Domestic Wiring, Electricity Bill, Equipment Safety Measures, Personal Safety Measures

DOMESTIC WIRING

Requirement:
The knowledge of providing electricity to the homes through wiring is very important. The
type of wiring to be adopted for taking electrical connections from the supplying agency depends
on various factors. The important factors to be considered are:
i) Durability
ii) Safety
iii) Appearance
iv) Cost
v) Accessibility and
vi) Maintenance cost.

The type of wiring selected should be of proper specification, so that, it is durable and does
not give rise to problems quite often. Safety is very important factorin selecting a wiring system
and the type of wiring system selected must be such that, it is full proof fro giving any shocks.
Electrical wiring done should not spoil interior beauty of the house. Hence, the wiring system
selected should enhance the appearance or at least should be concealed, if it cannot give a good
appearance. The type of wiring system selected should not eat much into the budget of the owner, if
he cannot afford it. One has to look for convenience rather than luxury in selecting a wiring system.
The various switches provided must be easily accessible and the pug points to be connected to the
appliances must be provided nearer to the places where the appliances are usually kept. There must
be provision for the extension of the wiring system or renewal, if necessary. The maintenance cost
of the wiring system should be as small as possible.

Types of Wiring:
The different types of wiring used are
1. Cleat wiring
2. Wooden casing and capping wiring
3. Surface conduit wiring and concealed conduit wiring.

1. Cleat Wiring:
In this type of wiring, the wires/cables are run between two porcelain cleats which are fixed
by screwing. The wires/cables used in the system of wiring are either VIR (vulcanized insulated
rubber) or PVC (polyvinyl chloride) type. The porcelain cleats used here are made of two halves,
one is base and the other is cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the cables and the cap is put
over it and whole of it is then screwed on wooden plugs (gutties) previously cemented in to the wall
and ceiling. The maximum distance between the cleats should not exceed 60 cm so that, wires will
not come in contact either with wall or with each other. To ensure safety and long life, it is
preferred to maintain a distance of 30 cm. for voltages up to 250 V, distance between the cleats
grooves should be a minimum of 2.5 cm for branch circuit and 4 cm for sub-circuits. It is shown in
fig 1(a), (b) and (c).

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Fig 1

Advantages:
1. Overall cost is low.
2. Installation and maintenance costs are less.
3. It is easy for inspection, alteration and addition if any.
4. It requires less labour and workmanship i.e. even semiskilled labour can do it with ease.
5. Material used can be recovered after dismantlement.
6. In case of any fault, it can be easily located.
7. It has got more scrap value.
8. It can be easily removed when not required.

Disadvantages:
1. It is not suitable for wet and damp areas.
2. It does not provide good appearance.
3. The wires are subjected to mechanical injury easily.
4. It is easily affected by oil, dust, smoke, moisture etc.
5. The life of this wiring system is low and hence is only suitable for temporary applications.

2. Wooden Casing and Capping Wiring:

When the wire/cables used in wiring needs protection, this method of wiring system is used.
The wires/cables run inside a wooden casing having grooves (usually ‘V’ shaped grooves), which
is then covered with wooden capping. VIR or PVC cables are used for wiring. The casing and
capping should be of well seasoned teak wood (or any good quality wood) free from knots or any
other defects. Teak wood is varnished to protect it from white ants. The length, in which casing and
capping are available, varies from 2.5 m to 3 m. It is as shown in fig 2 (a), (b) and (c).

Fig 2

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Advantages:
1. Good appearance when compared with cleat wiring system.
2. Low quality wires/cables can be used as they are laid inside.
3. No atmospheric effect on wires.
4. Easy to install and rewie.
5. Moderate cost.
6. By opening the capping, we can easily inspect the wiring in case of any fault.

Disadvantages:
1. There lies a risk of fire, as wood is inflammable.
2. It requires better workmanship and hence labour cost is high.
3. It is not damp proof and hence cannot be used in wet and damp places.
4. If it is not painted or varnished, white ants will attack as a result of which, life will be reduced.

3. Surface conduit wiring and concealed conduit wiring:

Surface conduit wiring: In this system of wiring, conduits are fixed on the surface of walls or
ceilings by means of saddles, secured to wooden gutties with screws at maximum interval of 1 m.
The VIR or PVC wires/cables are drawn by means of 18 SWG GI wire. The earth wire is fixed by
means of earth clips. It is shown in fig 3.

Fig 3

Concealed conduit wiring: in this system of wiring, conduit is buried under the wall or ceiling.
Now-a-days PVC conduit is popularly used as it requires less time to install and cheaper in cost.
The channels are provided in the wall before plastering and then conduit is fixed in the channels by
means of clamps and hooks. Later wires are drawn by the help of 18SWG GI wire and lastly it is
covered by cement plastering making it water tight and moisture proof.

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Comparison of Surface Conduit and Concealed Conduit Wiring:

Surface Conduit Wiring Concealed Conduit Wiring
i. The conduit/pipe is fixed on the wall. i. The conduit/pipe is completely sunk either in
wall or slab of RCC.
ii. They are fixed by means of saddles. ii. They are fixed by means of ‘J’ hooks
iii. Tees and elbows can be used. iii. Only bends are to be used.
iv. It is not fully protected from mechanical iv. It is fully protected from mechanical injury.
injury.
v. It is cheaper compared to concealed conduit. v. It is comparatively costlier.
vi. it has got bad appearance. vi. It is concealed and does not affect the
appearance.

Two Way Control of Load (Lamp):

The lamp circuit used for house wiring are quite simple and they are gradually controlled
from one point, such as room lighting, bathroom lighting etc., but in stair case wiring it is necessary
to control the lamp circuit from two points i.e. one at the top of the stair case and the other at the
bottom of the stair case. Similarly in big halls, corridors or bedrooms, it may be necessary to
control the lamp from two points. In such cases, a two way control lamp circuit is used for wiring.

Fig 4 shows the way in which the connections are made to control a lamp from two points.
Two, two-way switches are used. The wires used between the switches are called strap wires.

Fig 4

For the positions of the switches as shown in fig 4, i.e. when switch 1 is in position A and the
switch 2 is in position D, the lamp circuit is not closed and hence the lamp is dark (OFF). When
switch 1 is in position A and the switch 2 is in position C, the lamp circuit is closed and hence the
lamp glows (ON). When switch 1 is in position B and the switch 2 is in position D, the lamp circuit
is closed and hence the lamp glows (ON). Thus the lamp can be controlled from two points. Table-
1 gives the positions of the switches and the lamp conditions, whether it is ON or OFF.

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Table-1

Three Way Control of Load (Lamp):

Sometimes in very big corridors, godowns or workshops, it may be necessary to control
lamp from three points. In such cases, the circuit connection requires two, two-way switches and an
intermediate switch as shown in fig 5.

Fig 5

An intermediate switch is a combination of two, two-way switches coupled together. It has

four terminals EFGH. For one position, it connects points EF and GH, which is called straight
connection. For another position, it connects points EH and FG, which is called cross connection.

When the switches 1 and 2 are in positions A and C respectively, and the intermediate
switch is in position of straight connection, i.e., when EF and GH are connected, the lamp circuit is
complete and hence the lamp glows (ON). Now, if the intermediate switch is changed to the
position of cross connection i.e. when points EH and FG are connected, the lamp circuit is open and
hence the lamp is switched OFF. Now if the position of switch 2 is changed from C to D, the lamp
circuit is again closed and the lamp is switched ON. Thus, the lamp can be controlled from three
points. Table-2 gives the position of the various switches and the conditions of the lamp.

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Table-2

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ELECTRICITY BILL

Power Rating of Household Appliances:

The Rating of an electrical appliance indicates the voltage at which the appliance is
designed to work and the current consumption at that voltage. The Power rating of the appliance is
related the power it consumes. Every electrical appliance has a power rating which indicates the
amount of electricity required to do work. This is usually given in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
The Energy consumption of a device is calculated by multiplying the wattage of a device and
operational hours.
Energy consumption = Wattage X Operational hours

UNIT:
The unit of electrical energy consumed is kWh. One kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy
consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1kW when it is used for one hour. Therefore, 1kWh
=1 unit.

Appliance Watts
Air Conditioner
Room* 1000
Central* 2000 – 5000
Air Conditioners rated in tons
Per Ton 3517
e.g., 5 Ton AC Unit 17585
Blender 300
Blow Dryer 1000 – 1500
CB Radio 5
CD Player 15 – 30
Ceiling Fan 10 – 50
Computer
Laptop 20 – 75
Desktop PC 80 – 200
Printer 100
Coffee Maker 800
Clock Radio 1
Dishwasher 1200 – 1500
Dryer (Clothes)
Electric* 4000
Gas Heated 300 – 400

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Electric Blanket 200

Electric Clock 1
Electric Frying Pan 1200
Freezer
Conventional 14cf 445
(15 hrs/day runtime)
Sun Frost 19cf Freezer 112
Furnace Blower 300 – 1000
Garage Door Opener 350
Heater
Engine Block* 150 – 1000
Portable* 1500
Waterbed* 400
Stock Tank* 100
Hot Plate 1200
Iron 1000
Lightbulbs
Incandescent Bulbs CFL Bulbs
100 23
75 20
60 15
40 11
Microwave 600 – 1500
Popcorn Popper 250
Refrigerator/Freezer (runtime in hours/day)
Conventional 20cf (15) 540
Conventional 16cf (15) 475
Sun Frost 16cf DC (7) 112
Sun Frost 12cf DC (7) 70
Conserv 10.5cf (8) 60
Conserv 7.5cf (8) 50
Satellite Dish 30
Sewing Machine 100
Shaver 15
Sink Waste Disposal 450
Stereo 10 – 30
Table Fan 10 – 25

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Toaster 800 – 1500

Tools
Weed Eater 500
1/4″ drill 250
1/2″ drill 750
1″ drill 1000
9″ disc sander 1200
3″ belt sander 1000
12″ chain saw 1100
14″ band saw 1100
7 1/4″ circular saw 900
8 1/4″ circular saw 1400
Vacuum Cleaner
Upright 200 – 700
Hand 150
VCR 40
Waffle Iron 1200
Washing Machine 500

Tariff:
The electrical energy generated in generating station is delivered to a large number of
consumers at reasonable rates. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is
known as tariff. Tariff refers to the amount of money the consumer has to pay for making the
power available to them at their homes. The tariff should include:
1. Recovery of cost of generating electrical energy in power stations
2. Recovery of cost of capital investment in transmission and distribution.

10
3. Recovery of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy.
4. A suitable profit on capital investment.
Page
Characteristics of Tariff:
1. Simplicity – The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand it.
2. Fairness – The tariff should be fair so that the different types of consumers are satisfied with the
rate of charge of electricity.
3. Attractive – The tariff should be attractive so that large number of consumers are encouraged to
use electricity.
4. Proper Return – The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from each consumer,
i.e. the total receipt from the consumers must be equal to the cost of production and distribution
with reasonable profit.

There are different types of tariff. The consumers who have appreciable maximum demand
for themtwo part tariff method is employed.

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Two-Part Electricity Tariff or or Hopkinson demand rate:

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the
consumer and the units consumed, it is called a two-part tariff. In two-part tariff, the total charge to
be made from the consumer is split into two components viz., fixed charges and running charges.
The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the running charges
depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a
certain amount per kW of maximum demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed.
It can be expressed as,
Total charge = Rs. (A × 𝑘W + B × 𝑘Wℎ)
Where, A is the charge per kW of maximum demand and
B = Charge per kWh of energyconsumed.

Advantages:
1. It is easily understood by the consumers.
2. It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are
independent of the units consumed.

Disadvantages:
1. The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed
or not consumed the electrical energy.
2. There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

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EQUIPMENT SAFETY MEASURES

Protective Devices
Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults such as short
circuit, overload and earth faults. The protective device must be fast acting and isolate the faulty
part of the circuit immediately. It also helps in isolating only required part of the circuit without
affecting the remaining circuit during maintenance. The following devices are usually used to
provide the necessary protection:
 Fuses
 Relays
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)

Fuse:
An Electric Fuse is a protective device which interrupts the flow of excessive current in
an electric circuit. This works on the principle of heating effect of the Electric Current. A general
Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non combustible material. It is used
to connect and install in series with a circuit and device which needs to be protected from short
circuit and over current, otherwise, electrical appliance may be damaged in case of absence of the
fuse and circuit breaker as they are unable to handle the excessive current according to their
rating limits.

Fig 6

A Fuse consists of conducting wire, which has high resistivity and low melting point. The
thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in the circuit. If a
fault causes a flow of excess Current then a Conductor break the Circuit by melting or separating it,
the thin Conductor used is known as an Electric Fuse. The wire inside the Fuse melts if there is an
occurrence of high Current due to a short Circuit or an overloaded Circuit. As a result of which the
Current stops flowing since the wire has broken. In order to stop the flow of Electricity. Once a
Fuse melts, it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse. A Fuse is normally made up of elements
like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.

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Fig 7

Important Ratings Defined for Fuses.

1. Rated Current:
The rated current of a fuse is the maximum value of current it can carry indefinitely without
fusing (this depends upon the permissible temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder, fuse
and upon the deterioration of the fuse element due to oxidation).

2 . Fusing Current:
The minimum value of current at which the fuse element starts melting (this depends
upon the material used for the fuse element, length, diameter, and the type of enclosure in which
the fuse element is placed).

3. Fusing Factor:
This is defined as the ratio of the fusing current to the rated current.
Fusing Current
Fusing Factor =
Rated current
This is always greater than unity.

Merits and Demerits of Fuse:

Merits:
 Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit.
 Fuse needs zero maintenance.
 Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved.
 Fuse has the ability to interrupt enormous short circuit current without producing noise,
flame, gas or smoke.
 The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of circuit breaker. It
is the primary protection device against short circuits.
 It affords current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.
 Fuse inverse time current characteristic has the ability to use for over-load protection.

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Demerits:
 During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse takes time. During
this period the circuit lost power.
 When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the fuse unless the fuse has
significant size difference.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB):

An MCB - miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies complete
enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an MCB is to open the circuit
automatically when the current passing through MCB exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be
manually switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary. An MCB is a simple,
easily operable device and is maintenance-free too. It can be easily replaced. The trip unit is the key
part of the MCB on which the unit operates. The bi-metal present in the MCB circuit protects
against overload current and the electromagnet in the circuit protects against short-circuit current.

Construction of MCB:

Fig 8

1. External Casing: External Casing holds all the internal components firm and protects them
from dust. It is made of insulating materials such as plastic or ceramics.

2. Contacts: A pair of contacts can be found inside an MCB. One of them is fixed and the
other is movable.

3. Knob: MCBs can be turned ON and OFF using this knob.

4. Mechanical Latch: A latch arrangement is made inside MCBs to hold the contacts under
spring tension at ONposition.

5. Bimetallic strip: The bimetallic strip offers delayed overload protection by sensing the
prolonged flow ofcurrent greater than its rated current.

6. Solenoid: Solenoid offers instantaneous protection against short circuit by releasing the
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mechanical latch. Solenoid gets activated when the current through the coil exceeds a particular
value, normally more than 3 times of its rated current. This solenoid is not activated by
overloads.

7. Arc Chutes: Arc chutes are used for splitting and quenching of arcs.

Working & Operation of MCB:

Fig 9

Under normal working conditions, MCB operates as a switch (manual one) to make the
circuit ON or OFF. Under overload or short circuit condition, it automatically operates or trips
so that current interruption takes place in the load circuit. The visual indication of this trip can be
observed by automatic movement of the operating knob to OFF position. This automatic
operation MCB can be obtained in two ways as we have seen in MCB construction; those are
magnetic tripping and thermal tripping.

Under overload conditions, the current through the bimetal causes it to raise the
temperature of it. The heat generated within the bimetal itself is enough to cause deflection due
to thermal expansion of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch and hence contacts
get separated.

In some MCBs, the magnetic field generated by the coil causes it to develop pull on
bimetals such that deflection activates the tripping mechanism. Under short circuit or heavy
overload conditions, magnetic tripping arrangement comes into the picture. Under normal working
conditions, the slug is held in a position by a light spring because the magnetic field generated by
the coil is not sufficient to attract the latch. When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated
by the coil is sufficient to overcome the spring force holding the slug in position. And hence slug
moves and then actuate the tripping mechanism.

A combination of both magnetic and thermal tripping mechanisms is implemented in most

miniature circuit breakers. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc is formed when
the contacts start separating. This arc is then forced into arc splitter plates via arc runner.
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These arc splitter plates are also called arc chutes where arc is formed into a series of arcs and at the
same time energy is extracted and cools it. Hence this arrangement achieves the arc extinction.

Merits and Demerits of MCB

Merits:
 MCBs have more sensitive to current then fuse.
 It has quick work against short circuits.
 It works quickly on overloading and under voltage.
 It is reusable hence less maintenance cost and less replacement cost.
 It is very simple to resume the supply.
 It can be easily used circuit control switch when needed.
 Handling MCB is electricity safer than handling fuse, in case of MCB.
 It has reliable.
 MCB provides a better interface.
 MCB performance immediate indication of faculty circuit.
 The performance of MCB is good in case of earth leakage.
 In the case of surge current, The MCB has time delay characteristics, therefore, it
works properly.
 Shorter tripping time under moderate over current than with fuses.
 When the use of MCB, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can be easily identified.

Demerits:
 The cost of the MCB is greater than the fuse.
 The cost of the MCB distribution board is greater than the rewireable fuse board.

Comparison between Electric Fuse and MCB:

ELECTRIC FUSE MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER – MCB

Whenever excessive current flows through An electromagnetic mechanism present inside
the fuse, the conducting material inside it the MCB helps it to instantaneously interrupt
melts down thereby interrupting the current the current flow during faults.
flow.
Fuses other than rewireable fuses cannot be Miniature circuit breakers can be reused after
reused. the clearance of faults.
Fuses acts faster than MCB. Typical Tripping time for MCB is 20ms.
tripping time 2ms.
Can protect against short circuit and Can protect against short circuit and overloads.
overloads.
Cheaper than MCB. MCB costlier than fuses.
Fuse cannot be used as as an ON/OFF The Circuit breaker is used as an ON/OFF
switch. switches.

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PERSONAL SAFETY MEASURES

Electric Shock:
An electric shock is the sudden discharge of electricity through a part of the body when
aperson comes in contact with electrical equipment.
The factors affecting the severity of shock are
1. Magnitude of the current through the body
2. Path of the current through the body
3. Time for which current is passed through the body
4. Frequency of the current
5. Physical and physiological condition of the person

The Table below shows an electric shock effect chart.

250V supply current Resistance of body Condition of body Effect due to shock
About 2.5mA 10-600 kΩ Dry skin Mild shock
About 25mA 1 kΩ Wet skin Strong painful shock, stoppage of
breathing, possible death
More than 25Ma Few hundred ohms Wet skin making Ventricular fibrillation, stoppage of
fair contact with breathing, muscular contraction,
Earth death
*Thus it is necessary to avoid shock.

Elementary First Aid against Shock:

The first aid can save the life and reduce severity of the accidents. Hence elementary first
aid is important. The first aid against an electric shock involves following steps,
1. Do not panic.
2. Carry the affected person and lay him in a comfortable position and call the doctor immediately.
3. Look for stoppage of breathing.
4. Start giving him artificial respiration if breathing is stopped.
5. Never give anything to the person to drink when the person is unconscious.
6. The artificial respiration should be continued for longer time.
7. The burns caused due to electric flashes should be covered with sterile dressing and then
bandaged.
8. Do not make crowd round and let patient get fresh air.

Safety Precautions against Electric Shock:

It is necessary to observe some safety precautions while using the electric supply to avoid
serious problems like shocks and fire hazards.
Some of the safety precautions are as follows:
1. Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of the electric
current.
2. Never use equipment with damaged insulation. The insulation of conductors must be proper and
in good condition.
3. Earth connection should be maintained in proper condition
4. Use of the fuses and cables of proper rating.

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5. Use the rubber soled shoes while working.

6. Megger tests should be done to check the insulation.
7. Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
8. Never remove the plug by pulling wire.
9. The sockets should be placed at a proper height
10. Switch off supply and remove the fuses before starting the work with any installation.
11. Always use insulated screw drivers, and line testers.
12. Use rubber gloves while touching any terminals or removing insulation layer from
aconductor.
13. Use a line tester to check whether a 'live' terminal carries any current still
bettermethod is to use a test lamp.

Earthing:
Connection of the body of electric equipment to the general mass of the earth by wire of
negligible resistance is called Earthing. It brings the body of the equipment to the zero potential
avoid the shock to the operator, under any fault conditions.

Necessity of Earthing:
1. To protect the human beings from danger of shock in case they come in contact with the
charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. It guarantees the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive amount of
electric current.
3. It protects the appliances from high voltage surges and lightning discharge.
4. It provides an alternative path for leakage of current hence protects the equipment.
5. It keeps the voltage constant in the healthy phase
6. It protects the Electric system and buildings from lightning.
7. It avoids the risk of fire in the electrical installation system.
8. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.

Types of Earthing:
They are two types of earthing
1. Plate earthing
2. Pipe earthing

1. Plate Earthing:
The earth connection is provided with the help of copper plate or Galvanized Iron (GI)
plate. The copper plate size is 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 mm while GI plate size is not less than 60 cm
x 60 cm x 6.3mm. The G.I. plates are commonly used now-a-days. The plate is embedded 3 meters
(10 feet) into the ground. The plate is kept with its face vertical.

The plate is surrounded by the alternate layer of coke and salt for minimum thickness of
about 15 cm. The earth wire is drawn through G.I. pipe and is perfectly bolted to the earth plate.
The nuts and bolts must be of copper plate and must be of galvanized iron for G.I. plate. The
earth lead used must be G.I. wire or G.I. strip of sufficient cross-sectional area to carry the fault
current safely. The earth wire is drawn through G.I. pipe of 19 mm diameter, at about 60 cm below
the ground. The G.I. pipe is fitted with a funnel on the top. In order to have an effective earthing,
salt water is poured periodically through the funnel.
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The earthing efficiency, increases with the increases of the plate area and depth of
embedding. If the resistivity of the soil is high, then it is necessary to embed the plate vertically at a
greater depth into the ground. The only disadvantage of this method is that the discontinuity of the
earth wire from the earthing plate below the earth cannot be observed physically. This may cause
misleading and may result into heavy losses under fault conditions. The schematic arrangement of
plate earthing is shown in the Fig. below.

Fig 10

2. Pipe Earthing:
In this method of earthing a G.I. pipe of 38 mm diameter and 2 meter (7 feet) length is
embedded vertically into the ground. This pipe acts as an earth electrode. The depth depends on the
condition of the soil. The earth wires are fastened to the top section of the pipe above the ground
level with nut and bolts. The pit area around the pipe is filled with salt and coal mixture for
improving the condition of the soil and earthing efficiency. The schematic arrangement of pipe
earthing system is shown in the Fig. below. The contact surface of G.I. pipe with the soil is more as
compared to the plate due to its circular section and hence can handle heavier leakage for the same
electrode size. According to Indian standard, the pipe should be placed at a depth of 4.75 m.
impregnating the coke with salt decreases the earth resistance. Generally alternate layers of salt and
coke are used for best results. In summer season, soil becomes dry. In such case salt water is
poured through the funnel connected to the main G.I. pipe through 19 mm diameter pipe. This
keeps the soil wet. The earth wires are connected to the G.I. pipe above the ground level and can
be physically inspected from time to time. These connections can be checked for performing
continuity tests. This is the important advantage of pipe earthing over the plate earthing. The earth
lead used must be G.I. wire of sufficient cross-sectional area to carry fault current safely. It should
not be less than electrical equivalent of copper conductor of 12.97 mm² cross-sectional area. The
only disadvantage of pipe earthing is that the embedded pipe length has to be increased
sufficiently in case the soil specific resistivity is of high order. This increases the excavation work
and hence increased cost. In ordinary soil condition the range of the earth resistance should be 2 to
5 ohms. In the places where rocky soil earth bed exists, horizontal strip earthing is used. This is

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suitable as soil excavation required for plate or pipe earthing is difficult in such places. For such
soils earth resistance is between 5 to 8 ohms.

Fig 11

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