RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,

BHOPAL New Scheme Based On AICTE

Flexible Curricula Computer Science and Engineering,

VIII-Semester for YouTube

Open Elective – CS803 (A) Image Processing and Computer Vision#

I. Basics of CVIP:
Computer Vision and Image Processing (CVIP) is a field that focuses on the development of algorithms
and techniques to extract meaningful information from digital images or video. It combines elements
from various disciplines, such as computer science, mat
mathematics,
hematics, and engineering, to enable computers
to interpret and understand visual data. CVIP plays a crucial role in various applications, including
autonomous vehicles, medical imaging, surveillance systems, and augmented reality.

II. History of CVIP:

Thee history of CVIP dates back to the early days of computing. In the 1960s, researchers began exploring
techniques for image analysis and pattern recognition. Initially, CVIP was primarily used for simple tasks
like edge detection and shape recognition. How
However,
ever, with advancements in computing power and the
development of more sophisticated algorithms, CVIP expanded its capabilities.

III. Evolution of CVIP:

The evolution of CVIP can be categorized into several stages:

1. Early Years:
In the early years, CVIP
P primarily focused on low
low-level
level image processing tasks, such as image
enhancement, noise reduction, and edge detection. Researchers developed basic techniques like the
Sobel operator and the Hough transform to analyze and extract features from images.

2. Feature Extraction and Representation

Representation:
As CVIP progressed, emphasis shifted towards extracting and representing meaningful features from
images. Researchers developed algorithms for feature detection, such as SIFT (Scale
(Scale-Invariant
Invariant Feature
Transform) and SURF (Speeded-UpUp Robust Features), which enabled robust object recognition and
matching.

3. Object Recognition and Classification

Classification:
With the availability of large datasets and advancements in machine learning techniques, CVIP
witnessed a significant shift towards
owards object recognition and classification. Deep learning algorithms,
particularly Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), revolutionized CVIP by achieving state-of-the-art
state
results in tasks like image classification, object detection, and semantic segmenta
segmentation.

4. 3D Vision and Reconstruction:

The evolution of CVIP also encompassed the field of 3D vision, where researchers aimed to extract
three-dimensional
dimensional information from images or multiple camera views. Techniques like stereo vision,
structure from motion,
on, and depth estimation algorithms allowed for the reconstruction of 3D scenes
from 2D images.

YouTube Channel: RGPV

PV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
IV. CV Models:
1. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): CNNs are a class of deep learning models that have
revolutionized CVIP tasks, especially image classification and object recognition. They leverage the
concept of convolution, enabling the network to automatically learn hierarchical features from input
images. CNNs have achieved remarkable performance in tasks like image classification (e.g., ImageNet
competition) and object detection (e.g., Faster R-CNN, YOLO).

2. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): RNNs are another type of neural network that have found
applications in CVIP, particularly in sequence-based tasks like video analysis or optical character
recognition. RNNs are designed to capture sequential dependencies by using feedback connections,
making them suitable for tasks where temporal information is crucial.

3. Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): GANs are a class of neural networks that consist of two
components: a generator and a discriminator. GANs have gained popularity in CVIP for tasks like image
synthesis, style transfer, and image-to-image translation. By pitting the generator against the
discriminator in a competitive setting, GANs can generate highly realistic and visually appealing images.

4. Transformer Models: Originally introduced for natural language processing tasks, transformer models
have also made significant contributions to CVIP. Transformer-based architectures, such as the Vision
Transformer (ViT), have demonstrated remarkable performance in image classification and achieved
competitive results with CNNs. Transformers excel in capturing long-range dependencies, making them
well-suited for tasks involving global image understanding.

Title: Image Filtering, Image Representations, Image Statistics, Recognition Methodology

I. Image Filtering:
Image filtering is a fundamental technique in image processing that involves modifying the pixels of an
image based on a specific filter or kernel. Filtering operations can be applied to achieve various
objectives, such as noise reduction, edge enhancement, and image smoothing. Some commonly used
image filters include:

1. Gaussian Filter: The Gaussian filter is a popular choice for image smoothing or blurring. It applies a
weighted average to each pixel in the image, with the weights determined by a Gaussian distribution.

2. Median Filter: The median filter is effective in removing salt-and-pepper noise from an image. It
replaces each pixel with the median value of its neighboring pixels, thereby reducing the impact of
outliers.

3. Sobel Filter: The Sobel filter is used for edge detection in an image. It calculates the gradient
magnitude of each pixel by convolving the image with two separate kernels in the x and y directions.

4. Laplacian Filter: The Laplacian filter is used for edge enhancement. It highlights regions of rapid
intensity change in an image by enhancing the second-order derivatives.

II. Image Representations:

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

Image representations refer to the methods used to encode and represent images for further analysis.
Different representations offer various advantages in terms of efficiency, computational complexity, and
feature extraction. Some common image representations include:

1. Grayscale Representation: In the grayscale representation, each pixel in the image is represented by
a single intensity value, typically ranging from 0 (black) to 255 (white). Grayscale representations are
often used in simpler image processing tasks where color information is not required.

2. RGB Representation: The RGB representation represents an image using three color channels: red,
green, and blue. Each pixel is represented by three intensity values, indicating the contribution of each
color channel. RGB representations are widely used in computer vision tasks that require color
information.

3. Histogram Representation: The histogram representation provides a statistical summary of the pixel
intensity distribution in an image. It presents the frequency of occurrence for each intensity value,
allowing analysis of image contrast, brightness, and overall distribution.

III. Image Statistics:

Image statistics refer to various statistical measures that can be computed from an image. These
statistics provide insights into the characteristics of an image and can be utilized for tasks such as image
segmentation, texture analysis, and feature extraction. Some commonly computed image statistics
include:

1. Mean: The mean of an image represents the average intensity value across all pixels. It provides
information about the overall brightness of the image.

2. Variance: The variance measures the spread or distribution of intensity values in an image. It indicates
the amount of contrast or texture present in the image.

3. Skewness: Skewness measures the asymmetry of the intensity distribution. A positive skewness
indicates a longer tail on the right side of the distribution, while a negative skewness indicates a longer
tail on the left side.

4. Kurtosis: Kurtosis measures the "peakedness" or "flatness" of the intensity distribution. It provides
information about the presence of outliers or the concentration of intensity values around the mean.

IV. Recognition Methodology:

Recognition methodology refers to the approaches and techniques used in image recognition tasks, such
as object recognition, face recognition, or pattern recognition. It involves the following key steps:

1. Preprocessing: Image data is prepared for recognition by applying techniques like resizing,
normalization, and noise removal.

2. Feature Extraction: Discriminative features are identified and extracted from the image, such as
intensity gradients, color histograms, texture descriptors, or deep learning representations.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

3. Classification: Techniques like supervised learning, unsupervised learning, neural networks, or
ensemble methods are employed to assign a label or category to the extracted features.

4. Post-processing: Refinement techniques are applied to improve the classification results by filtering,
smoothing, or decision fusion.

5. Evaluation and Validation: The performance of the recognition methodology is assessed using
metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, comparing the results against ground truth or
known labels.

6. Deployment and Integration: The methodology is deployed and integrated into real-world
applications, ensuring scalability, efficiency, and integration with existing systems.

7. Continuous Improvement: Recognition methodologies are continuously updated and refined as new
algorithms, techniques, and datasets become available, leading to improved performance and accuracy.

Title: Conditioning, Labeling, Grouping, Extracting, and Matching in Image Processing

I. Conditioning:
Conditioning in image processing refers to the process of preparing an image for further analysis or
processing. It involves applying various techniques to enhance image quality, reduce noise, correct
distortions, and adjust image properties. Conditioning aims to improve the image's visual appearance
and make it suitable for subsequent operations such as feature extraction or recognition.

II. Labeling:
Labeling in image processing involves assigning unique identifiers or labels to individual objects or
regions within an image. It is commonly used in tasks like object detection, segmentation, or tracking.
Labels help differentiate and track specific areas of interest, enabling further analysis or manipulation of
those regions.

III. Grouping:
Grouping, also known as clustering, is a technique in image processing that involves grouping similar
pixels or objects together based on certain criteria. It aims to identify coherent structures or regions
within an image. Grouping can be based on properties such as color similarity, intensity values, texture
patterns, or spatial proximity. It is often used in tasks like image segmentation or object recognition to
organize and distinguish different parts of an image.

IV. Extracting:
Extracting in image processing refers to the process of isolating specific features or information from an
image. It involves identifying and extracting relevant regions or elements of interest. Extraction
techniques can be based on various characteristics, such as shape, texture, color, or motion. Extracting
enables the extraction of meaningful information from images, which can be used for further analysis,
classification, or recognition tasks.

V. Matching:
Matching in image processing involves comparing two or more images or patterns to determine their
similarity or correspondence. It aims to find similarities or matches between features, objects, or

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

patterns present in different images. Matching techniques can be based on various algorithms and
criteria, such as geometric properties, appearance, or statistical measures. Matching is widely used in
tasks like image registration, object recognition, or image retrieval.

VI. Morphological Image Processing:

Morphological image processing is a set of techniques used to analyze and manipulate the shape and
structure of objects within an image. It is based on mathematical morphology, which involves operations
like dilation, erosion, opening, and closing. These operations modify the shape, size, or connectivity of
objects in an image. Morphological image processing is particularly useful in tasks like noise removal,
edge detection, object segmentation, and feature extraction. It allows for the analysis and manipulation
of an image based on its structural properties.

Title: Introduction to Morphological Image Processing and Operations

I. Introduction:
Morphological image processing is a branch of image processing that focuses on the analysis and
manipulation of the shape and structure of objects within an image. It is based on mathematical
morphology, which uses set theory and lattice theory concepts to define operations on images.
Morphological operations are particularly useful in tasks like noise removal, edge detection, object
segmentation, and feature extraction.

Morphological Algorithm Operations on Binary Images:

II. Dilation:
Dilation is a morphological operation that expands or thickens the boundaries of objects in an image. It
involves scanning the image with a structuring element, which is a small pattern or shape, and for each
pixel, if any part of the structuring element overlaps with the object, the corresponding pixel in the
output image is set to the foreground or object value. Dilation helps in filling small gaps or holes in
objects, enlarging object boundaries, and enhancing object connectivity.

III. Erosion:
Erosion is the counterpart to dilation in morphological image processing. It shrinks or erodes the
boundaries of objects in an image. Similar to dilation, erosion also uses a structuring element and scans
the image. If all the pixels within the structuring element overlap with the object, the corresponding
pixel in the output image is set to the foreground or object value. Erosion helps in removing small object
details, separating connected objects, and smoothing object boundaries.

IV. Opening:
Opening is a combination of erosion followed by dilation. It helps in removing small objects and noise
while preserving the overall shape and structure of larger objects. Opening is achieved by applying
erosion first, which removes small details, and then applying dilation to restore the original size of
remaining objects. Opening is useful in tasks like noise removal, background subtraction, and object
separation.

V. Closing:
Closing is the reverse of opening and is achieved by applying dilation followed by erosion. It helps in
closing small gaps and filling holes in objects while maintaining the overall shape and structure. Closing
is performed by applying dilation first to close small gaps and then applying erosion to restore the

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

original size of objects. Closing is useful in tasks like filling holes in segmented objects, joining broken
lines or curves, and smoothing object boundaries.

Hit-or-Miss Transformation:

The hit-or-miss transformation is a morphological operation used for shape matching or pattern
recognition in binary images. It aims to identify specific patterns or shapes within an image. The
operation requires two structuring elements: one for matching the foreground or object shape and
another for matching the background or complement of the object shape.

The hit-or-miss transformation works by scanning the image with both structuring elements. For each
pixel, if the foreground structuring element perfectly matches the foreground pixels and the background
structuring element perfectly matches the background pixels, the corresponding pixel in the output
image is set to the foreground value. Otherwise, it is set to the background value.

The hit-or-miss transformation effectively identifies pixels in the image where both the foreground and
background structuring elements match, indicating the presence of the desired pattern or shape. It is
particularly useful for detecting shapes with specific configurations or arrangements.

Applications of the hit-or-miss transformation include:

1. Template Matching: The hit-or-miss transformation can be used to match a specific template or
pattern within an image, enabling tasks like object detection or character recognition.

2. Shape Analysis: It can be utilized to extract and analyze specific shapes or structures in an image,
aiding in tasks like object segmentation or boundary extraction.

3. Feature Detection: By matching predefined patterns, the hit-or-miss transformation can help in
detecting distinctive features or regions of interest in an image.

4. Quality Control: It can be employed in quality control processes to identify defects or anomalies
based on predefined patterns or shapes.

5. Character Recognition: The hit-or-miss transformation is commonly used in optical character

recognition (OCR) systems to identify specific characters or symbols within an image.

The hit-or-miss transformation is a powerful tool in morphological image processing that allows for
precise shape matching and pattern recognition. By utilizing the foreground and background structuring
elements, it enables the detection and extraction of specific shapes or patterns in binary images..

Morphological Algorithm Operations on Gray-Scale Images:

1. Gray-Scale Dilation:
Gray-scale dilation is an extension of binary dilation to gray-scale images. Instead of setting the output
pixel to the foreground value, the maximum value within the structuring element is assigned. Gray-scale
dilation helps in expanding and thickening regions of higher intensity, enhancing the brightness and size
of objects in the image.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

2. Gray-Scale Erosion:
Gray-scale erosion is an extension of binary erosion to gray-scale images. Instead of setting the output
pixel to the foreground value, the minimum value within the structuring element is assigned. Gray-scale
erosion helps in shrinking and thinning regions of lower intensity, reducing noise and removing small
details.

3. Gray-Scale Opening:
Gray-scale opening is a combination of gray-scale erosion followed by gray-scale dilation. It helps in
removing small objects and noise while preserving the overall shape and structure of larger objects,
similar to binary opening.

4. Gray-Scale Closing:
Gray-scale closing is a combination of gray-scale dilation followed by gray-scale erosion. It helps in
closing small gaps and filling holes in objects while maintaining the overall shape and structure, similar
to binary closing.

Thinning, Thickening, Region Growing, and Region Shrinking in Image Processing:

1. Thinning:
Thinning is a morphological operation in image processing that aims to reduce the width of foreground
objects in a binary image while preserving their overall connectivity and shape. It is achieved by
iteratively removing boundary pixels of objects until they are reduced to single-pixel-wide lines. Thinning
helps in extracting the skeleton or medial axis of objects, which can be useful in applications such as
shape analysis, pattern recognition, and character recognition.

2. Thickening:
Thickening, also known as dilation or fattening, is the opposite of thinning. It is a morphological
operation that expands the boundaries of foreground objects in a binary image while maintaining their
overall shape and connectivity. Thickening is achieved by iteratively adding pixels to the object
boundaries until they reach the desired thickness. It can be useful in tasks such as object enhancement,
boundary refinement, and image synthesis.

3. Region Growing:
Region growing is a technique used in image segmentation, particularly for gray-scale images. It starts
with a seed pixel or region and grows the region by adding neighboring pixels that satisfy certain
similarity criteria. The criteria can be based on intensity values, color, texture, or other image features.
Region growing continues until no more pixels can be added, forming distinct regions or segments in the
image. It is commonly used in medical imaging, object detection, and feature extraction.

4. Region Shrinking:
Region shrinking, also known as region erosion, is the reverse of region growing. It is a process in image
segmentation where regions or segments are iteratively reduced by removing boundary pixels that do
not meet certain similarity criteria. Region shrinking aims to refine the boundaries of regions, making
them more precise and compact. It can be employed to separate overlapping objects, remove noise or
outliers, and improve segmentation results.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
 RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
BHOPAL New Scheme Based On AICTE

Flexible Curricula Computer Science and Engineering,

Scan for YouTube

UNIT ll

What are the Image Representation and Description:

In computer vision, image representation and description refer to the process of extracting
features and characteristics from an image and converting them into a format that a computer
can process and understand. There are different representation schemes and boundary
descriptors used in image processing.

Representation schemes refer to the methods used to extract features from an image, which are
then used to describe or identify the im
image.
age. Some of the most common representation schemes
include:

1. Pixel-based
based representations: This involves using the raw pixel values of an image as its feature
vector. This is a simple but effective way to represent an image, although it can be sensitive to
changes in illumination and image noise.
2. Frequency-based
based representations: This involves converting an image into the frequency domain
using techniques like Fourier transforms. The frequency domain representation can be used to
identify patterns or textures in an image.
3. Texture-based
based representations: This involves using statistical methods to extract texture features
from an image. Texture features describe the variation in intensity or color in different regions of
an image.
4. Shape-based
based representations: Thi
Thiss involves using geometric methods to extract shape features
from an image. Shape features describe the boundaries and contours of objects in an image.

Boundary descriptors are a type of shape

shape-based
based representation that describe the edges and
boundaries of objects in an image. There are several types of boundary descriptors, including:

1. Chain codes: This involves encoding the boundary of an object as a sequence of directions that
the boundary takes at each pixel.
2. Fourier descriptors: This involves representin
representingg the boundary of an object as a sum of cosine and
sine waves.
3. Curvature scale space: This involves representing the boundary of an object as a series of curves
that describe the shape of the boundary at different scales.

Boundary descriptors are commonly used in tasks such as object recognition, image retrieval,
and image segmentation.

YouTube Channel: RGPV

PV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
What is Region descriptors Binary Machine Vision

In binary machine vision, image segmentation refers to the process of dividing an image into
different regions or segments based on its features or characteristics. Region descriptors are
methods used to describe the characteristics of these segmented regions. Some common region
descriptors used in binary machine vision include

Thresholding:

Thresholding is a simple and commonly used technique for image segmentation in binary
machine vision. It involves converting a grayscale or color image into a binary image by
selecting a threshold value that separates the foreground pixels from the background pixels. The
threshold value can be selected manually or automatically based on the image histogram.

There are several types of thresholding techniques, including global thresholding, adaptive
thresholding, and Otsu's method. Global thresholding involves using a fixed threshold value for
the entire image, while adaptive thresholding adjusts the threshold value for each pixel based
on the local image intensity. Otsu's method is an automatic thresholding technique that selects
the threshold value that maximizes the separation between the foreground and background
pixels.

Segmentation:

Segmentation is the process of dividing an image into multiple regions or segments, each of
which corresponds to a specific object or part of an object. Segmentation is a crucial step in
image analysis and is used for tasks such as object recognition, image enhancement, and image
compression.

There are several techniques used in image segmentation, including thresholding, edge-based
segmentation, region-based segmentation, and clustering-based segmentation. Thresholding
involves converting a grayscale or color image into a binary image based on a selected
threshold value. Edge-based segmentation involves detecting edges in an image and using
them to define the boundaries of objects. Region-based segmentation involves dividing an
image into regions based on pixel intensity, texture, or other image features. Clustering-based
segmentation involves grouping pixels into clusters based on their similarity in color or intensity.

Connected Component Labeling:

Connected component labeling is a technique used to identify and label individual objects or
regions in a binary image. It involves finding all connected pixels in the image that belong to the
same object and assigning a unique label to each object. Connected component labeling is

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 commonly used in image processing tasks such as object recognition, feature extraction, and
object tracking.

There are several algorithms used for connected component labeling, including the two-pass
algorithm, the one-pass algorithm, and the recursive algorithm. The two-pass algorithm involves
two passes through the image to identify and label the connected components. The one-pass
algorithm is a more efficient algorithm that only requires one pass through the image. The
recursive algorithm is a recursive implementation of connected component labeling that uses a
stack or recursion to identify and label connected components.

In summary, region descriptors in binary machine vision involve various techniques such as
thresholding, segmentation, and connected component labeling, which are used for tasks such
as image analysis, object recognition, and feature extraction. These techniques are important
tools for a range of applications in fields such as computer vision, robotics, and medical
imaging.

What are Motion-based segmentation. Area Extraction ?

Motion-based segmentation:

Motion-based segmentation is the process of separating moving objects from the background
in video sequences. It involves detecting and tracking the motion of objects over time and using
this information to segment them from the background. There are several techniques used in
motion-based segmentation:

1. Optical Flow: Optical flow is a technique that estimates the motion of objects by analyzing the
movement of pixels between consecutive frames. It can be used to detect the motion of small
objects and is often used in real-time applications. However, optical flow can be sensitive to
noise and can result in inaccurate motion estimates.
2. Background Subtraction: Background subtraction is a technique that separates moving objects
from the background by subtracting a reference frame from the current frame. It can be used to
detect larger objects and is often used in surveillance systems. However, background
subtraction can be affected by changes in illumination and can result in false detections due to
shadows or reflections.
3. Region-based Methods: Region-based methods involve dividing the image into regions and
analyzing the motion of each region. This method can be used to detect complex objects and
can be more robust to changes in illumination. However, region-based methods can be
computationally expensive and may require manual initialization.

Once the motion-based segmentation has been performed, the segmented regions can be
analyzed and measured.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 Area Extraction:

Area extraction is the process of extracting and measuring the areas of segmented regions
obtained through segmentation techniques. Here are some common concepts, data structures,
and algorithms used in area extraction:

1. Edge Detection: Edge detection involves detecting the edges of objects in an image, which can
be used to identify the boundaries of the segmented regions.
2. Line-Linking: Line-Linking involves linking together edge segments to form complete lines or
contours, which can be used to represent the boundaries of the segmented regions more
accurately.
3. Hough Transform: The Hough transform is a technique used to detect lines or curves in an
image by transforming the image space into a parameter space. It can be used to detect the
boundaries of the segmented regions and to extract features such as the length and orientation
of lines.
4. Line Fitting: Line fitting involves fitting a line to a set of edge segments, which can be used to
represent the boundaries of the segmented regions more accurately.
5. Curve Fitting (Least-Square Fitting): Curve fitting involves fitting a curve to a set of data points,
which can be used to represent the boundaries of the segmented regions more accurately.
Least-square fitting is a common technique used for curve fitting, which involves minimizing the
sum of the squared errors between the curve and the data points.

Once the segmented regions have been extracted, their areas can be measured using various
methods such as pixel counting, contour integration, and moment-based methods. These area
measurements can be used for tasks such as object tracking, object recognition, and motion
analysis in video sequences.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
BHOPAL New Scheme Based On AICTE

Flexible Curricula Computer Science and Engineering,

Scan for YouTube

Unit lll

Explain Region Analysis: Region properties, External points, Spatial moments

Region
gion analysis involves the study and evaluation of the properties of a particular region or area
in an image. Regions can be any shape or size and may have different properties that are of
interest to the analyst. Region analysis is an important tool for u
understanding
nderstanding the properties of
an image and can be used in a variety of applications, including image processing, computer
vision, and pattern recognition.

1. Region Properties:
2. These are basic features of a region that describe its size and shape. These pro properties
perties include:
 Area: The area of a region is the number of pixels contained within it. It is usually expressed in
square pixels.
 Perimeter: The perimeter of a region is the length of its boundary. It can be used to estimate the
shape of the region and the e degree of its irregularity.
 Centroid: The centroid of a region is the center of mass of the region. It can be used to estimate
the position of the region in the image.
 Bounding Box: The bounding box is the smallest rectangle that encloses the region. It can be
used to estimate the size and shape of the region.
2. External Points: These are points that lie outside the region but are used to describe its
properties. External points can be used to compute the eccentricity of the region, which is a
measure of how w elongated or circular it is. Other external points include the major and minor
axes of the region, which can be used to estimate its orientation.
3. Spatial Moments: These are mathematical calculations that are used to describe the shape and
position of a region. The zeroth--order
order spatial moment is equal to the area of the region, while
the first-order
order spatial moments are used to calculate the centroid of the region. Higher-order
Higher
spatial moments can be used to estimate the shape and orientation of the region.
4. Mixed Spatial Gray-Level
Level Moments: These are calculations that take into account both the
spatial position and the intensity values of the pixels in the region. They are used to evaluate the
texture and contrast of a region. These moments can be used to es estimate
timate the texture and
contrast of the region, which can be useful in applications such as medical image analysis.

In summary, region analysis is an important tool for understanding the properties of an image
and can be used in a variety of applications. R
Region
egion properties, external points, spatial moments,

YouTube Channel: RGPV

PV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
 and mixed spatial gray-level moments are some of the key properties of regions that can be
analyzed to extract useful information from images.

Explain Boundary analysis: Signature properties, Shape numbers

Boundary analysis is a technique used to study and analyze the properties of the boundaries of
objects or regions in an image. It involves extracting information from the boundaries of objects
in order to classify, identify, or segment them. Two key properties of boundary analysis are
signature properties and shape numbers.

1. Signature Properties: Signature properties refer to a series of numbers that represent the shape
and structure of a boundary. The signature can be calculated using various methods, such as
Fourier descriptors or complex moments. Signature properties can include curvature, tangent
angles, and boundary length. They can be used to classify and identify objects based on their
shape, as well as to track object movement and deformation.
2. Shape Numbers: Shape numbers are numerical descriptors that are used to quantify the shape
of a boundary. They are often calculated using geometric features such as area, perimeter, and
compactness. Some commonly used shape numbers include circularity, aspect ratio, and
eccentricity. These shape numbers can be used to distinguish between different types of objects
or to compare the shapes of different regions in an image.

Here are some additional details on these properties:

 Curvature: Curvature is a measure of the rate of change of the tangent angle along the
boundary. It can be used to distinguish between curved and straight boundaries, as well as to
detect corners or inflection points in the boundary.
 Tangent angles: Tangent angles are the angles between the tangent line and the horizontal axis
at each point along the boundary. They can be used to quantify the orientation of the boundary
and to identify symmetrical patterns.
 Boundary length: Boundary length is the length of the boundary of an object. It can be used to
estimate the size of an object or to track its movement over time.
 Circularity: Circularity is a measure of how closely a boundary resembles a perfect circle. It is
calculated as the ratio of the object's perimeter to the perimeter of a circle with the same area. A
perfectly circular object will have a circularity of 1, while more irregular objects will have lower
circularity values.
 Aspect ratio: Aspect ratio is a measure of the elongation of an object. It is calculated as the ratio
of the object's height to its width. Objects that are longer in one direction than in the other will
have high aspect ratios, while objects that are roughly square will have aspect ratios close to 1.
 Eccentricity: Eccentricity is a measure of how elongated or flattened an object is. It is calculated
as the ratio of the distance between the foci of an ellipse that fits the object to its major axis
length. Objects that are more elongated will have higher eccentricities, while more circular
objects will have eccentricities close to 0.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 In summary, signature properties and shape numbers are important properties of boundary
analysis. They can be used to characterize the shape and structure of objects in an image, and to
distinguish between different types of objects based on their shape. These properties can be
used in a wide range of applications, including pattern recognition, image segmentation, and
object tracking.

Explain General Frame Works For Matching

The general frame for matching is a set of techniques used to compare and match objects or
patterns in an image with a reference template or database. The general frame consists of four
main components: the distance relational approach, ordered structural matching, view class
matching, and models database organization.

1. Distance relational approach: The distance relational approach involves comparing the
distances between feature points in the reference and target images. These distances can be
used to compute a similarity score, which indicates how well the target image matches the
reference image. The distance relational approach is commonly used for point-based features,
such as corners or edges.
2. Ordered structural matching: The ordered structural matching approach involves comparing
the structures of the reference and target images. This involves identifying the objects or regions
in the image and comparing their relative positions and shapes. The ordered structural matching
approach is commonly used for shape-based features, such as contours or silhouettes.
3. View class matching: The view class matching approach involves matching objects or patterns
across different viewing angles or orientations. This involves building a database of views or
templates for each object or pattern, and then comparing the target image to the appropriate
view or template in the database. The view class matching approach is commonly used for 3D
object recognition or tracking.
4. Models database organization: The models database organization involves organizing the
reference templates or models in a database for efficient searching and retrieval. This involves
indexing the templates based on their features, such as shape or texture, and using efficient
search algorithms, such as k-d trees or hash tables, to quickly retrieve the closest matches.

In summary, the general frame for matching provides a set of techniques for comparing and
matching objects or patterns in images. These techniques include the distance relational
approach, ordered structural matching, view class matching, and models database organization.
Each technique has its strengths and weaknesses, and the appropriate technique depends on
the specific application and the features of the objects or patterns being matched.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
BHOPAL New Scheme Based On AICTE

Flexible Curricula Computer Science and Engineering,

Scan for YouTube

UNIT lV

Explain Facet Model Recognition: Labeling lines, Understandin

Understandingg line drawings, Classification of shapes
by labeling of edges

Facet model recognition is a technique used to recognize and classify 2D line drawings or
sketches into different shapes based on the labeling of edges. This technique involves several
steps, including labeling lines, understanding line drawings, and classifying shapes based on the
labeling of edges.

1. Labeling lines:: In the first step of facet model recognition, lines in the drawing are labeled
based on their geometric properties, such as length
length,, orientation, and curvature. These labels
provide information about the shape and structure of the lines and are used to group similar
lines together.
2. Understanding line drawings:: In the second step of facet model recognition, the labeled lines
are analyzed
ed to understand the underlying structure of the drawing. This involves identifying the
vertices and edges of the drawing, as well as any symmetries or regularities in the shape.
3. Classification of shapes by labeling of edgesedges: In the final step of facet model
el recognition, the
labeled lines and the underlying structure of the drawing are used to classify the shape into a
predefined set of categories. This is done by matching the labeled lines and the structural
information of the drawing with a database of kn known shapes.

The labeling of lines is an important step in facet model recognition, as it provides a basis for
understanding the underlying structure of the drawing. Different labeling schemes can be used
depending on the application, such as using angles o orr curvature to label lines. Understanding
the line drawing involves identifying the vertices and edges of the drawing and extracting any
relevant features, such as symmetry or regularity. Finally, the classification of shapes based on
the labeling of edges involves matching the labeled lines and structural information of the
drawing with a database of known shapes. This can be done using various techniques, such as
machine learning algorithms or rule
rule-based systems.

In summary, facet model recognition is a ttechnique

echnique used to recognize and classify 2D line
drawings or sketches into different shapes based on the labeling of edges. This technique
involves several steps, including labeling lines, understanding line drawings, and classifying
shapes based on the labeling
eling of edges. Facet model recognition can be used in various

YouTube Channel: RGPV

PV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
 applications, such as in computer-aided design (CAD) or in the recognition of hand-drawn
sketches.

Explain Recognition of shapes, Consisting labeling problem, Back-tracking AlgorithmPerspective

Projective geometry

Shape recognition is the process of identifying the shapes or objects present in an image. The
recognition of shapes involves several steps, including the segmentation of the image, feature
extraction, and classification of the shapes. One of the main challenges in shape recognition is
the problem of shape labeling.

1. Consisting labeling problem: The shape labeling problem refers to the task of assigning labels to
the shapes in an image based on their properties. For example, a square can be labeled as a
rectangle, but not all rectangles can be labeled as squares. The shape labeling problem can be
solved using various techniques, such as graph-based approaches or statistical methods.
2. Backtracking algorithm: One technique used to solve the shape labeling problem is the
backtracking algorithm. This algorithm involves searching for the best labeling solution by
iteratively testing different combinations of labels until a valid solution is found. The
backtracking algorithm can be used for shape labeling in both 2D and 3D images.
3. Perspective projective geometry: Another important aspect of shape recognition is the use of
perspective projective geometry. This involves modeling the 3D world as a 2D projection and
using geometric transformations to map points in the image to their corresponding points in
the 3D world. Perspective projective geometry is essential for recognizing shapes in images
captured from different viewpoints.

In summary, the recognition of shapes involves several steps, including segmentation, feature
extraction, and classification. The shape labeling problem is a key challenge in shape
recognition, and techniques such as the backtracking algorithm can be used to solve this
problem. Perspective projective geometry is also important for recognizing shapes in images
captured from different viewpoints. Shape recognition has many applications, such as in
robotics, autonomous vehicles, and image analysis.

Explain Inverse perspective Projection, Photogrammetric -from 2D to 3D

Inverse perspective projection is a technique used in photogrammetry to create 3D models from

2D images. This technique involves using geometric transformations to map points in the image
to their corresponding 3D coordinates in space. The inverse perspective projection is often used
in computer vision and robotics applications to estimate the position and orientation of objects
in 3D space.

The photogrammetric process involves taking multiple images of an object from different
viewpoints and using the inverse perspective projection technique to reconstruct a 3D model.
The process begins with the calibration of the camera, which involves determining the intrinsic

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 and extrinsic parameters of the camera. The intrinsic parameters include the focal length, sensor
size, and distortion coefficients, while the extrinsic parameters include the position and
orientation of the camera in space.

Once the camera is calibrated, the images are processed using the inverse perspective
projection technique to map 2D image points to their corresponding 3D coordinates in space.
This involves first determining the position and orientation of the camera relative to the object,
and then using the camera projection matrix to transform the 2D image points into 3D
coordinates. The resulting 3D points can then be used to reconstruct a 3D model of the object.

Inverse perspective projection is a powerful technique for creating 3D models from 2D images,
but it has some limitations. One of the main challenges is dealing with occlusions, where parts of
the object are hidden from view in some images. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate 3D
models. Additionally, the accuracy of the 3D model depends on the quality of the camera
calibration and the accuracy of the inverse perspective projection algorithm.

In summary, inverse perspective projection is a technique used in photogrammetry to create 3D

models from 2D images. This technique involves using geometric transformations to map points
in the image to their corresponding 3D coordinates in space. The resulting 3D points can then
be used to reconstruct a 3D model of the object. Inverse perspective projection has many
applications, including in robotics, computer vision, and virtual reality.

Explain Image matching: Intensity matching of ID signals, Matching of 2D image, Hierarchical image
matching
Image matching is the process of comparing two or more images to determine if they represent
the same object or scene. Image matching is used in a variety of applications, including object
recognition, image retrieval, and motion tracking.

1. Intensity matching of ID signals: One technique used in image matching is intensity matching of
ID signals. This involves comparing the intensity patterns of an object in different images and
using these patterns to identify the object. This technique is particularly useful when matching
images of objects with distinctive features, such as facial recognition.
2. Matching of 2D image: Another technique used in image matching is matching of 2D images.
This involves comparing the pixel values of two images to determine if they represent the same
scene or object. This technique is particularly useful when matching images of objects with
simple features, such as geometric shapes.
3. Hierarchical image matching: A third technique used in image matching is hierarchical image
matching. This involves breaking down the image matching problem into smaller sub-problems
and using a hierarchical approach to solve each sub-problem. This technique is particularly
useful when matching images of complex objects or scenes, such as landscapes or urban
environments.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 In addition to these techniques, there are many other approaches to image matching, including
feature-based matching, template matching, and machine learning-based matching. Each
approach has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of technique will depend on the
specific requirements of the application.

In summary, image matching is the process of comparing two or more images to determine if
they represent the same object or scene. Techniques for image matching include intensity
matching of ID signals, matching of 2D images, and hierarchical image matching. Image
matching has many applications, including in object recognition, image retrieval, and motion
tracking.

Explain Object Models And Matching: 2D representation, Global vs. Local features
Object models and matching is an important area of computer vision that involves representing
objects in a way that allows them to be recognized and matched in images. There are many
different techniques for creating object models, but two of the most common are 2D
representation and feature-based representation.

1. 2D representation: One technique for creating object models is to use 2D representation, which
involves representing an object as a set of 2D features or landmarks. These features can be
points, lines, curves, or other shapes, and they are often selected based on their distinctive
characteristics. Once these features have been identified, they can be used to match the object
in new images by comparing their positions and shapes.
2. Global vs. Local features: Another important consideration in object modeling and matching is
the use of global versus local features. Global features are those that describe the overall shape
or appearance of an object, such as its size, orientation, or texture. Local features, on the other
hand, are those that describe specific regions or parts of an object, such as corners, edges, or
other distinctive features. Global features are often more robust to changes in viewpoint or
lighting, but they may not be as distinctive as local features. Local features, on the other hand,
are often more distinctive but may be less robust to changes in viewpoint or lighting.

Feature-based representation is another technique for creating object models. This approach
involves representing an object as a set of distinctive features or descriptors, which can be used
to match the object in new images. Feature-based representation can be more robust than 2D
representation because it is less sensitive to changes in viewpoint, lighting, or background
clutter. However, it requires more computational resources and may not be as effective for
objects with less distinctive features.

In summary, object models and matching involves representing objects in a way that allows
them to be recognized and matched in images. Two common techniques for creating object
models are 2D representation and feature-based representation. The choice of technique will
depend on the specific requirements of the application, including the complexity of the objects

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

and the robustness required for matching. The use of global versus local features is also an
important consideration in object modeling and matching, as it can affect the accuracy and
robustness of the matching process.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
BHOPAL New Scheme Based On AICTE

Flexible Curricula Computer Science and Engineering,

Scan for YouTube

UNIT V

Explain Knowledge Based Vision: Knowledge representation, Control

Control-strategies,
strategies, Information
Integration
Knowledge-Based Vision is an approach to computer vision that focuses on the
integration of knowledge and information processing techni
techniques
ques with computer vision.
This approach is based on the idea that the knowledge of the world and the ability to
reason about it is crucial to the understanding of visual information. In this article, we
will discuss the key concepts of knowledge
knowledge-based vision,
ion, including knowledge
representation, control strategies, and information integration.

Knowledge Representation Knowledge representation is the process of encoding

knowledge in a form that can be used by a computer. In knowledge
knowledge-based
based vision, the
representation
entation of knowledge is crucial because it enables the computer to reason about
the visual information it receives. There are various methods of knowledge
representation, including rule--based systems, frame-based
based systems, and semantic
networks.

Rule-based systems use a set of rules that describe the relationships between objects
in the world. These rules are usually in the form of "if
"if-then"
then" statements that define the
conditions under which a particular action should be taken. For example, a rule-based
rule
system
em for identifying objects in an image might use rules that specify the shape and
color of the object.

Frame-based systems represent knowledge using a hierarchical structure of frames that

define the properties and relationships of objects in the world. EaEachch frame contains slots
that represent the attributes of the object, such as its size, color, and shape. Frames can
also have inheritance relationships, where one frame inherits the properties of another.

Semantic networks represent knowledge using a graph structure that defines the
relationships between objects in the world. Nodes in the graph represent concepts, and
edges represent the relationships between them. For example, a semantic network for

YouTube Channel: RGPV

PV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial
identifying objects might have nodes for "chair," "table," and "desk," with edges that
indicate that a chair can be found in a room.

Control Strategies Control strategies refer to the methods used to control the flow of
information in a knowledge-based vision system. In particular, control strategies
determine how knowledge is used to guide the interpretation of visual information.
There are various control strategies used in knowledge-based vision, including goal-
driven control, data-driven control, and hybrid control.

Goal-driven control involves using high-level goals to guide the interpretation of visual
information. For example, a goal-driven system for object recognition might have a goal
to identify all the objects in an image. The system would then use knowledge of object
properties to guide the interpretation of the image.

Data-driven control involves using the visual information itself to guide the
interpretation process. In a data-driven system, the computer first extracts features from
the image, such as color, texture, and shape. The system then uses this information to
guide the interpretation of the image.

Hybrid control combines both goal-driven and data-driven approaches. In a hybrid

system, the computer first extracts features from the image, and then uses this
information to guide the interpretation process based on high-level goals.

Information Integration Information integration refers to the process of combining

multiple sources of information to improve the interpretation of visual information. In a
knowledge-based vision system, information integration can involve combining
knowledge from different sources, such as visual knowledge and contextual knowledge.

Visual knowledge refers to the knowledge of the visual properties of objects, such as
their shape, color, and texture. Contextual knowledge refers to the knowledge of the
context in which the visual information is presented. For example, contextual knowledge
might include information about the lighting conditions, the location of the objects, and
the relationships between the objects.

To integrate information from different sources, a knowledge-based vision system might

use techniques such as Bayesian inference, fuzzy logic, or neural networks. These
techniques allow the system to combine information in a way that accounts for
uncertainty and ambiguity.

In conclusion, knowledge-based vision is a powerful approach to computer vision that

combines knowledge representation, control strategies, and information integration. By

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 integrating knowledge and reasoning with visual information, knowledge-based vision
systems can achieve a deeper

Explain Object recognition-Hough transforms and other simple object recognition methods
Object recognition is a process in computer vision that involves identifying objects in
an image or a video stream. It is a challenging problem due to variations in lighting
conditions, object pose, occlusions, and background clutter. In this article, we will
discuss two simple object recognition methods: Hough transforms and template
matching.

Hough Transforms Hough transforms is a popular method for detecting simple shapes,
such as lines and circles, in an image. The method was developed by Paul Hough in
1962 and has since been extended to detect other shapes such as ellipses and
rectangles.

The basic idea behind Hough transforms is to transform the image space into a
parameter space, where each point in the parameter space represents a line or a circle in
the image. The transformation is achieved by mapping each pixel in the image to a
curve in the parameter space, where the curve represents all the possible lines or circles
that pass through the pixel.

To detect a line in an image using Hough transforms, the following steps are typically
performed:

1. Edge detection: Detect edges in the image using edge detection algorithms such as
Canny or Sobel.
2. Hough transform: For each edge pixel in the image, compute the set of curves that
pass through the pixel in the parameter space. Accumulate the curves in a Hough
accumulator array.
3. Peak detection: Identify the peaks in the accumulator array, which correspond to the
lines in the image.
4. Line extraction: Extract the lines corresponding to the peaks in the accumulator array
and draw them on the image.

Template Matching Template matching is a simple object recognition method that

involves comparing a template image with the target image to find a match. The
template image is a small image that represents the object to be detected, and the
target image is the larger image in which the object is to be found.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

 The template matching process involves the following steps:

1. Template creation: Create a template image of the object to be detected.

2. Image preprocessing: Preprocess the target image to improve the matching process.
This may include operations such as scaling, rotation, and filtering.
3. Matching: Slide the template image over the target image and compare the pixel values
of the two images at each location. Compute a similarity measure, such as correlation or
sum of squared differences, to determine how well the template matches the target
image at each location.
4. Thresholding: Set a threshold value for the similarity measure and identify the locations
where the similarity measure exceeds the threshold. These locations correspond to the
object in the target image.
5. Object localization: Extract the object from the target image using the location
information obtained in step 4.

Limitations of Simple Object Recognition Methods While Hough transforms and

template matching are simple and efficient methods for object recognition, they have
some limitations. One of the main limitations is that they are sensitive to variations in
lighting conditions, object pose, and background clutter. These methods may also not
be able to handle complex objects with multiple parts or textures.

To overcome these limitations, more advanced object recognition methods have been
developed, such as feature-based methods, which extract distinctive features from the
image, and deep learning-based methods, which use convolutional neural networks to
learn features directly from the image data. These methods are capable of handling
more complex objects and are more robust to variations in the image data.

Explain Shape correspondence and shape matching, Principal component analysis , feature
extraction
Shape correspondence and shape matching, principal component analysis, and feature
extraction are important concepts in computer vision that are used to identify and
match objects in an image or video stream. In this article, we will discuss these concepts
in detail.

Shape Correspondence and Shape Matching Shape correspondence is the process of

finding the correspondence between the shapes of two objects. This is an important
step in shape matching, which is the process of finding the object in an image or video
stream that matches a given shape.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

One approach to shape correspondence is to use geometric features, such as corners or
edges, to represent the shape of the object. These features can then be compared
between two objects to find their correspondence. Another approach is to use shape
descriptors, such as Fourier descriptors or shape context, which capture the overall
shape of the object and its distribution of features.

Shape matching algorithms typically involve finding the correspondence between the
shapes of two objects and then computing a similarity measure between them. Some
popular similarity measures include Euclidean distance, Hausdoff distance, and the
Chamfer distance.

Principal Component Analysis Principal component analysis (PCA) is a statistical

technique used to analyze and reduce the dimensionality of a dataset. In computer
vision, PCA is often used for feature extraction, which involves identifying the most
important features in an image or video stream.

PCA works by finding the principal components of a dataset, which are the directions of
greatest variation in the data. These principal components are used to create a new set
of features that capture the most important information in the data.

In computer vision, PCA can be used for image compression, object recognition, and
face recognition. In image compression, PCA is used to reduce the dimensionality of the
image data, which can lead to significant reductions in storage space and processing
time. In object recognition and face recognition, PCA is used to extract features from the
image data, which are then used to identify and match objects in the image.

Feature Extraction Feature extraction is the process of identifying and extracting

important information from an image or video stream. Features can be defined as
distinctive attributes or characteristics of an object, such as edges, corners, or color
histograms.

Feature extraction algorithms typically involve identifying salient points or regions in the
image, and then computing a set of features at each point or region. These features can
then be used to identify and match objects in the image or video stream.

Some popular feature extraction algorithms include SIFT (scale-invariant feature

transform), SURF (speeded up robust features), and HOG (histogram of oriented
gradients). These algorithms are often used in object recognition, image retrieval, and
face recognition applications.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

Conclusion Shape correspondence and shape matching, principal component analysis,
and feature extraction are important concepts in computer vision that are used to
identify and match objects in an image or video stream. These concepts are
fundamental to many computer vision applications, including object recognition, image
retrieval, and face recognition.

Explain , Neural network and Machine learning for image shape recognition
Neural networks and machine learning are powerful techniques for image shape
recognition. In this article, we will discuss how these techniques work and their
applications in computer vision.

Neural Networks for Image Shape Recognition A neural network is a computational

model that is inspired by the structure and function of the human brain. It consists of
interconnected nodes, or neurons, that work together to perform a specific task, such as
image classification.

In image shape recognition, a neural network can be trained to recognize specific

shapes or patterns in an image. The network is fed a large number of training examples,
each with a label indicating the shape or pattern present in the image. The network
learns to recognize the shape or pattern by adjusting its weights and biases, which are
parameters that determine the output of each neuron.

Once the network is trained, it can be used to classify new images by feeding them into
the network and analyzing the output. Neural networks have been successfully used in a
variety of image recognition tasks, including object recognition, face recognition, and
handwriting recognition.

Machine Learning for Image Shape Recognition Machine learning is a broader term
that encompasses a range of techniques used to enable machines to learn from data
without being explicitly programmed. In computer vision, machine learning is often used
to recognize shapes and patterns in images.

One popular machine learning technique for image shape recognition is supervised
learning, which involves training a model using a set of labeled training examples. The
model learns to recognize the shape or pattern in the image by analyzing the features of
the image and the corresponding label.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial

Another machine learning technique for image shape recognition is unsupervised
learning, which involves training a model without any labeled training examples. The
model learns to recognize patterns in the data by analyzing the features of the images
and identifying similarities and differences between them.

Machine learning techniques have been used in a wide range of image recognition
tasks, including object recognition, face recognition, and image segmentation.

Conclusion Neural networks and machine learning are powerful techniques for image
shape recognition. They have been successfully used in a variety of computer vision
applications, including object recognition, face recognition, and image segmentation. As
the field of computer vision continues to evolve, we can expect to see even more
advanced techniques being developed to improve image shape recognition and other
related tasks.

YouTube Channel: RGPV Exam official 2023 https://www.youtube.com/@RGPVExamOfficial