costly
storae
applicalon
oe elable, esier
snd BM IO,PDP8,
saller,
syslem:
Timesharjg operainjg aeaner lo uce comercially asi
IC wih SSt and MSt echnaloges of high level
than previous
eoy e, and eaiet tu upprle
Thind Mandardization
larger
lager manetie core pogmning langunges, sclentific, cümecial
(19641975)
nagnetie disks and
tapos
om encom systems;
capacity unbundlin of soflwae and interactive on line applicalions
stoage, minieonpiles ches
secondary
hardwaro IBM PC and its

affordable, reliahle, and easy to use

VAX
syilems forPCs;
GU Small,
Apple l, THS 80,
VINItechnology:
Operating PC 9000, CHAY1,
CHAYZ
ICs with
windows on a single ainfrane
fouth
micopeCssors semicondacor
muliple
ulirocess
owerful and rellable
CHAY XMP
1975 19K0) unt dike an ieminal sceen;
emoryi largercapacity ad concunent yitens; produce
perating systems easier to
manete eneral purpoeachines;
languaes, UNIX
secondary stonage,
in buill
ax ptable
progranning eommercially
and loppy disk
lapes operaing Ayatem,
eompues,
sage media: personal Cand Cet proramming languages,
of high speed coputer aetwork
spread PCacd applicatio,
nefworka object oriented
hused applicatons,
soltware design IBM otehooks, Pentiam
Portable cnputers PCa, SUN Wokatations,
World Wide Web, ultimedis ellable, and easier
ICs wih ULSTechology, multicore
Internethased
epowerul, cheaper, IBM SPIZ, SGI Origin
main machines
2000, PARAM
applicatios,

(989Presen) pNerchips,caacity larger capacity

hard diska, pplications; Microkenel,
lo uie desktop

verypwerfuli maietames,
very high uptime
memory. larger
muhithveading, ant mulicore general
supercomputers
readnly due to hot pluggable cononcntsi
diske as portable
optical systems,JAVA to produce
sorage edia, notebook
conputers operating
purpose chines, easier
ing language,MPi
and
owerd desktop PCs and eaies
PVM for parallel
commecially
workstations
maintranes: prgrmming
very powrul
on parallel
supeconputers based
ocesin
the lntenet

Computer generations-Asummary.
Figure 1.6.
 CHAPTEA

Basic Computer Organization

have been
Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability, and cost of computers
several yeas, the basic logical structure(based on the stored program concep),as proposed by
as not changed. No matter r what shape and size of computer we aretalking about,
all
changing over
Vo6
computer
hefollowvingfive basicfunctions for converting raw input data into useful information and
systerms e
presenting

1. Inputing, It is the process of entering data and instructions into a computer system.
2. Storing.It is the process of saving data and instructions to make them readily available
for in
additionalprocessing as and when required.

3. Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.), or lowi
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)on data to convert them into useful ope
al

known as processing. informa

4. Outputting, It isthe process of producing useful information or results for a

user, such as
or visual display. printed

5. Controlling. Directing the manner and scquence

in which the above operations are performed 1
as controlling.

goal of this chapter is to

familiarize you with the units ofa
ides an overview of computer computer system that perform these
systens as computer system architects view funets
them.
mal architectureof computers
differs from one system model to another. However,
ame for all computer systems, Figure 2.1 shows a basic organizationte
block diagram of basic computer
organization.
 Unit

instnuction and daa, and dotted

ow o ies
esindcte perfomed by rpresent
ol
all computer
operation control

athe
ie busic systems.
exercsed
by
o
Functions of
Storage unit eachof contl
tee
Secondary
Input storage
and data unit Output
Poirate Primary
storage
Inforration
(Resalts)

Control
Unit

Arithmetic Indicates
Logic Unit floeof
instructons
and
data
Indicates
Central the
Processing Unit (CPU) exercised bycontrol
control unit
Elaure 2.1.
BasiC
organizatonof a computer
system

INPUT UNIT
must enter a computer system
Data and instructions before the
ied data. The input unit that links a
computer with its comnputercan
enter computer through an input unit
a external perform any
actions in a
form environment computation on
ecample, data
can be entered using a keyboard in a that
depends upon performs this the
mannet task. Data
data is
entered through a
scanner, another type of similar to the input and
Wbich
input typing and device used.

accept input
in binary code and hence, all input device.
However, a
this
differs from
For
devices must the way
alled inpt interfaces
accomplish this
transformation. Input transforminputcomputer's memory is in
signals to designed
of input devices to the interfaces match
chiracteristics requirements of a the unique binary codes. Units
computer physical
system. or electrical
short, an input unit performs following functions:

L It accepts(or reads) instructionsand data from

outside world
2. It
t converts these instructions and data in
computer acceptableforn.
accomplish this task. Units called input
interfaces
1 t supplies the converted
instructionsand data to the storage
unit forstorage and further processing.

UTPUT UNIT
output unit performs the reverse operation of that of an input unit It supplies information obtained from dat
ncessing to outside world. Hence, it links a computer with its external environment. As compuien Wok w

hry code, results produced are also in binary form, Therefore, before supplying the results to outside worid, the
 form. Units callcd opur
intertu
theI uman acceptabie(readable) of
ccoti
Ksem must eovet to etrical characteristies output
or electr devicces (te
interfaces match the unique physical
task utgat
to the requiements
of an external environment.
printers, etc)

Ia sbort. an output unit performs followingfunctions:

the

form We cannot understand coded

esultse
acceptsthe produced results, which are in coded Units
It
forn. called
(readable) ousput inte
t converts these coded results to human acoeptable
1.
accornplishthis task.

3. It suppliesthe converted results to outside worl.

STORAGE UNIT to be stored

have insidethe
input units com
system through uter after procecssing hay
Data and instructions entered into
a
sults
conputer
produced by
a computo
unit. Moreover, compu
to
a
he
before actual processing stats. Similarily,
restn
passed on
to an output mputer
system caters to all huy
before being of a computer
somewhere inside the Cornputersystem Storage unit these nr
essing. results for
output.
intermediate results for ongoing processt results, and
preserve intermediate
storingdata and
instruetions,
es space for

n short,a storage unit holds (stores):

from input units).
(received
required for processing
- The data and instructians
of processing. unit.
2. Tntermediateresults to an output
releases them
beforethe system
ofprocessing,
3. Final results
types ofstorage:
is comprised offollowing two
computers
torage unit of all
known as main memory. storespieces
computer system, also
of a
Primary storage and recently produced results of tho
1. Primary storage. intermediate results of processing,
The central processing unit can access the
s and data,
h
program instructions system is currently working. electronicalle
i

the computer they are represented

job(s) on which fast speed because
directly at a very it loses the
information in
pieces of inforation storage is volatile, and
However. primiary storage normally has imited ston
memory chip's cicuitry. Moreover, primary
systems is mad up
off or resets.
switches
asthe computer system storage ot modern computer
it is very expensive. Primary
capacity because
semiconductor devices.
storage, takes
also known as ailiary
storage. Secondary storage of a computer system, capacity andvol
2 Secondary It supplements the limited storage
storage.
of the lmitations of primary cheaper than primary ston
of primary storage. This is because secondary storage is much
characteristic off or resets. computer su A
the computer system switches
and it can retain information even when of those jobs on which
instructions,data., and information
uses secondary storage to store program
hold them for processing later. The m

computer system is currently not working but needs to

is magnetic disk.
commonly used secondary storagemedium
 UNIT (ALU)
LOGIC
AITHMETIC and instructions stored in its
data
orimary
computer temporarily transfers the
transters
the storage
and o
the
computer
intermediate ALU a
ah
des U
the
processing
of the
jobis over. results and she
generated needed
tng
there
processing bckt
before
ALU

than.
dpreater

UNIT
(CU)
CONTROL data once it receives them.
with the
be done device and not the intermediateMoreover,how it
should output is that
what to an results? All the
eALUknowresults foroutput this is computer
only the system. possible due
tothe
ends computer
unit
ofthe any actual processingofjobs, but
control
not perform acts as
the central
unit does system. It manages and coordinates the
control
computer in operations
main memory, interprets the nevous system
of the
of all
A computer's stored other
components a program
for other from them instructions, and components.
instructions to execute issues
obtains system signals
t the
units of
other
CaUsing

UNIT (CPU)
CENTRAL PROCESSING
logic unit (ALU) computer system are
of a

arithmetic together known as

(C) and of a computer system.
In a human body,the the Centra
Control
unit
It isthe brain brain takes
all major decision
Unit (CPU). as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a
computer system,the
Prcessing body function CPU perforn
the and also activates and controls the
parts of
other comparisons, operations
and and of other units of th
major calculations
all

computer
system.

THE SYSTEM
CONCEPT
that we
have been referring to a computer as a system (computer system).
You might

a
have observed

system a group of
is
integrated i parts having a common purpose :
of achieving some objective(s).
This

Hence-
because
characteristics:
systerm has following three

element.
It has more than one
1.
2 All its elements are related logically.

All its elements are controlled in a manner to achieve the system goal.
3.
 and CPU
Since a campier has integrated Icnponents outpt unit, stoage nit,
(input unit,
output nits
o perf e steps cafled tor in an system Input and
executinE prugram,itiss ue.tefulo
or CPU alone is of o
they receive signals fom the CPU Similarly, atsge unit
units to form syslerm
onoer a

depends units and is ealizalile only when we integrate all

cmpasr asa sytem (computersystem)

Points to Remember
f Tot
e processing
of
utput resulte

Al computer systes perform following five primarY yAnd secondary

basic furctins for converting aw input data into primary storage, secondary rsye
useful information operation, larger in capacity cheatey
oring processing,
and con can retain information even hen
uputtinL,
switches off or resets.
2 Pigure 2.1
bystem
shows the main components of a computer
8. During data processing. actual
instructions takes place in the
3. Inpat unit enables feeding of data and instructions o ALU) )ofa computersystem. Arihmeie L
computer system from outside world in compuler
a

acceptable form. 9 Control Unit (CU) ofa computer sye

and coordinates the
operations
4. Inpa nterfaces transform input data and instructions componentsof the computersystem
(Ied to a computer through its input devices) into
10, Control unit and arithmetic
binary codesthat are acceptable to the computer, logic unit of
system together form the Central
3. Ouiput unit enables a computer system to supply (CPU), which serves as the brain
intormation (obtained fromn data processing) o system and is responsible for
Procesin
of the

outside world in human acceptable (readable) lorm sof coell

operations J
other units of he system.
6 Ouput lnterfaces transformm information (obtained
L We often
form to hunan refer to a computeras a -
data processing) from binary
compuley
Trom because it consists of
form. integrated
acceptable (readable) unit. output components
unit, storage unit, and CPU) hu
7 SMorage unit of a computer system
and
holds data
intermediate
and
and
together to perforn he steps caled
forisa
instructions to be processed puga

Questions

bya 5. Differentiate between the

What are the five basic functions performed characteristics of gr
and secondarystorage of a
computersystem? computer systenm

to illustrate basic 6 What are the

two main componentsof CPUa
2. Draw a block diagram

organization of a computer system and explain the computer system? List the main functions
component.
o
functions of various units.

How differs from an 7 Write the logical steps taken by

What is an input interface? it
a computet
along with the roles of its main units in eat
output interface?
while transforming input data to useful inforn
How many types of storage a computer system forpresentation to a user
normally uses? Justify the need for cach storage

type. What a system? Why do we

is often reler

computer as a conputer system?