How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking

Science

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 HOW
BAKING
WORKS
Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science

ffirs.indd i 7/20/07 2:46:38 PM

ffirs.indd ii 7/20/07 2:46:39 PM
 HOW
BAKING
WORKS
Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science
SECOND EDITION

Paula Figoni

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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 This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Figoni, Paula
How baking works : exploring the fundamentals of baking science /
Paula Figoni.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-471-74723-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Baking. I. Title.
TX763.F54 2008
641.7—dc22
2006103521

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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 CONTENTS

PREFACE ix Stage II: Baking 32

Stage III: Cooling 38
Questions for Review 39
CHAPTER 1
Questions for Discussion 40
INTRODUCTION
Exercises and Experiments 40
TO BAKING 1
Introduction 1 CHAPTER 4
The Importance of Accuracy in the Bakeshop 2
SENSORY PROPERTIES
Balances and Scales 2
Units of Measure 3
OF FOOD 49
Weight and Volume Measurements 4 Introduction 49
The Difference between Density and Thickness 5 Appearance 50
The Difference between Weight Ounces and Fluid Ounces 6 Flavor 52
Baker’s Percentages 7 Texture 58
The Importance of Controlling Ingredient Temperatures 8 Questions for Review 59
The Importance of Controlling Oven Temperatures 9 Questions for Discussion 60
Questions for Review 10 Exercises and Experiments 61
Questions for Discussion 10
Exercises and Experiments 11 CHAPTER 5
WHEAT FLOUR 67
CHAPTER 2 Introduction 67
HEAT TRANSFER 15 Wheat Kernel 68
Introduction 15 Makeup of Flour 69
Methods of Heat Transfer 15 Classifying Wheat 70
Questions for Review 21 Particle Size 71
Questions for Discussion 22 Flour and Dough Additives and
Treatments 72
Exercises and Experiments 22
Commercial Grades of White Flours 77
Types of Patent Wheat Flours 79
CHAPTER 3 Other Wheat Flours 82
OVERVIEW OF THE Functions of Flours 84
BAKING PROCESS 27 Storage of Flours 86
Introduction 27 Questions for Review 87
Setting the Stage for Success 27 Questions for Discussion 88
Stage I: Mixing 29 Exercises and Experiments 89

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 vi ) CONTENTS

CHAPTER 6 Storage and Handling 194

Questions for Review 194
VARIETY GRAINS
Questions for Discussion 195
AND FLOURS 101 Exercises and Experiments 196
Introduction 101
Cereal Grains 102
Cereal-Free Grains and Flours 106
CHAPTER 10
Questions for Review 109 FATS, OILS, AND
Questions for Discussion 109 EMULSIFIERS 205
Exercises and Experiments 109 Introduction 205
Chemistry of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers 205

CHAPTER 7 Hydrogenation 207

Fats and Oils 209
GLUTEN 117
Functions of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers 219
Introduction 117
Storage and Handling 224
The Importance of Gluten 117
Questions for Review 225
The Unique Nature of Gluten 118
Questions for Discussion 226
Determining Gluten Requirements 119
Exercises and Experiments 226
Controlling Gluten Development 121
Dough Relaxation 131
Questions for Review 132
CHAPTER 11
Questions for Discussion 133 EGGS AND EGG
Exercises and Experiments 133 PRODUCTS 237
Introduction 237
CHAPTER 8 The Makeup of an Egg 237
Commercial Classification of Shell Eggs 240
SUGAR AND OTHER
Egg Products 242
SWEETENERS 139 Functions of Eggs 245
Introduction 139 More on Coagulation—Basic Egg Custard 250
Sweeteners 139 More on Aeration—Meringue 253
Dry Crystalline Sugars 141 Storage and Handling 256
Syrups 147 Questions for Review 257
Specialty Sweeteners 156 Questions for Discussion 258
Functions of Sweeteners 160 Exercises and Experiments 259
Storage and Handling 164
Questions for Review 165
Questions for Discussion 166
CHAPTER 12
Exercises and Experiments 167 MILK AND MILK
PRODUCTS 269
CHAPTER 9 Introduction 269
Common Commercial Processes to Milk
THICKENING AND and Milk Products 269
GELLING AGENTS 177 Makeup of Milk 270
Introduction 177 Milk Products 273
The Process of Thickening and Gelling 178 Functions of Milk and Milk Products 279
Gelatin 179 Storage and Handling 281
Vegetable Gums 182 Questions for Review 283
Starches 185 Questions for Discussion 283
Functions of Thickening and Gelling Agents 192 Exercises and Experiments 283

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 CONTENTS ) vii

CHAPTER 13 Questions for Review 336

Questions for Discussion 337
LEAVENING AGENTS 287
Exercises and Experiments 337
Introduction 287
The Process of Leavening 287
Leavening Gases 288 CHAPTER 16
Yeast Fermentation 291 NUTS AND SEEDS 345
Chemical Leaveners 295 Introduction 345
Storage and Handling 301 Composition of Nuts, Kernels, and Seeds 345
Questions for Review 301 Cost 347
Questions for Discussion 302 Common Nuts, Kernels, and Seeds 347
Exercises and Experiments 302 Toasting Nuts 351
Storage and Handling 352
Questions for Review 353
CHAPTER 14 Questions for Discussion 353
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL Exercises and Experiments 353
FLAVORINGS 309
Introduction 309
CHAPTER 17
A Brief Review of Flavor 310
Flavor Profiles 310
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
Types of Flavorings 311 PRODUCTS 359
Evaluating New Flavorings 316 Introduction 359
Storage and Handling 317 Makeup of Cocoa Beans 360
Questions for Review 318 Common Cocoa and Chocolate Products 363
Exercises and Experiments 318 Handling Chocolate Products 375
Functions of Cocoa and Chocolate Products 376
Storage 379
CHAPTER 15 Questions for Review 380
FRUIT AND FRUIT Questions for Discussion 381

PRODUCTS 323 Exercises and Experiments 381

Introduction 323
How Fruit Is Purchased 323
BIBLIOGRAPHY 387
Common Fruits 329
Fruit Ripening 333 INDEX 389
Storage and Handling 334

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 PREFACE
Years ago, there was only one way to become a baker or pastry chef, and that was to
apprentice with a master craftsman. The apprentice learned by doing, repeating the
necessary skills, year after year, until the skills were mastered. If bakers and pastry chefs
understood their ingredients or why they did what they did, it was only after years of
experience. Mostly they knew what to do because they did what they had been shown,
and it worked.
Today, bakers and pastry chefs have more challenges. They must master more
skills. They must adapt to faster-changing trends. They must learn to use a wider array
of ingredients from different cultures. They must learn to use still more ingredients
devised in the chemist’s lab. They must learn all this in a shorter length of time.
Baking and pastry programs in colleges and universities are laying the foundation
to meet these new challenges. Part of this foundation includes applying the knowledge
of science to the bakeshop. The purpose of How Baking Works, Second Edition is to
help lay this foundation. Yet, I’m sure some might wonder if this knowledge is neces-
sary, even helpful. After all, isn’t it enough to learn the skills of the bakeshop?
After years of working with experienced bakers and pastry chefs and after years of
training students, I am convinced that, today, skills are not enough. I have faith that the
knowledge of the food scientist can help in facing the challenges in the bakeshop. Finally,
I have conviction that this knowledge is useful for the beginner as well as the master.
The food scientist uncovers how different ingredients are processed, views ingre-
dients as made of individual components, and views processes and procedures in the
bakeshop in terms of interactions between these components. If ingredients can be
viewed in this way, their behavior in the bakeshop begins to make more sense. How
they will react under new conditions and new situations can better be predicted, and
failures in the bakeshop can be averted. The goal of this book is to share the views
of the food scientist with bakers and pastry chefs. Yet, I have tried to keep this book
focused on the interests and needs of beginning and practicing bakers and pastry chefs.
The only theories presented are those necessary to better understand that which will
be immediately useful in the bakeshop.
Beyond the practical usefulness of science, there is a beauty to it, a beauty best
appreciated when science is applied to the everyday world. I hope that this book allows
those who might not yet see this beauty to at least see the possibility of it.

A NOTE ABOUT TEMPERATURE

AND WEIGHT CONVERSIONS
Numbers can sound deceptively precise. For instance, the temperature at
which yeast cells die is often cited as 140°F (60°C). But was the heat moist or dry? Was
the temperature brought up quickly or slowly? What strain of yeast was used, and how
much acid, salt, and sugar were present?

ix

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 x ) PREFACE

The actual temperature at which yeast cells die depends on these and other
factors, and that temperature is not necessarily 140°F (60°C). For this reason, many
temperatures provided in this text are converted from Fahrenheit to Celsius in
ranges of five degrees. While this may appear inexact, it best reflects the reality of
the situation.
Other times, however, temperatures are meant to be precise. For example, it mat-
ters when proofing yeast dough whether the temperature is 81°F (27°C) or 85°F (29°C).
In this case, temperatures are converted from Fahrenheit to Celsius to the nearest
whole degree.
Likewise, weight and volume conversions are not necessarily given to the precise
gram or milliliter. In most cases, U.S./imperial units are provided in increments of
.25 ounce, while metric units are converted in increments of 5 grams or 5 milliliters.
This reflects the reality of the bakeshop, where most equipment reads down to these
increments.

CHANGES TO THE SECOND EDITION

While the core format and theme of the text remains the same, several impor-
tant changes have been made to the Second Edition of How Baking Works. Material
was added to reflect the increasing use of newer ingredients. In particular, stevia, agave
syrup, and other sweeteners were added. Along with this, information was added on
the source and processing of sweeteners, to increase the depth of understanding of
how they differ as well as how they are similar to each other. This is reflected in an
expansion of Chapter 8.
At the same time that newer ingredients have been developed, there has been
an increased interest in more traditional ingredients, such as stone-ground flours and
ancient grains. Chapters 5 and 6 have added information to reflect these interests.
The text also reflects new changes to federal law and growing consumer awareness of
nutrition and health. This includes information on the labeling of food allergens in the
United States, more information on dietary fiber, and additional and updated informa-
tion on trans fats and trans-free fats in Chapter 10.
An amazing amount of research has been completed in the past few years on
gluten structure, in particular, but also on other flour components and their interac-
tions. This comes at a time when scientists are selectively breeding new varieties of
wheat with specific properties to meet the changing needs of farmers, processors, and
consumers across the globe. Based on this new knowledge, updated information on
gluten structure and its interactions is provided in Chapter 7.
Various enzymes and reducing agents have always been important to large-scale
commercial bakers, who typically add them as dough conditioners or improvers.
However, they are also naturally present in flours and in other common ingredients
used in bread baking. Since their special properties are exploited by artisan bakers as
they adjust fermentation and mixing conditions, it seemed important to discuss them
in more detail. Chapters 5 and 7 include increased coverage of enzymes and reducing
agents. Finally, Chapter 9 reflects an improved discussion of starch structure and a
more accurate representation of the process of starch gelatinization.
Questions at the end of each chapter have been divided into Questions for Review
and Questions for Discussion. Questions for Review are straightforward; they reflect the
material as it is presented in the text. Questions for Discussion are questions that in
general require a higher level of thinking, that require integration of information from
several areas of the chapter, or that apply information in a slightly different manner
than is presented in the text.
The main change to the Second Edition is the development of exercises and
experiments at the end of each chapter. These exercises and experiments are designed

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 PREFACE ) xi

to reinforce material from the text in a way that shows rather than tells. Some of
the exercises are exclusively paper exercises, with a few involving math. Many more
involve the sensory evaluation of ingredients. There are several reasons for including
these sensory exercises in the text. First is the narrow objective of learning to identify
characterizing traits of ingredients, to better understand the effects that they will have
on finished products. Second is the even narrower but very practical objective of learn-
ing to identify ingredients that may be unlabeled or accidentally mislabeled. Third is
the broad objective of increasing awareness of all the tastes, textures, and sights in the
bakeshop, no matter how small or mundane. There is much to be learned in a bake-
shop, even when the same items are prepped and baked day after day. The first step to
learning is learning to be aware.
An Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 978-0470-04512-1) accompanies this book. It can
be obtained by contacting your Wiley sales representative. An electronic version of the
Instructor’s Manual is available to qualified instructors on the companion Web site, at
www.wiley.com/college/figoni.

ABOUT THE EXPERIMENTS

While the exercises at the end of each chapter are self-explanatory, the experi-
ments do need some explanation. The experiments allow students to further develop
basic bakeshop skills, but that is not the main objective of the experiments. Instead,
the emphasis of the experiments is on comparing and evaluating products that vary in
some systematic way. The real “products” of these experiments are students’ findings,
which they summarize in the Results Tables provided at the end of each experiment.
There are also specific questions at the end of each experiment, with space provided for
students to summarize their conclusions.
The experiments are designed so that one or more can be conducted within a
four-hour session by a class divided into five or more groups. Each group in the class-
room completes one or more of the products in the experiment. When all products
are made and cooled, students evaluate the products, either as a class or individually.
Room-temperature water (bottled water, if tap water has a strong taste) should be
provided, to cleanse the palate between tastings, and students should constantly return
to the control product to make side-by-side comparisons of it with each test product.
Whenever possible, two separate groups should prepare the control product for each
experiment, in case one turns out unacceptable.
The key to well-conducted experiments is for the products to be prepared and
baked under carefully-controlled conditions. This is emphasized by the detail provided
in the formulas within each experiment. However, understand that the specific mixing
and bake times could change, to adjust to the different equipment and conditions
in your classroom bakeshop. What is more important than following the provided
methods of preparation exactly as written is that each product made within an experi-
ment by a class be completed exactly as all the others.
Above all else, however, common sense rules when completing experiments. There
are times when rigid rules must be forsaken, and chefs and scientists must know when
to “work with their ingredients.” What this means is that if it is necessary to make
adjustments to products because of the nature of the ingredient, those adjustments
should be made. An example of when adjustments must be made to products is in
the experiment on preparing rolls with different flours, included in different forms in
Chapters 5 and 6. If the same amount of water were used for each type of flour, the
gluten in the flour would not be properly hydrated. These adjustments are not made
lightly, however, and they must be recorded in a Results Table. Notice that a Comments
column is included in each table, for this very purpose.
While any classroom bakeshop can be used, there are certain modifications that
might need to be made to efficiently run the experiments. For instance, the bakeshop

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 xii ) PREFACE

should be supplied with multiple versions of smaller-scale equipment and smallwares.

As an example, multiple five-quart mixers, one per group, are needed in place of one
large mixer. A list of equipment and smallwares for outfitting a bakeshop for these
experiments follows.

EQUIPMENT AND SMALLWARES

1. Baker’s or electronic scales 17. Portion scoops, including #16
2. Measuring cups and measuring (2¾ oz.) and #30
spoons, assorted sizes 18. Timers
3. Sieves or strainers 19. Rulers
4. Mixers with 5-quart bowls, three- 20. Proof box
speed Hobart N50, ten-speed 21. Stainless steel bowls, especially
Commercial Kitchenaid, or 2- and 4-quart sizes
equivalent 22. Mixing spoons, wooden and
5. Flat beaters, dough hooks, and wire stainless
whips for mixers 23. Spatulas, heat-resistant silicone
6. Bowl scrapers 24. Stainless steel saucepans, heavy
7. Bench scrapers 1½ quart
8. Dough cutters, 2" or 2½" or 25. Rolling pins
equivalent 26. Knives, assorted serrated,
9. Oven thermometers paring, etc.
10. Parchment paper 27. Plastic wrap
11. Ovens (conventional, reel, deck, etc.) 28. Pastry bags
12. Stovetop burners 29. Pastry tubes, plain
13. Half sheet pans 30. Vegetable peelers
14. Muffin tins and liners (2½ or 31. Cake pans, 9-inch round
3½" size) 32. Cutting boards
15. Half hotel pans 33. Plastic teaspoons for tasting
16. Silicone (Silpat) pads, to fit half 34. Cups for water
sheet pans 35. Tape and markers for labeling

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the administration of the College of Culinary Arts at
Johnson & Wales University (J&W), who first suggested that I write this text. Without
their prodding and support, I would not have known that I could really do it.
The faculty in the International Baking and Pastry Institute at J&W deserve a
special thanks. They let me into their bakeshops, answered my questions, presented
me with practical problems, and made me feel like I was one of them. They demon-
strated firsthand to the students through their own knowledge and understanding of
science that science does indeed belong in the bakeshop. They have made my years at
J&W immensely rewarding, challenging, and fun, and that has made all the difference
to me.
In particular, I would like to thank my friend Chef Martha Crawford, whose
presence is felt in the classrooms and halls at J&W, even as she has moved on. Chef
Crawford taught me many things, including how to begin to think like a pastry chef.
She has a knack for getting to the core of any problem and laying out a path to its solu-
tion. Whenever I strayed, she firmly and wisely placed me back on track. For this, and
for much more, I am grateful.

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 PREFACE ) xiii

I would also like to pay a debt of gratitude to Chef Joseph Amendola, who pio-
neered the education of bakers and pastry chefs in this country. Chef Amendola had
the vision to see where education should head, and he placed us on that path.
I would like to thank the reviewers of the manuscript. Their helpful comments and
suggestions strengthened the manuscript. They are Dr. Bill Atwell of Cargill, Inc.; Gloria
M. Cabral of Bristol Community College; Kelli Dever of Boise State University; Kathryn
Gordon of The Art Institute of New York City; Catherine M. Hallman of Walker State
Community College; Monica J. Lanczak of Pennsylvania College of Technology; Simon
Stevenson of Connecticut Culinary Institute; and Scott Weiss of Carteret Community
College.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. My mother, who taught me how to bake,
my father, who taught me to love food, and both my parents, as well as my sisters,
who years ago encouraged me to continue even as they ate my first experiments in
baking. They helped shape me, and in doing so, they helped to shape this book. Bob
deserves a special thanks, because he was on the front line, tolerating my late nights at
the computer and steadying my mood as it changed with each day. This book is yours
as well as mine.

Paula Figoni
Providence, Rhode Island

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
TO BAKING
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the importance of accuracy in the bakeshop and how it is achieved.
2. Differentiate between volumetric and weight measurements and specify when
each should be used.
3. Differentiate between metric and U.S. common units.
4. Introduce the concept of baker’s percentages.
5. Discuss the importance of controlling ingredient temperatures.

INTRODUCTION
Those who enter the fields of baking and pastry arts do so for a variety of rea-
sons. For some, it is the joy of working with their hands, of creating edible works of art
from a few basic ingredients. For others, it is the rush they get from the fast pace of
the bakeshop, or from its satisfying sights and smells. Still others like the challenge of
pleasing and surprising customers. No matter the reason, the decision to work in the
field is usually grounded in a love of food, and maybe past experience in a bakeshop or
a home kitchen.
Working in a professional bakeshop is different from baking at home, however.
Production in a bakeshop is on a larger scale. It takes place day in and day out, some-
times under severe time pressures, in uncomfortably hot and humid conditions, and
over long hours. Despite the discomforts and pressures, product quality must remain
consistently high, because that is what the customer expects.
It takes specialized knowledge and practiced skills to accomplish these goals suc-
cessfully. It helps to be attentive to the sights, sounds, and smells of the bakeshop.
Experienced bakers and pastry chefs, for example, listen to the sound of cake batter
being beaten in a bowl, knowing that changes in sound accompany changes to the bat-
ter itself. They push and pummel bread dough to feel how it responds. They use smells
from the oven to judge when baking is nearly complete, and they sample their finished
products before presenting them to the customer.

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 2 ) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BAKING

Experienced bakers and pastry chefs rely, too, on tools like timers and thermom-
eters, because they know how time and temperature affect product quality. They also
rely heavily on accurate scales.

THE IMPORTANCE OF
ACCURACY IN THE BAKESHOP
Most bakery items are made of the same ingredients: flour, water, sugar, eggs,
leavening agents, and fat. Sometimes the difference between two products is simply the
method of preparation used in assembling the ingredients. Other times the difference is
the proportion or amount of each ingredient in a formula. Because small differences in
method and in proportion of ingredients can have a large effect on the quality of baked
goods, it is crucial that bakers and pastry chefs follow methods of preparation carefully
and measure ingredients properly. Otherwise, a product may turn out unexpectedly, or
worse, it may turn out unacceptable or inedible.
For example, if too much shortening and too few eggs are added to a formula for
moist, chewy oatmeal cookies, the cookies will likely turn out crisp and dry. If the same
error is made with cake batter, the result will likely be a complete failure, since eggs
provide structure and volume. In fact, bakers and pastry chefs require a higher degree
of accuracy when measuring ingredients than do culinary chefs in the kitchen.
When the kitchen chef prepares a pot of soup, it doesn’t really matter if a little less
celery is added or an extra onion is included. The chef still has a pot of soup, and if the
flavor is off, adjustments can be made along the way. Bakers and pastry chefs cannot
make adjustments along the way. If too little salt is added to bread dough, it will do
no good to sprinkle salt onto the bread once it is baked. Instead, ingredients must be
weighed and measured accurately at the beginning.
This means that, more so than kitchen chefs, bakers and pastry chefs are chemists
in the kitchen. As with chemists, creativity and skill are important for success, but so is
accuracy. If a formula calls for two pounds of flour, it doesn’t mean around two pounds,
more or less. It means two pounds.

BALANCES AND SCALES

Formulas used in the bakeshop are in some ways like recipes in the kitchen.
Formulas include a list of ingredients and a method of preparation (MOP). Unlike
recipes used by the kitchen chef, however, formulas
include exact measurements for each ingredient, and
H E L P F U L HINT these measurements are usually given in weights. The
Baker’s scales and their accessories (scoops and process of weighing ingredients is called scaling because
weights) must be cared for if they are to remain pastry chefs use scales to weigh ingredients.
in balance. They should be wiped regularly with a The standard scale used in the bakeshop is a baker’s
damp cloth and mild detergent, and they should not balance scale. It measures ingredients by balancing them
be banged or dropped. These precautions are neces- against known weights. It is an investment that should
sary to keep the scale reading accurately. be selected for its durability and its precision. A good
To determine if a scale is in balance, empty both baker’s scale can weigh amounts as large as 8 pounds
platforms and move the ounce weight indicator to (4 kilograms) or more and as small as 1/4 ounces (0.25
the far left (i.e., to zero). With the scale at eye level, ounce or 5 grams). This provides the precision needed for
determine whether the platforms are at the same most quantity food preparation.
height. If they are not, adjust the weights located Bakers and pastry chefs sometimes use digital elec-
beneath the platforms as needed. Repeat this test tronic scales. While many affordable electronic scales
with a scoop on the left platform and a counter- provide the same or better precision than baker’s scales,
weight on the right. If balancing is needed, do so by it is not necessarily the case. The precision of a scale—
adding or removing weight from the counterweight. either baker’s scale or electronic scale—depends entirely
on the scale’s design and construction.

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 UNITS OF MEASURE ) 3

MORE ON SCALE READABILITY

The readability of a scale, sometimes represented as d fact weighs 6 grams, the display will read 5 grams. If it
for scale division, is literally the increments in weight weighs 8.75 grams, the display will read 10 grams.
that are read off the scale’s display panel. As weight Sometimes a scale fluctuates between readings.
is added onto a scale with a readability of 5 grams, for Let’s say, for example, that the scale in the previous
example, the reading on the display panel will change example keeps fluctuating between 5 grams and
from 0 grams, to 5 grams, to 10, 15, 20, and so on. No 10 grams. It is likely that the sample actually weighs
matter the weight of the ingredient, the scale displays about 7.5 grams, which is halfway between 5 grams
the weight in increments of 5 grams. If a sample in and 10 grams.

Most digital electronic scales provide information about precision—also called

readability—and capacity on their front or back panels. For example, a scale that is
marked 4.0 kg ⫻ 5 g has a capacity of 4 kilograms, meaning it can measure quantities
as large as 4 kilograms (about 8.8 pounds). The readability of this scale is 5 grams. Five
grams is equivalent to just under 0.2 ounce, which is similar to the 0.25-ounce precision
of a good baker’s scale.
Consider another electronic scale, one marked 100 oz. ⫻ 0.1 oz. This scale has a
capacity of 100 ounces (6.25 pounds or 2.84 kilograms) and a readability of 0.1 ounce
(3 grams). The smaller value for readability indicates that this scale provides better
precision than a typical baker’s scale, making it useful for
weighing small quantities of spices or flavorings.
Just as baker’s scales need to be checked periodically H E L P F U L HINT
for accuracy, so too must digital scales. Digital scales typi-
cally come with a brass weight calibrated for accuracy. To determine if a scale provides enough precision
If the scale’s reading does not match the mass of the for the task at hand, consider the readability of the
brass weight, follow the manufacturer’s instructions to scale. A good rule of thumb is that a scale is accept-
adjust the scale. Because a scale is an important piece of able for weighing an ingredient as long as the error
equipment in a bakeshop, it is best to check its calibra- in measurement does not exceed 10 percent. To
tion at two different points (200 grams and 2000 grams, ensure that the error does not exceed 10 percent, be
for example). The scale will need adjustment or repair if sure that the readability of the scale is 10 percent or
either of these two readings is off. less than the amount to be weighed. Stated another
How an ingredient is added to a digital scale can way as a workable formula:
make a difference in the accuracy of the reading. For Smallest quantity to be weighed ⫽
example, multiple small additions will sometimes read scale readability ⫻ 10
lower than the identical amount added all at once. This
can happen because scales are generally designed so that Consider a scale where the readability is
they don’t fluctuate excessively with air movement, and 0.25 ounce (7 grams). This scale could appropri-
the scale cannot necessarily differentiate a small amount ately weigh quantities as small as 2.5 ounces
of product from air movement. Vibration, heat currents, (70 grams) without more than a 10 percent error
cordless and cell phones, and static electricity should all in measurement. Likewise, a scale with a readabil-
be avoided, since they can affect the ability of a scale to ity of 0.1 ounce (3 grams) could adequately weigh
read consistently. quantities as small as 1 ounce (30 grams).

UNITS OF MEASURE
Digital and baker’s scales measure in either standard U.S. common units
(pounds and ounces; imperial units in Canada) or in metric units (kilograms and
grams). Some versatile digital scales switch at the touch of a button from U.S./imperial
units to metric units. Most countries throughout the world have adopted the metric

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 4 ) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BAKING

HOW CAN AN OUNCE SCALE PROVIDE THE PRECISION OF A GRAM SCALE?

One gram is a much smaller unit than one ounce Take, for example, the description of the two
(there are 28.35 grams in an ounce), so how is it electronic scales given earlier. The first scale is a gram
possible for an ounce scale to provide the precision scale, with a readability of 5 grams, or 0.2 ounce
of a gram scale? (5 grams divided by 28.35 grams per ounce). The
Certainly if the gram scale has a readability second scale is an ounce scale with a readability of
of 1 gram and the ounce scale has a readability 0.1 ounce (3 grams). In this particular example, the
of 1 ounce, the gram scale will measure more ounce scale weighs more precisely than the gram
precisely than the ounce scale. But this is rarely scale, because the design and construction of the
the case. scale allows it to read smaller amounts.

TABLE 1.1 ■ system. This provides a means of sharing formulas more easily across national borders.
EQUIVALENCIES BETWEEN More importantly, the metric system is simpler to use once you become familiar with
U.S. COMMON (IMPERIAL)
it. With the metric system, for example, fewer math calculations are needed when con-
AND METRIC UNITS
verting a formula to a new batch size. Since 1 kilogram in metric equals 1,000 grams,
WEIGHT you simply move decimal points to convert from one size unit to another. For example,
1 ounce = 28.4 grams 1.48 kilograms is equal to 1,480 grams, and 343 grams is equal to 0.343 kilograms. Try
converting as quickly from pounds to ounces, or ounces to pounds! This ease of use
1 pound = 454 grams
is probably the main reason why more bakers and pastry chefs in North America are
VOLUME adopting the metric system for use in the bakeshop.
1 teaspoon = 4.9 milliliters Using the metric system, for the most part, does not require tedious math conver-
sions from ounces to grams or pounds to kilograms. This makes it much easier to use
1 quart = 0.95 liters
the metric system than most people believe. Table 1.1 lists the metric equivalents of a
few U.S. common (imperial) units, for those times when you do need to convert from
one system to another.
It is a common misconception that metric units provide better precision than U.S./
imperial units. In fact, metric units are not necessarily more precise, although they are
simpler to use. Once again, the precision of measurements depends on the design and
construction of the scale, not on the units used.

WEIGHT AND
VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Home cooks in North America use volumetric measurements—measuring
containers and measuring spoons—for all ingredients, including dry ingredients.
This is a problem when measuring certain ingredients. For example, flour settles over
time. When flour settles, there is less air between particles. Density increases, and
more flour is needed to fill a container. On the other hand, if flour is sifted before it
is measured, there is more air between particles. Density decreases, and less flour is
needed to fill a cup.
To avoid these inconsistencies, pastry chefs and bakers do not use volumetric mea-
surements for flour and other dry ingredients. Instead, they weigh dry ingredients—and
most liquid ingredients—for accuracy. Density does not affect weight measurements
the way it affects volume measurements. A pound of sifted flour weighs the same as a
pound of unsifted flour, regardless of the density. They both weigh 1 pound!

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 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DENSITY AND THICKNESS ) 5

TABLE 1.2 ■ A COMPARISON OF THE APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF 1 PINT AND 1 HALF LITER
(500 MILLILITERS) OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT APPROXIMATE WEIGHT

PER U.S. PINT PER HALF LITER (500 ML)
INGREDIENT (IN WEIGHT OUNCES) (IN GRAMS)

Splenda 4.0 120

Ginger, ground 6.0 180
Flour, sifted 8.2 245
Flour, unsifted 9.2 275
Sugar, granulated 14.1 420
Oil, vegetable 14.8 445
Cream, heavy 16.4 490
Water 16.7 500
Milk, whole 17.0 510
Eggs, whole 17.2 515
Orange juice 17.4 520
Coffee liqueur 17.5 525
Simple syrup (equal parts 20.6 615
sugar and water)
Honey, molasses, and 23.0 690
glucose corn syrups

While some pastry chefs and bakers weigh all ingredients using a scale, others
measure some liquids volumetrically. They use measuring containers for water and for
liquids that have about the same density as water. While practices vary from bakeshop
to bakeshop, ingredients that are often measured volumetrically include milk, cream,
and eggs. Table 1.2 indicates why. Notice that the weights per pint (or per half liter) of
milk, cream, and eggs are around the same as that of water. Measuring 1 pint of each
of these ingredients yields about a pound or so (while these ingredients do not weigh
exactly 1 pound per pint, they are approximately so; notice, however, that in the metric
system, 1 half liter—500 milliliters—of water at room temperature does weigh exactly
500 grams. This is not a coincidence). Many other liquids, including honey, corn syrup,
and oil, have densities much different from water. These liquids must be weighed,
because 1 pint will not weigh 1 pound.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

DENSITY AND THICKNESS
Density is a measure of the compactness of particles or molecules in a liquid or
solid. If the particles or molecules are loosely packed, the liquid or solid is not dense, and
the weight per cup or per liter of that ingredient is low. If
the particles or molecules are closely packed, the liquid or
H E L P F U L HINT
solid is dense, and the weight per cup or weight per liter of
that ingredient is high. Do not judge the density of a liquid by its thickness.
Viscosity or consistency is a measure of how easily a Unless you know for sure that the density of a liquid
liquid flows. If a liquid’s particles or molecules slide past is close to that of water, assume that it is not; assume
each other easily, the liquid flows easily and is consid- that it must be weighed.
ered thin. If the particles or molecules bump or tangle

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 6 ) CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BAKING

TABLE 1.3 ■ VOLUMETRIC with each other, the liquid will not flow easily and is thick. This is the case with fruit
CONVERSIONS FOR U.S. purees. Tiny pulp pieces in fruit purees bump and tangle with one another, prevent-
COMMON UNITS
ing water and pulp particles from flowing easily past one another. This makes the
1 tablespoon ⫽ 3 teaspoons puree thick.
⫽ 0.5 fluid Some common liquids—honey and molasses, for example—are both dense
ounce and thick. The molecules are close together, making these liquids dense, and the
molecules do not slide easily past each other, making the liquids thick. But consider
1 cup ⫽ 48 teaspoons
vegetable oil. Vegetable oil is thicker than water, yet it is less dense than water (that
⫽ 16 tablespoons is why oil floats). Notice how the density of a liquid cannot be judged by looking at
⫽ 8 fluid ounces its thickness.
1 pint ⫽ 16 fluid
ounces
⫽ 2 cups
1 quart ⫽ 32 fluid ounces THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEIGHT
⫽ 4 cups OUNCES AND FLUID OUNCES
⫽ 2 pints
Refer to Table 1.3, which lists conversions between U.S. common volumetric
1 gallon ⫽ 128 fluid
measurements. Notice that there are 16 ounces in a pint (2 cups). Recall that there are
ounces
16 ounces in a pound. Why, then, did we see from Table 1.1 that a pint does not weigh
⫽ 16 cups 1 pound for all ingredients? Likewise, how can there be 16 tablespoons in a cup and
⫽ 8 pints 8 ounces in a cup, but 16 tablespoons does not necessarily weigh 8 ounces? These are
⫽ 4 quarts the problems that result when one word—ounce—is used to represent two different
concepts.
The term ounce represents a unit of weight or mass. It can also represent vol-
ume or capacity. That is, there are weight ounces that measure weight, and there are
fluid ounces that measure volume. Notice that Table 1.3 specifies fluid ounces, not
weight ounces, in each conversion. While 1 fluid ounce
sometimes does weigh 1 ounce, it is not necessarily so.
H E L P F U L HINT Consider feathers and bullets. No one expects
If a formula includes measurements in ounces, 1 cup of feathers to weigh the same as 1 cup of bul-
be sure to check carefully to determine for each lets. Likewise, food ingredients vary in how much they
ingredient whether it is to be measured using fluid weigh per cup. Refer back to Table 1.2, which lists several
or weight ounces. Unless you know the density of an ingredients—arranged from less dense to more dense—
ingredient, do not interchange weight measurements and their weights per pint (2 cups) and per half liter (500
with volumetric measurements, or vice versa. milliliters). Notice the large range in values. This shows
that the expression “a pint’s a pound the world ‘round” is
not only false for feathers and bullets, but it is also false
for many common bakeshop ingredients. It is approximately true for water and for
ingredients with the same density as water. Because 1 fluid ounce of water (and ingre-
dients with the same density as water) weighs about 1 ounce, and 1 milliliter of water
weighs 1 gram, for practical purposes it doesn’t matter whether water is weighed on a
scale or measured volumetrically.

PHOTO 1.1 A comparison

of volumes of equal weights of
maple syrup, water, and flour.
Photo by Aaron Seyfarth

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 BAKER’S PERCENTAGES ) 7

BAKER’S PERCENTAGES
Formulas, especially bread formulas, are sometimes expressed in percentages
called baker’s percentages. With baker’s percentages, each ingredient is expressed as a
certain ratio or percent of the total amount of flour in the formula. Flour is used as the
basis for baker’s percentages because it is typically the predominant ingredient in most
baked goods. Since the total amount of flour is designated as 100 percent, the percent-
ages of all ingredients add up to more than 100 percent. Table 1.4 provides an example
of a bread formula expressed in weight and in baker’s percentages. Notice that more
than one type of flour is included in this formula, but that together the weight of the
flours adds up to 100 percent.
For formulas that do not contain flour, each ingredient is expressed as a percentage of
the predominant and characteristic ingredient. In the case of a date filling, for example, each
ingredient is expressed as a percentage of the amount of dates (Table 1.5). For baked cus-
tard, each ingredient is expressed as a percentage of dairy ingredients—milk and cream.
Baker’s percentage—sometimes called formula percentage or indicated as “on flour
weight basis”—is different than the percentages commonly taught in math classes. In
the more common type of percentage, each ingredient is expressed as a certain percent-
age of the total batch size. In this case, ingredient percentages add up to 100 percent.
Table 1.6 shows the bread formula from Table 1.4, this time expressed as a percentage
of the total batch.

TABLE 1.4 ■ WHOLE WHEAT BREAD FORMULA EXPRESSED IN WEIGHT AND

IN BAKER’S PERCENTAGES

INGREDIENT POUNDS OUNCES GRAMS BAKER’S PERCENTAGE

Flour, bread 6 3000 60%

Flour, whole wheat 4 2000 40%
Water 5 10.0 2800 56%
Yeast, compressed 6.0 190 4%
Salt 3.0 95 2%
Total 16 3.0 8085 162%
Note: Metric measures in this table and throughout the text are not necessarily exact conversions of U.S./imperial
measures. This is done to avoid the use of awkward numbers. Because baker’s percentages remain approximately the
same, products are the same, regardless of the units of measure.

TABLE 1.5 ■ DATE FILLING FORMULA EXPRESSED IN WEIGHT AND IN BAKER’S PERCENTAGES

INGREDIENT POUNDS GRAMS BAKER’S PERCENTAGE

Dates 6 3000 100%

Sugar 1 500 17%
Water 3 1500 50%
Total 10 5000 167%

TABLE 1.6 ■ WHOLE WHEAT BREAD FORMULA EXPRESSED IN WEIGHT AND IN

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BATCH

INGREDIENT POUNDS OUNCES GRAMS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BATCH

Flour, bread 6 3000 37%

Flour, whole wheat 4 2000 25%
Water 5 10.0 2800 35%
Yeast, compressed 6.0 190 2%
Salt 3.0 95 1%
Total 16 3.0 8085 100%

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