Ca s co de operation results in an

impres s ion of a dyna m ic range capability

considerably bey ond whatthe rated power would suggest.

Nelson Pass *

Lowering distortion in power circuits nonlinearities, the correspondingly problems exist. The first solution is to
without compromising their transient large amounts of feedback applied are not require any high frequency per­
response remains a primary problem generally more than equal to the task formance of the circuit, that is, not to
for designers of audio power of cleaning up the performance with feed it high frequency signals it cannot
amplifiers. Until fairly recently, the only one trade-off - the high frequen­ handle. While this solution works very
favorite technique for removing distor­ cy performance of the system well for many operational amplifier
tion components in linear amplifiers Because each amplifying device also applications requiring only low fre­
was to cascade many gain stages to contributes its own high frequency quency performance, it is judged to be
form a circuit having enormous roll-off, and because the sum of many unacceptable in high-fidelity applica­
amounts of gain and then using of these roll-offs creates a complex, tions where frequency response is re­
negative feedback to control the multi-pole phase lag, a system using quired beyond 100 kiloHertz. Although
52
system and correct for the many errors large amounts of negative feedback human hearing is generally very poor
introduced by this large number of tends to be unstable at high frequen­ above 20,000 Hertz, ultrasonic fre­
components. cies, resulting in phenomena popularly quency roll-offs produce phase and
While the sum of these components' referred to as Transient Intermodula­ amplitude effects in the audible
distortions may cause large complex tion Distortion ( TIM) As this region; for example, a single pole
phenomena has been well described (6dB/octave) roll-off at 30 kHz pro­
'Threshold Corp. elsewhere, it will be sufficient here to duces about 9° phase lag and 0.5 dB
Saeramenlo, Cal. point out that two solutions to TIM l oss at 10 k Hz. The effects may be sub-

Fig_ 1- Characteristics of an ideal transistor, Fig. 2 - Actual transistor characteristics.

18' 8

18'
7

1 8 '6
t t
18
'5

I 18
'
4

II 18'

18 '2

18 'I
3

L - ----

VeE --

AUD IO • March 1978

 C OLLECTOR

BASE ---+---1

EMITTER

Fig. 3 - Operating region of a dass-A amplifier. Fig. 4 - Cascode operation of transistor

Q. by the common-base connection of
Q,.
tie, but their audibility is undesirable allows the circuitry to respond to
in a piece of equipment whose per­ signals very quickly. thus eliminating
formance is judged by its neutrality tr ansient problems, but it does so at T IM effects, whose high order
Because of this bandwidth require· the expense of higher harmonic and in· sidebands bear less resemblance to the
ment, designers of state-of-the-art termodulation distortions. naturally occurring harmonics in the
amplifiers are turning to the other solu­ Because these distortions are more music. Musical or not, the lower order
tion, simple circuits having few ampli­ "musical" (having low orders of har­ harmonies and sidebands still deserve
fying devices and relatively low open­ monics and intermodulation to be removed, and the attention of
56 loop gain. The simplicity and low gain sidebands), they are less offensive than the best designers has turned to remov-
t

Fig. 5 - Region of cascode operation. Fig. 6- Effective characteristic of cascode operation.

ing the distortions in the individual of an amplifying device is altered. A device changes and as the current
amplifying devices themselves. instead perfectly linear device has a transfer through the device changes As these
of applying corrective feedback to the curve which is a perfectly straight line. conditions fluctuate. the device
system Any deviations (distortion) from this generates distortion. but if we hold
straight line is the result of a gain fac­ these condition, to a constant. the
Altered Gain tor which varies depending upon the device becomes distortionless. Figure 1
To understand the approach to this operating conditions. In real life. the is a characteristic curve of an ideal
problem. it is first necessary to note gain of a transistor. tube. or FET distortionless transistor. showing ab­
that all distortions arise when the gain changes as the voltage across the solute linearity under all conditions. 57
 +15V +15V

47KQ.
IN IN --.JV'\./'Ir---f
_--J\JVV---i
+50V- r'\. cu-+5V +5V- r'\. +5v
-5V- -5V-
O- �
--5v
-

- ----0 �--+-_O UT � -O
-0
15kHz
OUT
-- 5v 15 kHz

-15v -15V
Fig. 7a - Emitter-follower operation. Fig. 7b - Cascode-emitter follower.

whereas Fig. 2 is the characteristic relatively mild as compared with the daries of such a system, where the
curve of an actual transistor. Notice more abrupt gain changes outside of operating voltage is frozen to a con­
that the spacing between the parallel the dotted lines. stant. Figure 6 shows the effective
lines is unequal, reflecting gain transfer characteristics of such a
changes with different currents Cascode Operation system, and we see that it more nearly
through the transistor, and that they At great expense of efficiency, approximates the curves of the ideal
are curved off the horizontal axis, class-A operation reduces non­ transistor in Fig. 1.
showing gain changes dependent on linearities due to current fluctuations A graphic demonstration of the ef­
the voltage across the device. As the through the transistor. However, it fectiveness of such an arrangement is
transistor wanders through these does not affect nonlinearities in the clearly illustrated by the spectral
regions in reproducing the audio transistor due to voltage changes. analysis of a class·A emitter-follower
signal, its gain alters, causing both har­ There is a method for eliminating such operated without feedback. The cir·
58 monic and intermodulation distortion nonlinearities called cascode opera­ cuits in Fig. 7 a & b were operated at 15
effects. If we can limit the region of tion, where the voltage across the tran­ kHz at ± 5 volts. The spectral analysis
operation on this curve, particularly to sistor, tubes, or FETS is frozen at a con­ of the outputs of each circuit are
the area away from the boundaries, stant value, completely eliminating shown in Fig. 8 a, b, & c, where the ver­
the distortion will be significantly voltage-induced distortions. In the tical scale is10 dB per division (80 dB),
reduced. case of transistors, the gain device can the horizontal scale is 0-100 kHz at 10
Recently, the most effective method be operated in common-emitter or kHz division, and as can be easily seen,
employed for reducing distortion common-collector modes that utilizes the cascode operation of the same
without feedback has been the use of a second transistor in the common­ transistor under otherwise identical
class-A operation, in which the ampli· base mode whose emitter is connected conditions results in the reduction of
fying devices are idled at very high cur­ to the collector of the gain transistor, distortion from several per cent to the
rents, keeping the transistor in a region as in Fig. 4. Having essentially unity residual of the test setup.
on the curve where the nonlinearities current gain, extremely wide band­
are less spectacular, as shown in Fig. 3. width, and no distortion, the common­ Increased Bandwidth
While the characteristics of the tran· base device shields the gain transistor Besides eliminating voltage caused
sistor are less than perfect, the distor· from voltage changes in the circuit. nonlinearities, cascode operation can
tions within the boundaries shown are Figure 5 shows the operating boun- yield an additional benefit in increased

Fig. 8a - Oscillator residual distortion Fig. 8b - The output of the emitter­ Fig. 8c - The output of the cascode
components. follower operation. emitter-follower.

AUDIO • March 1978

bandwidth. Because the collector-base current sources, ·11, 12 seen near the
voltage is held constant, there is negative supply rail Output current
minimal charging of the collector-base gain is supplied by the complementary
junction capacitance in the transistor. common collector darlingtons formed
Eliminating the effects of this internal by QS-8, and Q9 and Ql0 are the com­
lag capacitance allows higher frequen­ mon base transistors which hold them
cy response, thus cascode circuitry is at constant voltages. Vl-S Me con­
commonly found in ultra-high frequen­ stant voltage sources ranging from two
cy amplifiers and wide bandwidth to 1 0 volts. The voltage sources on the
oscilloscopes where response is re­ cascade circuits can be generated by a
quired beyond 1 00 me gaHertz number of ilrbitrary means, including
Cascode circuitry has also found its zener diodes, resistors, or even bat­
way into preamplifier circuitry as teries.
manufactured by Dayton-Wright, Because voltage-induced non­
Paragon, DB Systems, and Audio linearities take the form of "com­
Directions among others. pressive" intermodulation, it was not

r-------.---�--��-- +

04

IN-----4 t---t---OUT

Fig. 9- Basic configuration of the

cascode power amplifier.

With all these factors in mind, and surprising to discover the sonic effects
noting that the output transistors in of utilizing cascode operation
power amplifiers would enjoy the throughout a power amplifying system
beneficial effects of cascode opera­ corresponded to an impression of a
tion, we recently undertook the design dynamic range capability considerably
of a cascode audio power amplifier beyond what the rated power would
(patent pending) where the gain stages suggest. Th is effect is pronounced at
and emitter-follower output stages are high transient levels and imparts a
operated at constant voltages The sense of effortlessness in the reproduc­
conceptual schematic of such a device tion of demanding material.
can be seen from Fig. 9, which serves to While the distortion characteristics
illustrate the use of cascode operation of a fully cascode amplifier are not
on both the common-emitter voltage equivalent to those obtained through
gain stage and the common-collector class-A operation, the lack of signal
output stage. In this circuit, Ql is the compression produces a subjective
input transistor, held at a constant "ease" to the reproduced sound that
voltage by Q2. Q3 and Q4 form the closely dpproximates that of the
cascode common-emitter, voltage-gain smooth nonlinearities which
stage which generates the full voltage characterize class-A operation and are
swing of the amplifier. Both parts of achieved without the cost penalties at­
the circuit are biased using constant tend, nt to a class-A output stage. .&l
AUDIO· March 1 978