Process Control

Fourth Year
Units 4
Fourth Year - Process Control Theoretical 2hr/week
Tutorial 1hr/week
Practical 2hr/week

1. Control Systems
Feedback control, Feed-forward Control, Ratio Control, Cascade Control, Adaptive Control,
Selective Control Systems.
(4 hrs)
2. Linear Closed Loop Systems
The Control System, Controllers and Final Control Elements, Block Diagram of Chemical
reactor Control System, Overall Closed-Loop Transfer Functions.
(8 hrs)
3. Characteristics of the Closed Loop System
Transient Response of Simple Control Systems, Stability.
(6 hrs)
4. Stability analysis Frequency Response Methods
Determination the roots of equation, Routh’s Method
(4 hrs)
5. Frequency Response Methods
Introduction to Frequency Response, Bode Diagrams, Control System Design by Frequency
Response, Ziegler-Nichols Controller Settings.
(8 hrs)

References
1. D.R. Coughanowr and S. LeBlanc, Process Systems Analysis and Control, McGraw-
Hill, 3nd edition, 2008.

2. Stephanopoulos G., Chemical Process Control-An Introduction to Theory and

Practice, Prentice -Hall, New Jersey, 1984.

3. Luyben W. L., Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for Chemical Engineers,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd Ed., 1990.
 The Control System

Control system elements

Control system elements are:-
1) Process
2) Measuring element
3) Controller
4) Final Control Element

GL(s)
Ti(s)
Load
Comparator
TR or YR Final control T or Y
Controller Process
element
Set point
GC GV GP
Gm
Tm or Ym
Measuring
device
Gm

Closed Loop Feedback control

There are two types of the control system:-

1) Negative feedback control system
Negative feedback ensures that the difference between TR and Tm is used to
adjust the control element so that tendency is to reduce the error.
E=TR-Tm

2) Positve feedback control system

If the signal to the compartos were obtained by adding TR and Tm we would
have a positive feedback systems which is inherently unstable. To see that this
is true, again assume that be system is at steady state and that T=TR=Ti.
If Ti were to increase, T and Tm would increas which would cause the signal
from the compartor to increase, with the result that the heat to the system
would increse.
At s.s. T=TR=Tin
E=TR+Tm

Process Control 1 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Servo Problem versus Requlator Problem
 Servo Problem
There is no change in load Ti, and that we are interested in changing the bath
temperature (change in the desired value (set point) with no disturbance load).
 Requlating problem
The desired value TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the control system is to
maintain the controlled variable TR in spite of change in load if there is a change in
the input variable (disturbance load).

The control system for a stirred-tank heater

A liquid stream at a temperature Ti, enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a constant
flow rate w (mass/time). It is desired to maintain (or control) the temperature in the
tank at TR by means of the controller. If the indicated (measured) tank temperature Tm
differs from the desired temperature TR, the controller senses the difference or error,
E = TR- Tm

Figure (1) Control system for a stirred-tank heater.

Process Control 2 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Development of block Diagram
1) Process
The procedure for developing the transfer function remain the same.
An unsteady-state energy balance around the heating tank gives.
dT
W CpTi  q  W CpT   Cp V
dt
Where To is the reference temperature
dTs
0
At steady state, dt
dTs
W CpTis  q s  W CpTs   Cp V 0
dt
By substracting both equations
d ( T  Ts )
W Cp(( Ti  Tis )  ( T  Ts ))  q  qs   Cp V
dt
Note that the refernece temperature To cancels in the subtraction. If we introduce
thedeviation variables.
Ti  Ti  Tis
T  T  Ts
Q  q  qs
dT
W Cp(Ti  T )  Q   Cp V  W Cp
dt
Q  V dT
Ti  T 
W Cp W dt
Taking the laplace transform gives
V Q( s )
sT  T ( s)   Ti ( s)
W WCp
The last expression can be written as
1 Q( s) Ti ( s)
T ( s)  
(s  1) WCp s  1
Where
V

W
T (s) or Y(s)  controlled var iable
Q(s) or m(s)  manipulated var iable
Ti (s) or d(s)  disturbance var iable
If there is a change in Q(t) only then Ti ( t )  0 and the transfer function relating
Ti to Q is

Process Control 3 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 T (s) 1 1

Q( s) (s  1) WCp
If there is a change in Ti (s ) only thenQ(t)=0 and the transfer function relating T to Ti
is
T(s) 1

Ti ( s ) ( s  1 )

Gd
d( s ) 1
Ti ( s ) s  1
+
Gp
m( s ) 1 / WCp + Y( s )
Qi ( s ) s  1 T(s)

Block Diagram for process

Y ( s )  G p  m( s )  Gd  d ( s )

2) Measuring Element
The T.F. of the temperature-measuring element is a first order system
Tm ( s) km
  Tm ( s )  Gm T ( s )
T ( s) m s  1
km
Gm 
m s  1
Where T and Tm are deviation variables defined as
T  T  Ts
Tm  Tm  Tm s
 Output
K m  steady state gain 
 input
τm=time lag (time constant)=(1-9) sec

T(s) Km
Gm  Tm (s )
m s  1

Figure: Block diagram of measuring element

Process Control 4 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 3) Final control Elements:
Control valve, Heater, Variec, Motor, pump, damper, louver, …. etc.

Control valve
Control valve that can control the rate of flow of a fluid in proportion to the
amplitude of a pressure (electrical) signal from the controller. From experiments
conducted on pneumatic valves, the relationship between flow and valve-top pressure
for a linear valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function:
Air supply Air supply

Control valve (Air to close) Control valve (Air to open)

Figure: Pneumatic control valve (air-to-close).

(air to close) (air to open)
open close close open
   
P  (3  15) psig P  (3  15) psig
   
max flow flow max
flow rate rate flow
rate  0 0 rate

Transfer Function of Control Valve

m( s ) Q ( s ) KV
Gv( s)   
p ( s ) P ( s ) v s  1
 Output  Q2  Q1 
Kv=steady state gain   
 Input  P2  P1 S.S
v  Time lag
v  10 sec (Good)
Where:
Kv: steady-state gain i.e., the constant of proportionality between steady-state flow
rate and valve-top pressure.

Process Control 5 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
τv: time constant of the valve and is very small compared with the time
constants of other components of the control system. A typical pneumatic valve has a
time constant of the order of 1 sec. Many industrial processes behave as first-order
systems or as a series of first-order systems having time constants that may range
from a minute to an hour. So the lag of the valve is negligible and the T. F. of the
valve sometimes is approximated by:
Q(s)
 KV
P(s)
The time constant of lag valve depends on the size of valve, air supply characteristics,
whether a valve positioner is used, etc.

Example: Consider the 1st order T. F. of the process with control valve

Valve process
P(s) 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑃 Y(s)
𝜏𝑉 𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑃 𝑠 + 1
If we assume no interaction;
The T. F. from P(s) to Y(s) is

Y ( s) KV K p
 For a unit step input in P
P( s) ( v s  1)( s  1)
1 KV K p
Y(s) =
s ( v s  1)( s  1)
   1 t / v 1 t / 
y(t) = KvKp 1  v  e  e 
 v    v 

Y ( s) KK
If τ>>τv then the T. F. is  v p
P( s ) ( s  1)
For a unit step input in p
y(t) = KvKp (1 – e-t/τ)

Process Control 6 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 4) Controller
The relationship for proportional controller is
P( s )
 Gc ( s) E (s) Kc Q(s)
G( s)

Q( s)  KC E ( s)
P  P  Ps
E  TR  Tm

G(s) for propertional controller Gc ( s )  K C

TR  Tm  T at steady state

Controller
Tsp(or TR)+ E P(s)
Gc
-
Tm

Control Action
It is the manner, in which the automatic controller compares the actual value of the
process output with the actual desired value, determines the deviations and produce a
control signal which will reduce the deviation to zero or to small value.

Classification of industrial automatic controller:

They are classified according to their control action as:
1) On-off controller
2) Proportional controller (P)
3) Integral controller (I)
4) Proportional plus Integral controller (PI)
5) Proportional plus Derivative controller (PD)
6) Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller (PID)
The automatic controller may be classified according to the kind of power
employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controller, hydraulic controller or
electronic controller.

Process Control 7 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Self operated controller: In this controller the measuring element (sensor) and the
actuator in one unit. It is widely used for the water and gas pressure control.
d=Ti(s) 1
𝐺𝑑 =
𝜏𝑠 + 1
Comparator
TR E P m
𝐾𝑣 𝑅 y(s)
GC=Kc 𝐺𝑣 =
𝜏𝑣 𝑠 + 1 𝐺𝑃 =
Set point Q 𝜏𝑠 + 1 T(s)
Or ysp
Controller Final control Process
element

Tm(s) 𝐾𝑚 T(s)
𝐺𝑚 =
𝜏𝑚 𝑠 + 1

Figure: Closed loop block diagram of first order system

Types of Feedback Controllers
1) Proportional controller (P):
For a controller with a proportional control action, the relationship between the
output of the controller, p(t), and the actuating error signal (input to controller) is
P(t )  K C  E (t )
p(t )  ps  K C  E (t ) set point P(s)
KC
p(t )  K C  E (t )  ps
P( s)
GC  K C  (T .F )
E (s) Output signal
p
KC  ( ) s.s
E
P( s)  KC  E ( s)

Proportional Band (Band Width)

Is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range of measured variable)
required to make the valve from fully close to fully open.
1
P.B   100 %
KC

On-Off Control
On-Off control is a special case of proportional control.
If the gain KC is made very high, the valve will move from one extreme position to
the other if the set point is slightly changed. So the valve is either fully open or fully
closed (The valve acts like a switch).
The P.B. of the on-off controller reaches a zero because the gain is very high
P.B  0
Process Control 8 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
2) Propertional-Integral controller (PI):
This mode of control is described by the relationship
t
1
p(t )  ps  K C [ E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt]
0
KC : Steady state gain
 I : Integral time constant
t
KC P(s)
( p(t )  ps )  P(t )  K C E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt
0

Taking L.T
P( s ) 1
 K C (1  )  Gc ( s)
E ( s) Is

A
Example: PI controller with step change in error E(s) 
s
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s E(t) p(t)
𝐾𝐶 𝐴
K A A
 P(t )  K C A  C t 𝜏𝐼
I
Y=c+mX
t E(t) P(t)
0 ps
0 t 0 t
Response of a PI controller (lineaer)

3) Proportional-derivative control (PD):

dE(t )
p(t) = K C [ E(t) +  D ]  ps
dt
dE(t )
(p(t) - ps ) = P(t)  K C E(t) + K C D
dt
P(s) set point P(s)
= K C + K C D s KC(1+τDs)
E(s)
P(s)
= K C (1 +  D s)  Gc
E(s)
KC: gain
τD : Derivative time (rate time)

Process Control 9 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example:
A
For Ramp Error E(t) = At (Ramp) E(s) =
s2
A AK K A
P(s) = K C (1 +  D s)  E(s)  K C (1 +  D s)  2  2 C  C D
s s s
P(t) = K C At  K C AD

4) Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller

set point 1 P(s)

KC (1    D s)
Is

t
KC dE(t )
p(t )  K C [ E (t ) 
I  E (t )dt  d dt
]  ps
0

𝐾𝐶 𝐾𝐶

𝑡 𝐾𝐶
𝐾𝐶
𝐸 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜏𝐼 0 𝜏𝐼 𝑠
𝐸 𝑡 𝑃 𝑡 𝐸 𝑠 𝑃 𝑠

𝑑𝐸 𝑡
𝐾𝐶 𝜏𝐷 𝐾𝐶 𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝑑𝑡

P( s) 1
 K C (1    s)
E ( s) Is D

Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes

The value of the controlled variable is seen to rise at time zero owing to the
disturbance. With no control, this variable continues to rise to a new steady-state
value.
 With control, after some time the control system begins to take action to try to
maintain the controlled variable close to the value that existed before the
disturbance occurred.
 With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the rise of the
controlled variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a new steady-state value.

Process Control 10 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 The difference between this new steady-state value and the original value (the
set point, in this case) is called offset.
 The addition of integral action eliminates the offset; the controlled variable
ultimately returns to the original value. This advantage of integral action is
balanced by the disadvantage of a more oscillatory behavior.
 The addition of derivative action to the PI action gives a definite improvement
in the response. The rise of the controlled variable is arrested more quickly,
and it is returned rapidly to the original value with little or no oscillation.

Figure: Response of a typical control system showing the effects

of various modes of control

Example: A proportional controller is used to control temperature within the range of

60 to 100 ºC. The controller is adjusted so that the output pressure goes from 3 psi
(valve fully open) to 15 psi (valve fully closed) as the measured temperature goes
from 71 to 75 ºC with the set point held constant. Find the gain of the controller.
Solution:
𝛥𝑃 15 − 3
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾𝑐 = = = 3 𝑝𝑠𝑖/ºC
𝛥𝑒 75 − 71

Process Control 11 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: a pneumatic PI controller has an output pressure of 10 psi when the set
point and pen point are togather. The set point is suddenly displaced by 1.0 in (i.e a
step change in error is introduced) and the follwing data are obtained.
Time (s) 0- 0+ 20 60 80
Psi 10 8 7 5 3.5
Determine the actual gain (psi/inch displacement) and the integral time

E
1.0 in
10 psi
Kc A
8psi
Kc A
I

For PI control
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s
K A
 P(t )  K C A  C t
I
Kc A
p(t )  K c A  t  ps
I
For E(s)=-1 then A=-1

From the above figure

K c A  8  10  2
Kc  2
Kc A 3.5  8  4.5
 
I 80  0 80
80 80
I   Kc A    (2)  35.56 sec
4.5 4.5

Example: An electronic PI temperature controller has an output pressure of 12 mA

when the set point equals the process temperature. A step change in set point of 2°F
yields the following data:
Time (sec) mA
0 12
0 10
20 9
60 7
80 6
Determine the proportional gain (mA/°F) and the integral time.
Process Control 12 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Solution:
1 A
P( s)  K C (1  )
Is s
K A
 P(t )  K C A  C t
I
From graphical techniques the gain is found as the instantaneous change in controller
output over the change in error reported to the controller.
A=-2
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 = 10 − 12 = −2 𝑚𝐴
10 − 12
𝐾𝑐 = = −1 𝑚𝐴/ºF
2
The slope of the line of the controller output is KcA/τI, so
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 6 − 10
= = −0.05 𝑚𝐴/sec
𝜏𝐼 80 − 0
𝐾𝑐 𝐴 −1 × 2
𝜏𝐼 = = = 40 sec
−0.05 −0.05

Example: Error change with a ratio of 0.5 in/min is introduced into a pid controller
having Kc=10 , τI=1 and τD=0.5. plot the response of the controller P(t).
Solution:
dE
E=0.5 t  0.5 and  dEdt   0.5dt
dt
 p(t )  10  0.5 t  10 0.5 tdt  10  0.5  0.5  ps
p (t )  p s  5 t  2.5 t 2  2.5
P( t )  p( t )  p s  2.5  5 t  2.5 t 2

t P(t)
0 2.5
1 10 E 0.5 P(t)
2 22.5
3 40 0 2.5
4 62.5
5 90
0 t 0 t

Process Control 13 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Dynamic Behaviour of Feedback Controlled Process

Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system:

d(s) Gd
Comparator
ysp E(s) C(s) m(s) y(s)
GC Gf Gp

Controller Final control Process

element

ym(s) Gm y (s)
Process balance
y ( s )  G p m( s )  Gd d ( s ) Measuring Device

Measuring device
y m ( s )  Gm y ( s )
Controller system
E ( s )  ysp ( s )  ym ( s ) Comparator
C ( s )  Gc E ( s ) Controller
Final control element
m( s )  G f C ( s )
Algebra manipulation of the above equations and arrange then
y ( s )  G p m( s )  Gd d ( s )
y ( s )  G p G f C ( s )  Gd d ( s )
y ( s )  G p G f Gc E ( s )  Gd d ( s )
y ( s )  G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s )  ym ( s ))  Gd d ( s )
y ( s )  G p G f Gc ( ysp ( s )  Gm y ( s ))  Gd d ( s )
y ( s )  G p G f Gc ysp ( s )  G p G f GcGm y ( s )  Gd d ( s )
(1  Gc G f G pGm ) y ( s )  Gc G f G p ysp ( s )  Gd d ( s )
Gc G f G p Gd
y ( s)  ySP ( s)  d (s)
1  Gc G f G p Gm 1  Gc G f G p Gm
Let G = GC Gf GP
G Gd
 y( s)  ySP ( s)  d ( s)
1  GGm 1  GGm
G Gd
 GSP  Gload
1  GGm 1  GGm

Process Control 14 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Types of control proplems:
1) Servo systems:

The distubance does not change (i.e. d (s) = 0 ) while the set point undergoes change.
The feedback controller act in such away as to keep y close to the changing ysp . The
T.F. of closed loop system of this type is:
G p G f Gc
y ( s)  ySP ( s)
1  Gc G f G p Gm

2) Regulated systems:

In these systems the set point (desired value) is constant ( ysp (s) = 0 ) and the change
occurring in the load. The T.F. of closed loop control system of this type is:
Gd
y ( s)  d ( s)
1  Gc G f G p Gm
y ( s )  Gload d ( s )

The feedback controller tries to eliminate the impact of the load change d to keep y at
the desired setpoint.

Effect of controllers on the response of a controlled process:

(1) Effect of Propertional Control

The general T.F of the closed loop controller is:

Gc G f G p Gd
y ( s)  ySP ( s)  d ( s) (*)
1  Gc G f G p Gm 1  Gc G f G p Gm
Consider Gm  1 , G f  1
Also for propertional controller GC  K C
And eqn. (*) becomes
Kc G p Gd
y ( s)  ySP ( s)  d ( s) (**)
1  Kc G p 1  Kc G p
For a first order systems
dy
 p  y  K pm  Kd d
dt
Which gives

Process Control 15 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Kp Kd
y ( s)  m ( s)  d ( s)
 ps  1  ps  1
Thus for the uncontrolled system we have time constant= τp
Static gains: Kp for manipolation and Kd for load
Kp Kd
put G p  and Gd 
 ps  1  ps  1
Then by substitution in eqn. (**) and take the closed loop reponse as
Kp Kd
Kc
 ps  1  ps  1
y( s )  ySP ( s )  d( s )
Kp Kp
1  Kc 1  Kc
 ps  1  ps  1
K P KC Kd 1  K p KC
y ( s)  [ ySP ( s)  d ( s)] 
 p s  1  K p KC  p s  1  K p KC 1  K p KC
K P KC Kd
1  K p KC 1  K p KC
y (s)  ySP ( s)  d (s)
 ps 1  K p KC  ps 1  K p KC
 
1  K p KC 1  K p KC 1  K p KC 1  K p KC
Rearrange the last eqn.
KP Kd
y ( s)  ySP ( s)  d ( s)
 ps 1  ps 1
Where
P
p  Closed loop time constant
1  K p KC
K p KC
Kp  Closed loop static gain
1  K p KC
Kd
Kd  Closed loop static gain
1  K p KC
The close-loop response has the follwing charactrstics:-
1- It remains first order with respect to load and setpoint change
2- The time constant has been reduced ( p   P ) which mean that the closed-loop
response has become faster than the open loop response, to change in set point
or load.
3- The static gain have been decreased.

Process Control 16 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Disadvantage of Propertional control
Consider a servo problem with a unit step in the set point
1
ysp  d (s)  0
s
Kp 1
y 
 ps  1 s
t /  p
y( t )  K p ( 1  e )
 y(  )  K p
The ultimate response of t   never reaches the desired new setpoint. There is
always a discrepancy called offset which is equal to:

Offset = New set point - Ultimate value

K p KC
=1  K p  1 
1  K p KC
1
 offset 
1  K p KC
Offset decreases as KC becomes larger an thoretically offset  0 when KC  
1
ysp(t) 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 =
1+𝐾𝑃 𝐾𝐶
1
y(t)

0
2- Effect of Integral Control
Consider a servo problem, d ( s )  0
Gc G f G p
y ( s)  y SP ( s) (*)
1  Gc G f G p Gm
Consider Gm  G f  1
kp
For the 1st order process G p 
 ps  1
For a simple integral control
1
Gc  K c
Is
Sub in eqn. (*)

Process Control 17 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 KP K
 C
 ps  1  I s K P KC
y( s )  ySP ( s )  ySP ( s )
1
KP

KC (  p s  1 )(  I s )  K K
P C
 ps  1  I s
K P KC
K P KC
y( s )  ySP ( s )
 p I s 2 Is K P KC
 
K P KC K P KC K P KC
1
y ( s)  2 2 y SP ( s) (**)
 s  2s  1
Where
 I p 1 I
 
K p Kc 2  p K p Kc
Eqn. (**) indicates an important effect of the integral control action:-
1- It increases the order of the dynamic for the closed-loop reponse.
Thus for a first-order uncontrolled process, the response of the closed-loop
becomes second order.
2- Increase K C decreases  more oscillatory
3- To examine the effect of integral on s.s error
1
y ( s)  2 2 y SP ( s)
 s  2s  1
1
If y SP ( s) 
s
The ultimate value= AK=1*1=1
offset= New setpoint-ultimate value
=1-1=0
It indicate that the integral control eliminates any offset

3- Effect of Derivative Control Action

For derivative control
Gc  K c  D s
KP
K  s
 ps  1 c D K P K c D s
y( s )  ySP ( s )  ySP ( s )
1
KP
K  s  p s  1  K P K c  D s
 ps  1 c D
K P K c D s
y ( s)  y SP ( s) (*)
( p  K p K c  D ) s  1
Eqn. (*) indicates that:-
Process Control 18 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 1- The derivative control does not change the order of the reponse.
2- The effective time constant of the closed-loop response (  p  K p K C  D   p )
This means that the response of the controlled process is slower than that of the
original first-order process and as K c increase the response become slower.
Effect of Composite Control Action
1- Effect of PI control
Combination of propertional and integral control modes lead to the follwing effects
on the response of closed-loop system.
1- The order of the response inceases ( effect of I mode).
2- The offset is eliminated (effect of I mode).
3- As Kc increses, the response becomes fater ( effect of P and I modes) and more
oscillatory to set point changes [ovesrshoot and decay ratio increase (effet of I
mode)].
Large value of Kc create a very sensitive response and may lead to instability.
4- As I decreases, for constant Kc, the reponse become faster but more oscillatory
with higher overshoot and decay ratio (effect of I mode).

2- Effect of PID control

To increase the speed of the closed loop response, increase the value of the controller
gain Kc. But increasing enough Kc in order to have acceptable speed, the response
become more oscillatory and may lead to unstability.
The introduction of the derivative mode brings a stability effect to the system. Thus
to achive
1- Acceptable response speed by selecting an appropriate value for the gain Kc.
2- While maintaining moderate overshoot and decay ratios.

Process Control 19 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Regular loop with the following elements
3
GP(s) = (process)
10s  1
1
Gd(s) = (Load)
10s  1
Gm(s) = 1 (measuring device) if not given take 1
GC(s) = 2 (controller)
Gf (s) = 1.5 (valve)
Gd(s)
θd(s)
Determine the system response for a unit step in load

θSP(s) θo(s)
2 1.5
Set point

GC(s) Gf (s)
GP(s)

Solution:
Gm(s)

o ( s) Gd ( s)
Regulator loop: 
 d ( s) 1  Gm ( s)G ( s)
3 9
G(s) = GC(s) Gf (s) GP(s) = 2×1.5× =
10s  1 10s  1
1
o ( s )
 10 s  1
1
=
d ( s ) 1  9 10s  10
10 s  1
1
θd(s) = 1/10
s
1
o (s) = 10 θo(t) off-set
s( s  1)
 o (t)  0.1(1 - e-t )
At t = 0 ,o (t) = 0
At t =  , o () = 0.1
Or
1
1
o () = lim so ( s)  lim s 10 
s 0 s 0 s ( s  1) 10
Offset= New s.s value-Ultimate value= 0 - 0.1= -0.1

Process Control 20 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: the set point of the control system shown in the figure is gives a step
change of a 0.1 unit. Determine
1- The maximum value of C.
2- The offset.
3- The period of oscillation.
C
R

C (s) GcG p

R( s) 1  GcG p
5
1.6 
C (s) ( s  1)(2 s  1) 8
  2
R( s ) 1  1.6  5 2s  3s  1  8
( s  1)(2s  1)
8
C( s ) 8 9 0.8889
 2  
R( s ) 2 s  3s  9 2 s 2  1 s  1 0.222 s 2  0.333s  1
9 3
  0.222    0.471
2

2  0.3333   0.3538 (Underdamped)

Ultimate Value=A*K=0.1*0.8889=0.08889
  3.1418  0.3538
Overshoot  exp( )  exp( )  0.3047
1  2
1  (0.3538) 2
1) The maximum value =Ultimate value*(1+Overshoot)
= 0.08889*(1.3047)=0.1160
To find the time required to reach maximum value apply K, A , Cmax , ψ and τ
in the equation.

Y ( t )  kA[ 1  e(  /  )t (cos wt  sin wt ]
1  2

1  2
w

2) The offset=New set point- Ultimate value
=0.1-0.088889=0.01111
2 2  0.471
3) Period of oscillation =   3.1640
1  2
1  (0.3538) 2

Process Control 21 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Consider the figure below, a unit step change in load enters at either
location 1 or location 2.
What is the offset when the load enters at location 1 and when it enters at location 2
U1 G1 U2 G2
Gc
2 1
R Kc  5 C
(2 s  1) (2 s  1)

a-when the load enters in location 1

1
U 1( s )  , U2( s )  0
s
G1G2
C (s)  U1 ( s)
1  GcG1G2
2 1

C( s )  2s  1 2s  1 U ( s )  2
U 1( s )
  
1 2
2 1 4 s 4 s 1 10
1  5
2s  1 2s  1
2 2 / 11
 2 U 1( s )  U 1( s )
4 s  4 s  11 4 2 4
s  s1
11 11
2 4
K   0.1818   0.6030
11 11
4 4 1
2       0.3015
11 11 2
Ultimate value=A.K=1*0.1818=0.1818
Offset=0 - 0.1818= -0.1818
b-when the load enters in location 2
G2
C ( s)  U 2 ( s)
1  GcG1G2
1 2 1
s
2s  1 2s  1 2s  1 11 11 U ( s )
C (s)  U 2 ( s)  2 U 2 (s)  2 U 2 (s) 
    
2
2 1 4 s 4 s 1 10 4 s 4 s 11 4 2 4
1  5 s  s 1
2s  1 2s  1 11 11
2 1
s
1
C ( s )  11 11
4 2 4
s  s 1 s
11 11
2 1
s
s 11 11 1
C ()  lim   0.091
s0 s 4 2 4
s  s  1 11
11 11
Offset= 0 - 0.091= -0.091
Process Control 22 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: For the figure
U

1 1 C
R K c (1    s)
Is D  1s  1

For D  I  1 and1  2
a- Calculate ψ when Kc=0.5 and Kc=2
b- Determine the offset for a unit-step change in load if Kc=2
C (s) GcG p

R( s) 1  GcG p
1 1 1 1
K c (1   D s) K c (1   s )
C ( s) Is 1s  1 s 2s  1
 
R( s ) 1  K (1  1 1 1 1
  D s) 1  K c (1   s )
c
Is  1s  1 s 2s  1
s  1  s2 1
Kc ( )
s 2s  1  Kc (s  1  s 2 ) Kc (s  1  s 2 )
 
s  1  s2 1 2s 2  s  K c ( s  1  s 2 ) (2  K c ) s 2  (1  K c ) s  K c
1  Kc ( )
s 2s  1
(s  1  s )
2

(2  K c ) 2 (1  K c )
s  s 1
Kc Kc
a-1) Kc=0.5
2  Kc 2  0.5
   2.2361
Kc 0.5
(1  K c ) 1  0.5 3 3
2    3     0.6708
Kc 0.5 2 2  2.2361
a-2) Kc=2
22
  1.4142
2
(1  K c ) 1  2 1.5 1.5
2    1.5      0.5303
Kc 2 2 2  1.41421
Gp
B) C ( s)   U (s)
1  G pGc
1 1
1s  1 2s  1
C ( s)  U (s)  U (s)
1 1 1 1
1  K c (1    s) 1  K c (1   s )
 I s D 1s  1 s 2s  1

Process Control 23 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 s s 1
 U (s)  2 
2s  s  Kc ( s  1  s )
2 2
2s  s  2( s  1  s ) s
2

1
 2
4s  3s  1
 2
3
2  3     0.75
4
1
C ()  lim s 2 0
s 0 4 s  3s  1

Offset=0-0=0

Example A PD controller is used in a control system having a first order process as

shown. For Servo problem
a-find expression for ξ and τ for the closed loop response.
b-if τp=60 , τm=10 sec . Find Kc so that ξ=0.7 for two cases (1) τD=0 ,(2) τD=3 sec.
c- Calculate the offset in both cases.
U Gp
Gc
1
R K c (1   D s ) ( p s  1) C
1
( m s  1)
Gm
For the closed loop T.F.
Gc G p Gp
C R( s )  U ( s)
1  Gc G p Gm 1  Gc G p Gm
1
K c (1   Ds) 
ps  1
C R (s)
1 1
1  K c (1   Ds)  
 ps  1 ms  1
K c (1  Ds)
C R (s)
1
ps  1  K c (1  Ds) 
 ms  1
K c (1  Ds)
C R (s)
p ms  (p  m )s  1  K c  K c Ds
2

 ms  1
K c (1  Ds)(ms  1)
C R (s)
p ms  (p  m  K c D )s  (1  K c )
2

K c (1   Ds)( ms  1)
(1  K c )
C R (s)
 p  ms 2
(p  m  K c D )
 s 1
(1  K c ) (1  K c )
Process Control 24 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
  p m

1 Kc
p  m  K c D
2 
1 Kc
p  m  K c D 1  K c

2(1  K c ) p m
p  m  K c D
 
2 (1  K c )p m

p  m  K c D
b)   for ψ=0.7
2 (1  K c ) p m
1) τD=0
60  10  0 35
 0.7  
2 (1  K c ) 60  10 600  600K c
600  600 K c  50
600  600K c  2500
K c  3.166

2) τD=3 sec
60  10  3K c 70  3K c
 0.7  
2 (1  K c ) 600 2 (1  K c ) 600
70  3K c  34.292 (1  K c )
2.04(1  0.042 K c )  (1  K c )
4.1616  0.355 K c  0.0075 K C2  (1  K c )
0.0075K c2  0.0645K c  3.1616  0
 K c  80.73 or K c  5.266

(c) The offset

lim f ( t )  lim sf ( s )
t  s 0
1
R
s
K c (1   D s)( m s  1)
(1  K c ) 1 Kc 3.166
Ultimate value= lim s     0.76
s0 p ms 2
( p   m  K c  D ) s 1  K c 4.166
 s 1
(1  K c ) (1  K c )
Offset= 1- 0.76= 0.24

Process Control 25 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Simplify the block diagram shown in below Figures. Obtain the transfer function
relating C(s) and R(s).

Examples 1:

Examples 2:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples 3:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples 4:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples 5:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples 6:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Examples 7:

Process Control Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Overall transfer function of a closed- loop control system

The transfer function of a block diagram is defined as the output divided by its input
when represented in the Laplace domain with zero initial conditions. The transfer
function G(s) of the block diagram shown in Fig. (1).
Y(s)
 G (s)
X(s)
Here the path of the signals X(s) and Y(s) is a forward path.

X(s) G(s) Y(s)

Fig. (1) Transfer function of a block diagram

Consider the block diagram of cascaded elements shown in Fig. (2a). Form the
definition of a transfer function we have:
X 2 (s)
 G1 (s)
X1 (s)
X 3 (s)
 G 2 (s)
X 2 (s)
Y(s)
 G 3 (s)
X 3 (s)
And substitution yields
Y(s)  G 3 (s)X 3 (s)  G 3 (s)[G 2 (s)X 2 (s)]  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)X1 (s)
Which can be written as
Y(s)
 G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)  G (s)
X1 (s)

X1(s) X2(s) X3(s) Y(s) X1(s) Y(s)

G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G(s)

(a) (b)

Fig. (2) Cascaded elements

The overall transfer function then is simply the product of individual transfer
functions.

For applications where it is required to generate a signal which is the sum of two
signals we define a summer or summing junction as shown in Fig. (3a). If the
Process Control 26 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
difference is required, then we define a subtractor as shown in Fig. (3b). Subtractors
are often called error detecting devices since the output signal is the difference
between two signals of which one is usually a reference signal.

X1(s) + +
X1(s)+X2(s) X1(s) X1(s)-X2(s)
+ -

X2(s) X2(s)
(a) (b)
Summer Subtractor (Error detecting device)
Fig. (3) Addition or subtraction of signals
The combination of block diagrams in parallel is shown in Fig. (4a). Form the
definition of the transfer function we have
Y1 (s)  G1 (s)X(s)
Y2 (s)  G 2 (s)X(s)
Y3 (s)  G 3 (s)X(s)
And the summer adds these signals,
Y(s)  Y1 (s)  Y2 (s)  Y3 (s)
or
Y(s)  [G1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G 3 (s)]X (s)
The overall transfer function shown in Fig.(4b) is
Y(s)
 G (s)
X(s)
where
G (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G 3 (s)

Y1(s)
G1(s)

X(s) Y2(s) +
G2(s) Y(s) X(s) G(s) Y(s)
+ +
Y3(s)
G3(s)
(b)
(a)
Fig. (4) Parallel combination of elements
In summary, we observe that for cascaded elements the overall transfer function is
equal to the product of the transfer function of each element, whereas the overall

Process Control 27 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
transfer function for parallel elements is equal to the sum of the individual transfer
function.

Example:Derive the overall transfer function for the control system shown in Fig.
(5).

H1(s)
B1(s)
+ E1(s) C1(s) - E2(s) C2(s) C(s)
R(s) G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
- +
B2(s) H2(s)

Fig.(5) Block diagram of a system with two feedback paths

Solution
E1 (s)  R (s)  B2 (s)
E 2 (s)  C1 (s)  B1 (s)
C1 (s)  G1 (s)E1 (s)
C2 (s)  G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)C2 (s)
B1 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)
B2 (s)  H 2 (s)C 2 (s)
Substituting of the sub-transfer functions
C(s)  G 3 (s)C 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)E 2 (s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[C1 (s)  B1 (s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)E1 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)( R (s)  B2 (s))  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s)  G1 (s)H 2 (s)C 2 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
C(s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)[G1 (s)R (s)  G1 (s)H 2 (s)  H1 (s)C(s)]
G 3 (s)
C(s)
C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)C(s)
G 3 (s)
[1  G 2 (s)G1 (s)H 2 (s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)H1 (s)]C(s)  G 3 (s)G 2 (s)G1 (s)R (s)
Finally, the overall transfer function
C(s) G1 (s)G 2 (s)G 3 (s)

R (s) 1  G1 (s)G 2 (s)H 2 (s)  G 2 (s)G 3 (s)H1 (s)

Process Control 28 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: A single-loop control system is shown in figure below. Determine closed-
Y(s)
loop transfer function
R (s)
R(s) +
2( s  1)(s  3) Y(s)
G(s)=
- s ( s  2)( s  4)

Solution
Y(s) G
Transfer function 
R (s) 1  GH
2(s  1)(s  3) 2(s  1)(s  3)
Y(s) s(s  2)(s  4) s(s  3)(s  4)
 
R (s) 1  2(s  1)(s  3) *1 s(s  2)(s  4)  2(s  1)(s  3)
s(s  2)(s  4) s(s  2)(s  4)
2(s  1)(s  3) 2s 2  6s  2s  6

s(s  2)(s  4)  2(s  1)(s  3) s3  4s 2  2s 2  8s  2s 2  6s  2s  6
Y(s) 2s 2  8s  6
 
R (s) s 3  8s 2  16s  6

Block Diagram Reduction

When the block diagram representation gets complicated, it is advisable to reduce the
diagram to a simpler and more manageable form prior to obtaining the overall
transfer function. We shall consider only a few rules for block diagram reduction. We
have already two rules, viz. Cascading and parallel connection.
Consider the problem of moving the starting point of a signal shown in Fig. (6a) from
behind to the front of G(s). since B(s)=R(s) and R(s)=C(s)/G(s), then B(s)=C(s)/G(s).
therefore if the takeoff point is in front of G(s), then the signal must go through a
transfer function 1/G(s) to yield B(s) as shown in Fig. (7b).

R(s) G(s) C(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)

B(s) Starting point of B(s) B(s) 1/G(s)

(a) (b)

Fig.6 Moving the starting point of a signal

Process Control 29 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Consider the problem of moving the summing point of Fig. (7a). Since
E(s)  [M(s)  C(s)]G (s)  M(s)G (s)  C(s)G (s)
E(s)  M1 (s)  C1 (s)
where
M1 (s)  M(s)G (s); C1 (s)  C(s)G (s)
The generation of the signals M1(s) and C1(s) and adding them to yield E(s) is shown
in Fig. (7b). A table of the most common reduction rules is given in Table 1.

M(s) + M1(s)
G(s) E(s) M(s) G(s) E(s)
+ +
+
C1(s) G(s) C(s)
C(s)
(a) (b)
Fig.(7) Moving a summing junction

Process Control 30 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Table 1 Some rules for block diagram reduction
Rule Original system Reduced system
Cascaded R(s) R(s) C(s)
G1(s) G2(s) C(s) G1(s)G2(s)
elements
summing
R(s) + C(s)
point G1(s)
Addition or + R(s) C(s)
G1(s)+G2(s)
subtraction
G2(s)

R(s) C(s)
G(s)
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
Moving a
starting point 1
B(s) G (s)
B(s)

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G(s) G(s)
Moving a - -
summing point
B(s) B(s) G(s)

R(s) + C(s)
Closed loop G(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)
-
system 1  H ( s )G ( s )
H(s)

Consider the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. (8a). The final transfer
function is shown in Fig. (8d).

Process Control 31 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example:
First reduction
G3(s)

R(s) + +
G1(s) G2(s) C(s)
+ G4(s)
- +
-

H1(s)

H2(s)

(a) Next reduction

R(s) + C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)+G3(s) G4(s)
- +
-
H 1 (s)
G4 (s )

H2(s)

(b)

R(s) + [G 2 ( s )  G3 ( s)]G4 ( s ) C(s)

G1(s) G5 ( s ) 
1  H 1 ( s )[G 2 ( s )  G3 ( s)]
-

H2(s)

(c)

R(s) G1(s)G5 (s) C(s)

1  G1(s)G5 (s)H2 (s)

(d)
Fig.8 Obtaining transfer function by block diagram reduction

Process Control 32 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Obtain the transfer function C/R of the block diagram shown in Figure
below.
G4(s)

R(s) +
+ + +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)

H2(s)

Solution:
R(s)
+ +
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
- +
H1(s)

H2(s)

R(s)
+ G1(s) x G2(s)
G3(s) + G4(s) C(s)
1- H1(s)x(G1(s) x G2(s))
-

H2(s)

G1 (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 

C(s) 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)

R (s)  G (s).G 2 (s).G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
1  H 2 (s)  1 
 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) 
G1 (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)

1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s) G (s).G 2 (s)G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 
 H(s) 1
1  H1 (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s) 1  H1 (s).G1 (s).G 2 (s)
C(s)

G1 (s)  G 2 (s)  G1 (s)  G 4 (s)
R (s) 1  H1 (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s)   H 2 (s)  G1 (s)  G 2 (s)   G 3 (s)  G 4 (s) 

Process Control 33 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Simplify the block diagram shown in below Figure. Obtain the transfer
function relating C(s) and R(s).

Process Control 34 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Stability Analysis

A stable system is one where the controlled variable will always settle near the set
point. An unstable system is one where, under some conditions, the controlled
variable drifts away from the set point or breaks into oscillations that get larger and
larger until the system saturates on each side.

Stable system unstable system

Methods of Stability Test

1-Determination the roots of equation
U
R C
G1 G2

H
G1G 2 G2
C R (s)  U(s)
1  G1G 2 H 1  G1G 2 H
1  G1G 2 H  0 (Characterstic Equation)
(s  r1 )(s  r2 )(s  r3 ).........  0 Im
s-p
s
p 
Re

A linear control system is unstable if any roots of its characterstic equation are to the
right of imaginary axis.
If this equation has some roots with positive real parts, then the system is unstable, or
some roots equal to zero, the system is marginally stable (oscillatory), therefore it is
unstable.
Then for stability the roots of characteristic equation must have negative
real parts.
Process Control 35 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example:if
0.5s  1
G1  10 PI control
s
1
G2  Stirred tank
2s  1
H 1 Mesuring element without lag
1  G  1  G1G 2 H  0
10(0.5s  1)
1 0
s(2s  1)
s(2s  1)  5s  10  0
2s 2  6s  10  0
s 2  3s  5  0
3 9  20
s 
2 2
3 11 3 11
 s1  j and s 2  j
2 2 2 2
3
Since the real part in s1 and s2 in -ve (  )The system is stable
2

2-Routh’s Method
a-Write the characterstic eqn. on the form of a polynomial shape:
a os n + a1s n -1 + a 2s n - 2 + …..a n = 0 (*)

Where ao is positive
It is necessary that ao, a1, a2,…. an-1, an be positive. If any coeff. is negative, the
system is unstable.
If all of the coeff. are positive, the system may be stable or unstable. Then apply the
next step.
b. Routh array:
Arrange the coeff. of eqn. (*) into the first two rows of the Routh array shown
below.
Row
1 ao a 2 a 4 a 6
2 a1 a 3 a 5 a 7
3 A1 A2 A3
4 B1 B2 B3
n+1 C1 C2 C3
Process Control 36 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 a1a 2  a oa 3 a1a 4  a oa 5 a1a 6  a oa 7
A1  , A2  , A3 
a1 a1 a1
A1a 3  a1A 2 A a a A
B1  , B2  1 5 1 3
A1 A1
B1A 2  A1B2 B A  A1B3
C1  , C2  1 3
B1 B1
Examine the elements of the first column of the array ao, a1, A1, B1,C1……….W1
a) If any of these elements is negative, we have at least one root on the right of
the imaginary axis and the system is unstable.
b) The number of sign changes in the elemnts of the first column is equal to the
number of root to the right of the imaginary axis.

The system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the array are
positive

Example:Given the characteristic eqn.

s4 + 3s3 +5s2 + 4s +2= 0
Solution:
Row 3  5  4  11 11
A1  
1 1 5 2 3 3
2 3 4 0 3 2  0
A2  2
3 11 3 2 0 3
4 2.36 0 11 3  4  6
B1   2.36
5 2 11 3
2.36  2
C1  2
2.36
The system is stable

Example: Apply the Routh’s stability criterion to the equation:

s4 + 2s3 +3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
Solution:
s4 1 3 5
s3 2 4
s2 1 5
s1 -6 0
s0 5
The system is unstable.

Process Control 37 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: A system has a characteristic equation s 3  9s 2  26s  24  0. Using the
Routh criterion, show that the system is stable.
Solution
q(s) = s 3  9s 2  26s  24
Using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion,
s3 1 26
s2 9 24
s 1 26 0
s 0 24 0
No sign change in 1st column then the system is stable.

Example: Consider the feedback control system with the characteristic equation.
K
s3 + 2s 2  (2  K c )s  c  0
I
Solution:
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 2  Kc 0
2 2 Kc 0
I
3 2(2  K c )  K c  I 0 0
2
4 Kc  I 0 0

The elemnets of the first-column are positive except the third, which can be positive
or negative depending on Kc and τI.
So state the stability
Put 2(2  K c )  K c  I  0  2(2  K c )  K c
2 I
If Kc and τI satisfy the condition, then the system is atable

Critical stability
Put the third element=0
i.e 2(2  K c )  K c
I
For τI=0.1
2(2  K c )  10K c  4  8K c

Process Control 38 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
K c  0.5

1) if K c  0.5 , the system is stable (all of the elements in the 1st column is +ve)

2) if K c  0.5 , the third element of the 1st column is negative. We have two sign
change in the elements of the first column.

we have two roots to the right of imaginary axis.

Example:
U
R 1
Kc C
( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)

1
( 3s  1)

1 1
If 1 = 1,  2 = ,  3 =
2 3
Determine Kc for a stable system
Solution:
The char. Eqn.
1
1  Kc 0
1 1
(s  1)( s  1)( s  1)
2 3
1 1
(s  1)( s  1)( s  1)  K c  0
2 3
1 3 1
( s 2  s  1)( s  1)  K c  0
2 2 3
s3 s 2 s s 2 3s
     1  Kc 0
6 2 3 2 2
1 3 2 11
s  s  s  1  Kc  0
6 6
Row
1 1/6 11/6
2 1 1+Kc
3 10  K c 0
6
4 1+Kc

Since Kc>0
The system will be stable
Process Control 39 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
If 10-Kc>0
K c  10
Therfore Kc must within the range 0<Kc< 10

Example: U
R 3
K c (1  ) 2
s
C
1
0.2s 2  0.4s  1
Study the stability for Kc=2
Solution:
3 1
1  K c (1  )  2  0
s 0.2s  0.4s  1
2

s3 2
1  Kc ( ) 0
s 0.2s 2  0.4s  1
sK  3K c 2
1 ( c ) 0
s 0.2s  0.4s  1
2

0.2s3  0.4s 2  s  2sK c  6K c  0

0.2s3  0.4s 2  (1  2K c )s  6K c  0
Row Row For Kc=2
1 0.2 1+2Kc 1 0.2 5
2 0.4 6Kc 2 0.4 12
3 A1 0 3 2  2.4 0
4 B1 0 0 .4
4 1.2 0
0.4(1  2K c )  (1.2K c ) 0.4  0.8K c  1.2K c 0.4  0.4K c
A1   
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.4  0.4K c  0
The system is stable for K c  1
B1  6K c  6K c  0
And K c  0
Therfore Kc must within the range 0 <Kc< 1

Process Control 40 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Example: Designers have developed small, fast, vertical-take off fighter aircraft that
are invisible to radar. This aircraft concept uses quickly turning jet nozzles to steer
the airplane. The control system for the heading or direction control is shown in
figure.
Determine the maximum gain of the system for stable operation.

+ controller ( s  20)
R(s) Y(s)
k s( s  10) 2 Heading
-

Solution
k (s  20) ks  20k ks  20k
G(s) =  
s(s  10) 2 s(s 2  20s  100) s3  20s 2  100s
Characteristic equation,
1+GH = 0
ks  20k
1+ 3 *1  0
s  20s 2  100s
s 3  20s 2  100s +ks+20k =0
s3  20s 2  (100  k )s  20k  0
The corresponding Routh array can now be formed
Row
1 1 100+k
2 20 20k
3 a 0
4 b 0

20(100  k )  20k 20 *100  20k  20k

a= = = 100
20 20
a * 20k  0
b= =20 k
a
The system is stable, no sign change in 1st column,
b>0
20k >0
k>0
 Range of k is must be k>0

Process Control 41 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Controller Tuning

The performance of feedback controllers depends on the values of their chosen

parameters. If these parameters are properly chosen, they offer the highest flexibility
to achieving the desired controlled response and stability. The process of choosing
these parameters is known as controller tuning.
Also, controller tuning can be defined as an optimization process that involves a
performance criterion to the form of the controller response and to the error between
the process variable and the set point.

Controller Tuning
 Tuning is the adjustment of the controller parameters to obtain a specified closed
loop response. Tuning of controller is the process of setting controller gains to
achieve desired performance.
 After a Control system is installed the controller settings must usually be
adjusted until the control system performance is considered to be satisfactory.
 The goal of the tuning is to determine the gains that optimize system response.
High gain increase responsiveness but also move the system closer to instability.
 Low gain improve stability but the system becomes sluggish.

Design and Tuning of a Control System

1) What type of feedback controller should be used to control a given process?
Some engineer –select PI and other select PID. In all cases, the selectionof Kc
and τI have and important effect on the response of the controlled process.
2) How do we select the best values for the adjustable parameters of the feedback
controller?
This is known as the controller tuning problem. We need to have a quantitative
measure in order to compare the alternatives and select the best type of controller
and the best values of its parameters.
3) What performance criteian we use for the section and the tuning the controller?
There are a avrity of the performance criteria we would we, such as:
1) Keep the max deviation (Error) as small as possible.
2) Achive short settling time.
3) Minimize the integral of errors untill the process has settled to its setpoint,
and so on.
4) Keep low value of Decay ratio.

Process Control 42 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Simple Performance Criteria
1) Steady-state performance criteria:
The principal steady-state performance criterian usually is zero. Such a steady-
state error is called an offset. The P control cannot achieve S.S. error, while a PI can.
2) Dynamic Response performance criteria:
a-Criteria that use only a few points of the response they are simpler but only
approximate.
b- Criteria that use the entire closed –loop response from t=0 until t=very large. There
are more precise but also more cumbersome to use.
For the Best criteria is the decay ratio, and the
optimum value of DR is.
𝐶 1
=
𝐴 4

It is reasonable tradeoff between a fast rise time and a

reasonable settling time.
This criteria is usually known as one-quarter decay ratio.

Tuning Relations Based on Integral Error Criteria

• Controller tuning relations have been developed that optimize the closed-loop
response for a simple process model and a specified disturbance or set-point
change.
• The optimum settings minimize an integral error criterion.
• Three popular integral error criteria are:
The main three methods of the integral error performance criteria used in terms
of:
 Integral of the absolute value of the error (IAE)
∞
𝐼𝐴𝐸 = ∫0 |𝑒(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 ….. (1)
where the error signal e(t) is the difference between the set point and the
measurement.
 Integrated Square Error (ISE)
This error uses the square of the error, thereby penalizing large errors more than
small errors. This gives more conservative response (faster return to set point).


ISE   e dt
2 ….. (2)
0

 Integrated Time-Weighted Absolute Error (ITAE)

Process Control 43 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 This criterion is based on the integral of the absolute value of the error multiplied
by time. It results in errors existing over time being penalized even though may be
small, which results in a more heavily damped response.


ITAE   t e dt
….. (3)
0

If the performance indices increases, control system can perform poorly and
even become unstable. So it needs to tune the controller parameters to achieve good
control performance with the proper choice of tuning constants.

Example: Select the gain of a proportional controller (Kc) using the one-quarter decay
ratio criterion (DR=0.25).
The process is described by: Gp(s) = 10/[(s+2)(2s+1)] ,
Assume Gm(s) = Gv= 1.
Answer:
𝐺𝑃 𝐺𝑣 𝐺𝑐
𝑌(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐺𝑃 𝐺𝑣 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚

2ψ

0.21083

=6.93

Process Control 44 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Q2: Find the gain of a proportional controller that produces a closed-loop response for
a second-order system with decay ratio equal to 1/4 . The process is described by:-
1
GP (s) = 2 , Gm (s) = Gf (s) = 1
s + 3s + 1
Answer:
𝐺𝑃 𝐺𝑣 𝐺𝑐
𝑌(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐺𝑃 𝐺𝑣 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑚
1
𝐾𝑐 2
𝑌(𝑠) = s + 3s + 1
1
1 + 𝐾𝑐 2
s + 3s + 1
𝐾𝑐
2
𝑌(𝑠) = 2 s + 3s + 1
s + 3s + 1 + 𝐾𝑐
s 2 + 3s + 1
𝐾𝑐
𝑌(𝑠) = 2
s + 3s + 1 + 𝐾𝑐
𝐾𝑐
1 + 𝐾𝑐
𝑌(𝑠) = 2
s 3
+ s+1
1 + 𝐾𝑐 1 + 𝐾𝑐
1
𝜏=
√1 + 𝐾𝑐
3
2𝜉𝜏 =
√1 + 𝐾𝑐
3
2𝜉𝜏 =
1 + 𝐾𝑐
3√1 + 𝐾𝑐 3
𝜉= =
2(1 + 𝐾𝑐 ) 2√1 + 𝐾𝑐
For DR=1/4 the 𝜉 = 0.2154
3
0.2154 =
2√1 + 𝐾𝑐
√1 + 𝐾𝑐 = 6.9621
𝐾𝑐 =47.4718

Process Control 45 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Classical methods for controller tuning
The following two methods are preferred here those of Cohen-Coon method also
known as process reaction curve derived from open-loop systems. The other is Ziegler-
Nichols method based on frequency response analysis (bode diagram) or continuous
cycling method that it derived mainly from closed-loop systems.

1) Cohen-Coon Method
It is an empirical rule which have been proven is practice, it is known as Cohen and
Coon method.

d(s)
Gd
1
C(s) 
s
R Y(s)
GC Gv Gp

Ym(s) Y (s)
Gm

The Cohen - Coon method applies only to open-loop processes that are inherently
stable.
Cohen and Coon suggest method to first model process in the open loop and then
picking the appropriate control parameters. Noted that most responses have a
“sigmoidal” response to step change.
The procedure of this method is to open the control system by disconnection the
controller from the final control element, and introduce a step change of magnitude A
in the variable L which actuates the final control element.
Then find the T.F. between Ym and C as
𝑌𝑚 (𝑠)
𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 = = 𝐺𝑓 (𝑠) 𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) 𝐺𝑚 (𝑠) ….. (4)
𝐶(𝑠)
Cohen-Coon used process reaction curve, that it is a response of the process to a step
change in the manipulated variable. Cohen and Coon observed that the response of
most processing units to a step change in input variable can be adequately
approximated by the response of first order system with dead time, and the transfer
function is:
𝑌𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡𝑑𝑠
𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 = ≈ ….. (5)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1

Process Control 46 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
The values of K, τ and td are calculated from the process reaction curve which is shown
in Fig. (1). A tangent is drawn to the curve at the point of maximum rate or ascent, and
then td is the intercept of this tangent with x-axis, and is defined as the time elapsed
until the system responds.
𝐵 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝐾= = ….. (6)
𝐴 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝐵 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒)
𝜏= = ….. (7)
𝑆 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
where S is the slope of the sigmoidal response at the point of inflection, td = time
elapsed until the system responded.
Cohen and coon used the approximated model and estimated K, τ, τd .

1) For Proportional controller:

1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝐶 = (1 + ) ….. (8)
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3𝜏
2) For Proportional-Integral controller:
1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝐶 = (0.9 + ) ….. (9)
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 12𝜏
𝑡
30+3 𝑑
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡
𝜏
….. (10)
9+20 𝑑
𝜏
3) For Proportional-Derivative controller:
1 𝜏 5 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝐶 = ( + ) ….. (11)
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 4 6𝜏
𝑡
6−2 𝑑
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡
𝜏
….. (12)
22+3 𝑑
𝜏
4) For Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller:
1 𝜏 4 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝐶 = ( + ) ….. (13)
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3 4𝜏
𝑡
32+6 𝑑
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡
𝜏
….. (14)
13+8 𝑑
𝜏
4
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 ….. (15)
11+2 𝑑
𝜏

Process Control 47 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 ym ym Actual
response
B B

Approximate
response
S Slop = S

td t td t

(a) (b)
Fig. (1) (a) Curve for Cohen-Coon tuning.
(b) Curve approximation with a first order dead-time system.

Example: consider the system with the following elements

1 1
𝐺𝑝 = 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑓 = 1
(5𝑠+1)(2𝑠+1) 10𝑠+1
Determine the optimum control elements using PRC method
1 1
𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 = 𝐺𝑓 𝐺𝑝 𝐺𝑚 = ∗ (10𝑠+1) ∗ 1
(5𝑠+1)(2𝑠+1)
Then draw Y(t) against t by using partial fraction of the above eqn.
𝐾𝑒 −𝑡𝑑𝑠
Then 𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 =
𝜏𝑠+1
From Fig. (1)
K=gain=B/A=1.0
S=slope at the inflection point=0.05
B=Ultimate response = 1.0
τ = effective time constant= B/S = 1/0.05 = 20
td = dead time =2.5
1.0𝑒 −2.5𝑠
∴ 𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 =
20𝑠 + 1
Using Cohen and Coon setting

For Proportional controller

1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 1 20 2.5
𝐾𝑐 = (1 + ) = × (1 + ) = 8.33
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3𝜏 1 2.5 3 × 20
For PI controller
1 𝜏 𝑑 𝑡
𝐾𝑐 = (0.9 + 12𝜏 ) = 7.3
𝐾 𝑡𝑑

Process Control 48 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 30+3𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 = 6.6
9+20𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
For PID controller
1 𝜏 4 𝑡
𝐾𝑐 =
𝐾 𝑡𝑑
(3 + 4𝜏𝑑 ) = 10.9
32 + 6𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 = 5.85
13 + 8𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
4
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 = 0.89
11 + 2𝑡𝑑 /𝜏

Example: Consider the feedback control system for the stirred-tank blending process
shown in Fig. 1 and the following step test. The controller was placed in manual, and
then its output was suddenly changed from 30% to 43%. The resulting process reaction
curve is shown in Fig.(2). Thus, after the step change occurred at t = 0, the measured
exit composition changed from 35% to 55% (expressed as a percentage of the
measurement span), which is equivalent to the mole fraction changing from 0.10 to
0.30. Select the PID controller settings using the Cohen-Coon technique.

Figure (1) Composition control system for a stirred-tank blending process.

Process Control 49 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Figure (2) Process reaction curve.

Cohen and Coon Controller Settings

P PI PID
Kc 1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 1 𝜏 4 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝑐 = (1 + ) 𝐾𝑐 = (0.9 + ) 𝐾𝑐 = ( + )
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3𝜏 𝐾 𝑡𝑑 12𝜏 𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3 4𝜏
τI - 30 + 3𝑡𝑑 /𝜏 32 + 6𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 ( ) 𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 ( )
9 + 20𝑡𝑑 /𝜏 13 + 8𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
τD - - 4
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 ( )
11 + 2𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 (𝜃)

Answer
A first-order-plus-time-delay model can be developed from the process reaction curve
in Fig. (2) Using the graphical method. The tangent line through the inflection point
intersects the horizontal lines for the initial and final composition values at 1.07 min
and 7.00 min, respectively.
55 − 35
𝑆= = 3.3726 %/min
7 − 1.07
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐵 55 − 35 20
𝐾= = = = = 1.5384 %/%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐴 43 − 30 13
∆𝑌
𝜏𝑑 = = 1.07 𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑋
Process Control 50 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 𝐵 20
𝜏= = = 5.93
𝑆 3.3726

The resulting empirical process model can be expressed as:

𝑋(𝑠) 1.538𝑒 −1.07
= 𝐺𝑝𝑟𝑐 =
𝑃(𝑠) 5.93s + 1
1 𝜏 4 𝑡
𝐾𝑐 =
𝐾 𝑡𝑑
(3 + 4𝜏𝑑 )= 4.967
32+6𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 ( )=2.45 min
13+8𝑡 /𝜏 𝑑
4
𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 ( ) = 0.3767 𝑚𝑖𝑛
11 + 2𝑡𝑑 /𝜏

Example: Table (1) shows experimental process reaction curve of an open loop system
with a PI controller. Using the data in given in the table
(a) Approximate the open–loop response with that of a first–order system plus dead
time (i.e., find the values of K, τ, and td).
(b) Select the controller settings using the Cohen–Coon technique.

Table (1)
Time (min) -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Manipulated
10 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
input
Measurement of
0.650 0.650 0.650 0.651 0.652 0.668 0.735 0.817 0.881 0.979 1.075 1.151 1.213 1.239 1.262 1.311 1.329 1.338 1.350 1.350 1.350
output

Cohen and Coon Controller Settings

P PI PID
1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 1 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 1 𝜏 4 𝑡𝑑
Kc 𝐾𝑐 = (1 + ) 𝐾𝑐 = (0.9 + ) 𝐾𝑐 = ( + )
𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3𝜏 𝐾 𝑡𝑑 12𝜏 𝐾 𝑡𝑑 3 4𝜏
30 + 3𝑡𝑑 /𝜏 32 + 6𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
τI - 𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 ( ) 𝜏𝐼 = 𝑡𝑑 ( )
9 + 20𝑡𝑑 /𝜏 13 + 8𝑡𝑑 /𝜏
4
τD - - 𝜏𝐷 = 𝑡𝑑 ( )
11 + 2𝑡𝑑 /𝜏

Answer

Process Control 51 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
Y(t)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

Ke  t d s
Then G PRC 
s1
From Fig(1)
K=gain=B/A=(1.35-0.65)/(15-10)=0.7/5=0.14
S=slope at the inflection point=(1.35-0.65)/(60-14)= 0.0152
B=Ultimate response = 0.7
τ = effective time constant= B/S = 0.7/0.0152= 46
td = dead time =14
0.14e 14 s
 GPRC 
46s1
Using Cohen and coon setting
For PI controller
1 t 
Kc   0.9 d   21.71
K td  12 
303t d / 
 I t d  28.68
9  20t d / 

2) Ziegler-Nichols Method
The method of Ziegler and Nichols known as the continuous cycling method. In this
method, integration and derivative terms of the controller are disabled and the
proportional gain is increased until a continuous oscillation occurs at ultimate gain Kcu
for the closed loop system. Considering Kcu and its related oscillating ultimate period,
Pu , the controller parameters can be calculated from the equation bellow.
𝐾𝑐𝑢 ⇒ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 continuous cycling method

Process Control 52 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 2𝜋
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑤) = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑤

Pu Pu

Pu

1) For Proportional controller:

𝐾𝑐𝑢
𝐾𝑐 = ….. (11)
2
2) For Proportional-Integral controller:
𝐾𝑐𝑢
𝐾𝑐 = ….. (12)
2.2
𝑃𝑢
𝜏𝐼 = ….. (13)
1.2
3) For Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller:
𝐾𝑐𝑢
𝐾𝑐 = ….. (14)
1.7
𝑃𝑢
𝜏𝐼 = ….. (15)
2
𝑃𝑢
𝜏𝐷 = ….. (16)
8

Also, Ziegler-Nichols used another method bode diagram of two graphs: one is a plot
of the logarithm of the magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of
phase angle; both are plotted against the frequency on a logarithm scale as shown in
Fig. (2).
Gain margin (GM) and crossover frequency (𝜔) can be found from two plots therefore,
the ultimate gain and period of oscillation are calculated from following:

K u
 20 log GM  ….. (17)

P 
23.1428 ….. (18)
u


Process Control 53 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 1.0

Gain
A.R
margin

0o

Ø(I)
Phase
Ø
margin
-180o

ωCO
ω

Fig. (2): Definition of gain and phase margins.

Example: Determine the Ziegler – Nichols tuning parameters for a PID controller, with
the given transfer functions. Assume that the time constants have units of minutes.
5 0.4 2
𝐺𝑣 = 𝐺𝑚 = 𝐺𝑝 =
2𝑆+1 5𝑆+1 𝑆+1
Answer
Continuous cycling method
1+ GOL = 0
1+Gv Gm Gp Gc = 0
Put Gc = Kcu
5 0.4 2
1+( ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝐾𝑐𝑢 ) = 0
2𝑆+1 5𝑆+1 𝑆+1
4 𝐾𝑐𝑢
1+( )=0
(2𝑆 + 1)(5𝑆 + 1)(𝑆 + 1)
10 S3 + 17 S2 + 8 S +1 + 4 Kcu = 0
Put S=iw , i= -1
10 (iw)3 + 17 (iw)2 + 8 (iw) +1 + 4 Kcu = 0
-10 iw3 – 17 w2 + 8 iw +1 + 4 Kcu = 0

Process Control 54 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Real : – 17 w2 +1 + 4 Kcu = 0
Imaginary: -10 iw3 + 8 iw = 0
10 iw3 = 8 iw
w2 = 0.8 w = 0.894
-17 * 0.8 + 1 + 4 Kcu = 0
Kcu = 3.15
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑃𝑢 = = = 7.03 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤 0.894
For Kc , ꚍI , ꚍD
𝐾𝑐𝑢 3.15
𝐾𝑐 = = = 1.85
1.7 1.7
𝑃𝑢 7.03
𝜏𝐼 = = = 3.52 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2 2
𝑃𝑢 7.03
𝜏𝐷 = = = 0.879 𝑚𝑖𝑛
8 8

Process Control 55 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 The Instrumentation and Control Diagrams

Instrumentation
The example level-control problem had three critical pieces of instrumentation: a
sensor (measurement device), actuator (manipulated input device), and controller.
The sensor measured the tank level, the actuator changed the flow rate, and the
controller determined how much to vary the actuator, based on the sensor signal.
Each device in a control loop must supply or receive a signal from another device.

Sensors (Sensing Element)

A device, usually electronic, which detects a variable quantity and measures and
converts the measurement into a signal to be recorded elsewhere. A sensor is a device
that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by
an observer or by an instrument.
There are many common sensors used for chemical processes. These include
temperature, level, pressure, flow, composition, and pH.

For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured temperature into

expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.
A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by
a voltmeter.

Control of unit operations

1) Level Control
• A level control is needed whenever there is a V/L or L/L interface
• Many smaller vessels are sized based on level control response time

Process Control 56 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Figure 1.1 Liquid level control system

Example: A boiler drum with a conventional feedback control system is shown in

Fig. 1.2. The level of the boiling liquid is measured and used to adjust the feed water
flow rate.
This control system tends to be quite sensitive to rapid changes in the disturbance
variable, steam flow rate, as a result of the small liquid capacity of the boiler drum.
Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a result of steam demands made by
downstream processing units.

Figure 1.2 The feedback control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.

The feedforward control scheme in Fig. 1.3 can provide better control of the liquid
level. Here the steam flow rate is measured, and the feedforward controller adjusts
the feedwater flow rate.

Process Control 57 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Figure 1.3 The feedforward control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.

2)Pressure Control
• Pressure control is usually by venting a gas or vapor.
• In hydrocarbon processes, off-gas is often vented to fuel.
• In other processes, nitrogen may be brought in to maintain pressure and vented
via scrubbers.
• Most common arrangement is direct venting.
• Several vessels that are connected together may have a single pressure
controller.

PV

PIC
PT

Figure 1.4 Pressure control system

Process Control 58 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 3) Flow Control
• Most common arrangement is a control valve downstream of a pump or
compressor.
FIC

FV
PI FT

Figure 1.5 Flowrate control system

Example:Vaporizer Flow Control

• Vaporizer flow control needs to prevent liquid accumulation.
• Hence use level controller to actuate heat input to the vaporizer and maintain a
constant inventory.
• Control of liquid flow in is easier than control of vapor flow out.

FIC
Vapor
LIC

FV
FT
LV

LT

Feed
Steam
Trap
Condensate
Figure 1.6 Vaporizer control system

4) Temperature Control: Single Stream

• Heaters and coolers are usually controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the
hot or cold utility stream.
• Final control element can be on inlet or outlet of utility side.

Process Control 59 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Hot or cold
utility

Process
TIC
TE TT

TV

Figure 1.7 Temperature control system

Example: Heat exchangers temperature control

• Temperature control for an heat exchanger is usually by manipulating the flow
through a bypass.
• Only one side of an exchanger can be temperature controlled.
• It is also common to see heat exchangers with temperature control on the
downstream heater and cooler.

TIC
TE TT

TV

Figure 1.8 Temperature control of heat exchanger

Example: Air coolers temperature control

• Ambient air temperature varies, so air coolers are oversized and controlled by
manipulating a bypass.
• Alternatively, air cooler can use a variable speed motor, louvers or variable
pitch fans.

Process Control 60 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 M M M M
TV

TO VARIABLE
TIC SPEED MOTOR TIC
TE TT TE TT
CONTROL CIRCUIT

(a) (b)
Figure 1.9 Temperature control of air coolers

Example: Temperature Control of CSTR

Feed

TC

Cooling
water
TT

Product

Figure 1.10 Temperature control of CSTR

Distillation Control
 Distillation control is a specialized subject in its own right.
 In addition to controlling condenser pressure and level in the sump, a simple
distillation column has two degrees of freedom.
 Material balance (split) and energy balance (heat input or removed).
 Therefore needs two controllers.
 Therefore has the possibility that the controllers will interact and “fight”
each other.
 Side streams, intermediate condensers & reboilers, pump-arounds, etc. all add
extra complexity and degrees of freedom.

The Energy Balance (LQ) Distillation Column Control Structure

The LQ control structure is the most natural control structure for a simple distillation
column. This is because the separation in a distillation column occurs due to
successive condensation and vaporization of the counter-current vapour and liquid
streams flowing through the column. Adjusting the cold reflux, the source of
Process Control 61 Fourth Class
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
condensation, and the reboiler duty, the source of vaporization, is then a natural
choice for regulating the separation achieved in the column. The LQ control structure
shown in figure (1.11 a) is thus the most commonly applied distillation control
structure. It is also sometimes referred to as an energy balance structure as changing
L (cold reflux) or Q alters the energy balance across the column to affect the distillate
to bottoms product split.

Material Balance Distillation Column Control Structures

The other control structures are referred to as material balance structures as the
product split is directly adjusted by changing the distillate or bottoms stream flow
rate. The material balance structures are applied when a level loop for the LQ
structure would be ineffective due to a very small product stream (D or B) flow rate.
Figure 1.11 b, c and D show Schematics of DQ, LB and DB distillation column
control structures. The DQ structure is thus appropriate for columns with very large
reflux ratio (L/D > 4). The distillate stream flow is then a fraction of the reflux stream
so that the reflux drum level cannot be maintained using the distillate. The level must
then be controlled using the reflux. The LB structure is appropriate for columns with
a small bottoms flow rate compared to the boil-up. The bottoms stream is then not
appropriate for level control and the reboiler duty must be used instead. The DB
control structure is used very rarely as both D and B cannot be set independently due
to the steady state overall material balance constraint. In dynamics however, the
control structure may be used when the reflux and reboil are much larger than the
distillate and bottoms respectively.

Process Control 62 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Figure 1.11 Schematics of LQ, DQ, LB and DB distillation column control structures

Process Control 63 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
Batch Distillation
• Reflux flow control adjusted based on temperature (used to infer composition)

Figure 1.12 Batch distillation column control system

Control of Miscellaneous Systems

Vapor Absorption Cycle
In addition to compression systems, refrigerant absorption systems are also applied
industrially. The absorption based refrigeration cycle and its control scheme is shown
in Figure 1.13. Ammonia (refrigerant) rich strong liquor is distilled at high pressure
to recover liquid ammonia as the distillate and ammonia lean weak liquor as the
bottoms. The liquid ammonia is fed to the evaporator where it absorbs heat from the
process stream to be chilled and evaporates. Vapor ammonia is absorbed by the
‘weak liquor’ water stream. The ‘strong liquor’ so formed is fed to the distillation
column to completed the closed circuit refrigerant loop. The temperature of the
chilled process stream is controlled by adjusting the level setpoint of the evaporator.
The heat transfer rate is thus varied by changing the area across which heat transfer
occurs. The evaporator level controller adjusts the distillate liquid ammonia flow. An
increase in the level of the evaporator implies an increase in the ammonia evaporation
rate so that the weak liquor rate is increased in ratio to absorb the ammonia vapours.
The strong liquor is cooled and collected in a surge drum. The level of the surge drum
is not controlled. Liquid from the surge drum is pumped back to the distillation
column through a process-to-process heater that recovers heat from the hot ‘weak
liquor’ bottoms from the distillation column. The flow rate of the strong liquor to the
column is adjusted to maintain the column bottoms level. Also, the steam to the
reboiler is manipulated to maintain a tray temperature.

Process Control 64 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor
 Figure 1.13 Absorption refrigeration control system

Process Control 65 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor