MATH 1006

Mathematics for Technicians I

by

Dr. Patrice Piggot-Cumberbatch

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Module 1 Factorisation 1 Module 5 Trigonometry 33

1.1 The Laws of Algebra 1 5.1 Trigonometrical ratios 33
1.2 Factorisation 4 5.2 Useful trigonometric equations 34
1.3 The Product of two binomials 5 5.3 Solving trigonometric equations 36
1.4 Quadratic Expressions 6 5.4 Compound angle formula 36
1.5 Simultaneous Equations 10 5.5 Double angles 39
1.6 Pascal’s Triangle 12 5.6 Changing products of sines and cosines into 41
sums or differences
Module 2 Polynomial Functions 13 5.7 Changing sums or differences of sines and 42
2.1 Polynomial Division 13 cosines into products
2.2 The factor theorem 16
2.3 The remainder theorem 20
Module 6 Calculus − Differentiation 44
Module 3 Indices and Logarithms 22 6.1 Functional notation 44
3.1 Indices 22 6.2 Differentiation from first principles 44
3.2 Logarithms 26 6.3 Product of two factors 48
6.4 Quotients 49
Module 4 Exponential Functions 31 6.5 The Chain Rule 50
4.1 The exponential function 31 6.6 Equations of tangents; stationary values; 51
4.2 Evaluating exponential functions 31 turning points
4.3 Evaluating Napierian logarithms 31
PERSONAL NOTES
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1
This section of the course will teach you how to:
▪ represent numbers using letters and symbols and manipulate algebraic expressions and equations
▪ understand and apply the Laws of Algebra
▪ use factorisation, simplification, expansion, substitution and transposition in several algebraic techniques
▪ determine the product of two binomials
▪ solve systems of simultaneous equations analytically

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that deals with the concept of using variables (such as letters and symbols)
to represent numbers. For example, the area of a rectangle is obtained by multiplying the length by the breadth;
this may be expressed algebraically as:
A = l  b where A represents the area, l the length and b the breadth.
Algebraic statements that are based on these variables are manipulated using the four basic mathematical
operations that apply to numbers (i.e. multiplication, division, addition and subtraction). There are three basic
laws that govern the order in which you perform these operations in algebra; such laws are referred to as the
Laws of Algebra and are called the Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws.

1.1 THE LAWS OF ALGEBRA

1.1.1 The Commutative Law

You “commute” from home to school every day, i.e. you travel from where
you live to John D, and at the end of your day, you change direction
and return to where you live! This “change of direction” may be likened to
the Commutative Law in algebra where changing the order of the variables
does not affect the outcome. For example,

a + b = b + a; this is the Commutative Law of Addition ------- 

ab = ba; this is the Commutative Law of Multiplication -------- 

In the addition and multiplication problems in  and , we changed the order of the variables and thus applied
the Commutative Law.
It should be noted however that the Commutative Law DOES NOT apply to subtraction and division; the
order of the variable WILL affect the outcome. For example,

100 – 25  25 – 100 -------- 

“100 – 25” would be an example of having $100 in the bank, and writing a cheque for $25. However, “25 – 100”
is likened to having $25 in the bank and writing a cheque for $100. Bounce!!!
 2

1 10
Similarly,  -------- 
10 1

1 10
is likened to sharing $1 amongst 10 people. Whereas would be an example of sharing $10 with 1 person.
10 1

Problems  and  show that we can commute when we add or multiply, but problems  and  show
that we cannot change the order of the variables when we subtract or divide.

1.1.2 The Associative Law

Problems  and  dealt with performing addition and multiplication with only two variables at a time. If
we had to perform these same operations using three or more variables, where do we begin? The Associative
Law was introduced to deal with this question.

Imagine four women standing alongside each other in a straight

line and they are to remain standing in the same place. A man can
move along the line, place his arms around two nearby girls at a
time, and hug them simultaneously. In effect, the man associates
with two women at a time, can shift his arms, but not move the
women. In this analogy, the man’s arms are likened to parentheses
and the women serve as the variables. Thus, in the Associative law,
the parentheses move, but the variables stay in the same
order.

Let us consider the examples of the Associative Law in problems  and :

Problem  Problem 
(3 + 4) + 5 = 3 + (4 + 5) (3  4)  5 = 3  (4  5)
( 7 )+5=3+( 9 ) ( 12 )  5 = 3  ( 20 )
12 = 12 60 = 60
The Associative Law of Addition The Associative Law of Multiplication

As with the Commutative Law, the Associative Law DOES NOT apply to subtraction and division; problems  and .

Problem  Problem 

(30 − 20) − 10  30 − (20 − 10) (30 / 20) / 10  30 / (20 / 10)

( 10 ) − 10  30 − ( 10 ) ( 3/2 ) / 10  30 / ( 2 )

0  20 3/20  15
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1.1.3 The Distributive Law

The idea behind the Distributive Law is as follows: when you have addition and/or subtraction within
parentheses, and there is a factor outside of the parentheses, the factor may be distributed to all the terms inside
the parentheses. Let us think of a 3M delivery van which has to distribute supplies to three businesses: TSTT,
Price Smart and A. A. Laquis. The van goes from the warehouse to TSTT and offloads its supplies, then moves to
Price Smart and does likewise, and then finally to A. A. Laquis. The concept of the Distributive Law may be
likened to a 3M delivery van distributing supplies to the three businesses ⎯ the van is outside the parentheses
and therefore distributes supplies to the businesses that are inside the parentheses.
The Distributive Law formally states that each term inside the brackets is multiplied by the term directly
outside. Let us examine the following illustration so that we have a better understanding of the Distributive Law.

(2  3) + (2  5) = 2  (3 + 5)

Figure 1: Illustration of the Distributive Law

Figure 1 shows that the combination of two small rectangles, one 2  3 and the other 2  5, give one large 2  8
rectangle. Let us consider the left side of the equation in the above problem. We’ve been previously taught to “do
parentheses first” and so:
(2  3) + (2  5)
= 6 + 10
= 16

Let us now look at the right side of the equation and multiply each number inside the parentheses by the number
outside:
2  (3 + 5)
= (2  3) + (2  5)
= 6 + 10
= 16
The result is the same as above.
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1.2 Factorisation
Factorisation refers to the process of writing an algebraic expression as the product of their factors.
These factors are shown outside of a bracket with the use of the distributive law. There are several ways by
which we can factorise; namely:

➢ by the distributive law. In some instances, it is necessary to group terms together when they cannot
be added or subtracted. This grouping is achieved through the distributive law by using brackets. As we
saw in Section 1.1.3, the distributive law states that (a + b) x = x (a + b) = ax + bx where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are
real numbers, and x is a variable.
e.g. –8(3a – 2b) = –24a + 16b
Each term inside the brackets is multiplied by the term directly outside. Note that the distributive law may
be applied to insert or remove brackets.

➢ by using the Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.). In this method, the HCF of the algebraic expression is
first determined and the second factor is obtained by dividing each algebraic expression by the HCF and
placing the quotient in brackets.

r 2 s r 3s 4 r 4 s5q r 2 s  1 rs 3 r 2 s 4 q 
e.g. − + =  − + 
9 p 3 p3 27 p 2 3 p  3 p 2 9 p 

➢ by grouping. In this method, we are normally given four algebraic expressions to factorise. Firstly, the
algebraic terms are grouped in pairs so that each pair of terms has a common factor. The common factor
is then used to factorise each pair of terms.
e.g. 3ax – 6ay + bx – 2by = 3a(x – 2y) + b(x – 2y) = (x – 2y) (3a + b)

➢ as the product of two binomial expressions. A binomial expression consists of two terms (e.g. 3x + 5).

The factorisation of x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b). The algebraic expression on the left of the
equal sign is referred to as a quadratic expression.
e.g. x2 – 5x + 2x – 10 = x (x – 5) + 2(x – 5) = (x – 5) (x + 2)

➢ as a perfect square. A quadratic expression in the form of a perfect square (a 2  2ab + b2) can be
factorised directly as (a  b)2.
e.g. 9x2 + 30x + 25 = (3x)2 + 2(3x)(5) + 52 = (3x + 5)2

➢ as the difference of two squares. A quadratic expression written as the difference of two squares
(a2 – b2) can be factorised directly as (a + b) (a – b)
e.g. 25 – 49x2 = 52 – (7x)2 = (5 + 7x) (5 – 7x)
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1.3 The Product of two binomials

The product of two binomials can be obtained by using the “FOIL” method.
FOIL is an acronym for First, Outer, Inner, Last.

For example, the product of the two binomials (a + b)(c + d) can be obtained as follows:

The product of the First terms is: a  c = ac

The product of the Outer terms is: a  d = ad
The product of the Inner terms is: b  c = bc
The product of the Last terms is: b  d = bd
The multiplication of these terms are now combined to give: ac + ad + bc + bd

Worked Examples 1 to 4

Determine the product of the following binomials:

(x + 3)(x + 4) = x2 + 4x + 3x + 12 = x2 + 7x + 12
(x + 5)(x − 2) = x2 − 2x + 5x − 10 = x2 + 3x – 10
(2x + 1)(x + 6) = 2x2 + 12x + x + 6 = 2x2 + 13x + 6
(2x + 1)(2x − 5) = 4x2 − 10x + 2x − 5 = 4x2 − 8x − 5

Practice Questions

Determine the product of the following binomials:

(x + 8)(x + 3)

(x + 4)(x − 9)

(3x + 5)(x + 4)

(2x + 7)(2x − 7)
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1.4 Quadratic Expressions ax2 + bx + c

The general form of the quadratic expression is ax2 + bx + c. In this section, we will be using
factorisation to find the roots or solutions of quadratic equations, i.e. solve quadratic equations.

1.4.1 Solution of a quadratic equation by factorisation

Factorisation of a quadratic equation always gives the product of two binomial expressions.

The general form of the quadratic expression is: ax2 + bx + c

where a = the coefficient of x2
b = the coefficient of x
c = the constant term

The quadratic expression can be written as:

ax2 + px + qx + c
= ax2 + (p + q)x + c where b = p + q and ac = pq

Thus, to factorise a quadratic expression we find two integers p and q whose sum is equal to b and whose
product is equal to ac. Described another way, to factorise a quadratic expression, we find two factors of ac,
which when added, give b.
When a quadratic equation is equal to zero, this means that either or both factors is equal to zero and we
thus equate both factors to zero to solve the equation.
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Worked Example 5
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 8x + 7 = 0 by factorizing
a=1
b=8
c=7
We must find two factors of ac, which when added, give b.
 Let us look at the first criterion – two factors of ac = 7. The only combination of factors of 7 are: 1 & 7.
 Let us now look at the second criterion – when these two factors (1 and 7) are added, we get 8, which is
the value of b.
Therefore 1 and 7 are the two factors of 7, which when added, give 8.

The quadratic equation x2 + 8x + 7 = 0 is now written as:

x2 + x + 7x + 7 = 0
 x(x + 1) + 7(x + 1) = 0

 (x + 1) + (x + 7) = 0

 x = −1; −7

Worked Example 6
Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 by factorizing
a=1
b=5
c=6
We must find two factors of ac, which when added, give b.
 Let us look at the first criterion – two factors of ac = 6. The combinations of factors of 6 are:
1&6
2 & 3.
 Let us now look at the second criterion – when the two chosen factors are added, we must get 5, which
is the value of b.
When 1 & 6 are added, do we get 5? No
When 2 & 3 are added, do we get 5? Yes
Therefore 2 and 3 are the two factors of 6, which when added, give 5.

The quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 is now written as:

x2 + 2x + 3x + 6 = 0
 x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2) = 0

 (x + 2) + (x + 3) = 0

 x = −2; −3
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Worked Example 7
Solve the quadratic equation x2 − x − 12 = 0 by factorizing
a=1
b = −1
c = −12
We must find two factors of ac, which when added, give b.
 Let us look at the first criterion – two factors of ac = −12. The combinations of factors of −12 are:
−1 & 12 1 & −12
−2 & 6 2 & −6
−3 & 4 3 & −4

 Let us now look at the second criterion – when the two chosen factors are added, we must get −1, which
is the value of b.
When −1 & 12 are added, do we get −1? No
When −2 & 6 are added, do we get −1? No
When −3 & 4 are added, do we get −1? No
When 1 & −12 are added, do we get −1? No
When 2 & −6 are added, do we get −1? No
When 3 & −4 are added, do we get −1? Yes
Therefore 3 and −4 are the two factors of −12, which when added, give −1.

The quadratic equation x2 − x − 12 is now written as:

x2 + 3x – 4x − 12 = 0
 x(x + 3) − 4(x + 3) = 0

 (x + 3) + (x − 4) = 0

 x = −3; 4

Practice Questions
Solve the following quadratic equations by factorising:
x2 + 7x + 12 = 0 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0

x2 + 3x – 10 = 0 4x2 + 11x + 6 = 0

x2 – 5x – 24 = 0 4x2 + 8x + 3 = 0

x2 – 8x + 15 = 0 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 0

2x2 + 5x – 3 = 0 15x2 + 2x – 8 = 0
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1.4.2 Solution of a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula

A quadratic equation of the nature ax2 + bx + c = 0 can also be solved using the quadratic formula where,

− b  b 2 − 4ac
x =
2a

Worked Example 8
Solve the following quadratic equation using the quadratic formula:
6x2 + 11x − 10 = 0

a=6
b = 11
c = −10
Using the quadratic formula:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
−11 ± √112 − (4)(6)(−10)
=
(2)(6)
−11 ± √121 + 240
=
12

−11 ± √361
=
12
−11 ± 19
=
12
−11 + 19 −11 − 19
= ;
12 12
8 −30
= ;
12 12
2 1
= ; −2
3 2

Practice Questions
Solve the following quadratic equations by using the quadratic formula:
1. 4x2 + 7x + 2 = 0

2. 3x2 – 11x – 4 = 0
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1.5 Simultaneous Equations

Simultaneous equations are a system of several equations with several unknowns. However, they have
the same solutions i.e. they are all satisfied by the same values of the unknown quantities. Simultaneous
equations may be solved both analytically and graphically. We will first look at the analytical solutions.
Simultaneous equations may be solved analytically by either a method of (i) elimination or
(ii) substitution. In either method, we firstly solve for one unknown quantity. Once this is done, we substitute the
known values into one of the equations (usually the simpler one) to obtain the two corresponding possible values
for the other unknown quantity.

(i) If using the method of elimination, we make the magnitude of the coefficients of one of the unknown
values equal in order to eliminate it.
➢ If the signs of the equal coefficients are both the same (i.e. either both positive, or both negative),
we subtract one equation from the other.
➢ If the signs are different, we add the equations.

(ii) In the method of substitution, we substitute one equation into the other equation and solve.

Always perform a check of your solutions!

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1.5.1 Analytical solution of simultaneous linear equations

In the following worked example, we will use the method of elimination

Worked Example 9
Solve the pair of simultaneous linear equations:
3x – 5y = –13 - - - 

–2x + 3y = 8 - - - - 

Eqn   3  9x – 15y = –39 - - - 

Eqn   5  –10x + 15y = 40 - - 

Eqn  +   –x = 1
 x = –1

Substitute for x = –1 in equation , we get:

–3 – 5y = –13

5y = –3 + 13 = 10

 y=2

Practice Questions
Solve the pair of simultaneous linear equations:
4x + 3y = 17 - - - 

5x – 2y = 4 - - - - 

2y – 5x = 24 - - - 

3y – 7x = 35 - - - 

2y = 19 – 3x - - - 

2y = 5(x – 1) - - - 
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1.6 Pascal’s Triangle

(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a+b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal's_triangle#mediaviewer/File:PascalTriangleAnimated2.gif
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2 Polynomial Functions

A polynomial expression is one involving powers of x, either arranged in ascending or descending powers of x.
The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power of x occurring in the expression. You would have
already encountered polynomial expressions but they have alternative names. For example:
2x + 3 is a polynomial of the 1st degree – or a linear expression
2x2 + x − 3 is a polynomial of the 2nd degree – or a quadratic expression
3x3 + x2 + 3x + 5 is a polynomial of the 3rd degree – or a cubic expression
Similarly, 5x4 + 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 1 is a polynomial of the 4th degree – or a quartic expression

2.1 Polynomial Division

208
Before we delve into long division in algebra, let us revise long division with numbers. For example, is
13
achieved as follows:

16
13 208
−13
78
− 78
--
1) 13 cannot be divided into 2
2) 13 divided into 20 is 1
3) Put the 1 above the 0
4) Multiply 1 by 13 to get 13
5) Subtract 13 from 20 to get 7
6) Bring down the 8
7) 13 divided into 78 gives 6
8) Put the 6 above the 8
9) Multiply 6 by 13 to get 78
10) Subtract 78 from 78 to get 0

172
In a similar fashion, is laid as follows:
11

15
11 172
−11
62
− 55
7

172 7
Therefore, = 15 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 7 = 15 11
11

Using this same approach, we can achieve long division in algebra. Let us now take a look at some examples.
 14

Worked Example 1
Divide (x2 + 3x − 2) by (x + 5).
(x2 + 3x − 2) is called the dividend and (x + 5) is the divisor.
N.B.
 The divisor and dividend must be arranged in descending powers of the symbols.
 If the dividend has a ‘missing term’, leave a space within the long division for that term.

x−2
x+5 x2 + 3x − 2
− x2 + 5x 
−2x − 2
− −2x − 10
8

1) x divided into x2 gives x. Put x above the x2

2) Multiply: x(x + 5) = x2 + 5x
3) Subtract: (x2 + 3x) − (x2 + 5x) = − 2x
4) Bring down the −2
5) x divided into −2x gives −2. Put the −2 above the 3x
6) Multiply: −2(x + 5) = −2x − 10
7) Subtract: (−2x − 2) − (−2x −10) = 8

𝑥2 +3𝑥−2 8
Therefore,
𝑥+5
= (𝑥 − 2) 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 8 = (𝑥 − 2) + 𝑥+5. (x − 2 is called the quotient).

Worked Example 2
Divide (2x2 + x − 3) by (2x + 3).
x−1
2x + 3 2x2 + x − 3
− 2x2 + 3x 
−2x − 3
− −2x − 3
- -

1) 2x divided into 2x2 gives x. Put x above the 2x2

2) Multiply: x(2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
3) Subtract: (2x2 + x) − (2x2 + 3x) = −2x
4) Bring down the −3
5) 2x divided into −2x gives −1. Put the −1 above the x
6) Multiply: −1(2x + 3) = −2x − 3
7) Subtract: (−2x − 3) − (−2x − 3) = 0

2𝑥2 +𝑥−3
Therefore, = (𝑥 − 1)
2𝑥+3

As mentioned before, always perform a check of your solutions! This can be done by multiplying (2x + 3) by

(x − 1) which equals (2x2 + x − 3).

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Worked Example 3
Divide (x3 − 7x − 6) by (x + 2).
The dividend (x3 − 7x − 6) has a missing term in x2. Therefore, we can either leave a space for this term or
include 0x2 within the long division for this term. We shall do the latter.

x2 − 2x − 3
x + 2 x3 + 0x2 − 7x − 6
− x3 + 2x2 
−2x2 − 7x
− −2x2 − 4x 
− 3x − 6
− − 3x − 6
- -

1) x divided into x3 gives x2. Put x2 above the x3

2) Multiply: x2(x + 2) = x3 + 2x2
3) Subtract: (x3) − (x3 + 2x2) = −2x2
4) Bring down the −7x
5) x divided into −2x2 gives −2x. Put the −2x above the 0x2
6) Multiply: −2x(x + 2) = −2x2 − 4x
7) Bring down the −6
8) x divided into −3x gives −3. Put the −3 above the −7x
9) Multiply: −3(x + 2) = −3x – 6
10) Subtract: (−3x − 6) − (−3x − 6) = 0

Therefore,
𝑥3 − 7𝑥 − 6
= (𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
𝑥+2

We can perform a check of our solutions by multiplying (x + 2) by (x2 − 2x − 3) which equals (x3 − 7x − 6).

We can also perform a check of our solutions using the Synthetic method. This will be done during class.

Practice Questions
Divide:
1. (3x2 + 5x − 2) by (x + 2)
2. (5x2 − x + 4) by (x − 1)
3. (10x + 11x − 6) by (5x − 2)
2

4. (14x2 − 19x − 3) by (7x + 1)

5. (3x3 + 2x2 − 5x + 4) by (x + 2)
6. (5x4 + 3x3 − 2x + 1) by (x − 3)
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2.2 The Factor Theorem

In Section 1.4 where we discussed the solutions of quadratic equations, we would have observed that there is a
relationship between the factors of a quadratic expression and the solutions of the equation when we equated
the expression to zero. Let us revisit the quadratic equation x2 − x − 12 = 0 in Worked Example 7 in Section 1.4.
x2 − x − 12 = 0
 (x + 3) (x − 4) = 0

 x = −3; 4

We can clearly see that:

a factor of (x + 3) indicates a solution of x = −3
a factor of (x − 4) indicates a solution of x=4
From these points, we can make a statement that:
a factor of (x − a) corresponds to a solution of x=a
In the above example, we determined the roots of the quadratic equation from the factors of the quadratic
expression; this is the norm. On the contrary, we could deduce that ( x = 4) is a root of the equation

(x2 − x − 12 = 0) by the process of trial and error. Whilst the process of trial and error is not the typical method
for solving an equation, we are sometimes required to utilize this method. In such cases, we use the Factor
Theorem, which is a method of factorizing any polynomial f (x), which has simple factors. The Factor Theorem

states that: ‘if (x = a) is a root of the equation f (x) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of f (x)’.

Let us use the cubic equation in Worked Example 3 in Section 2.1 to show the use of the factor theorem.

Worked Example 4
Factorise (x3 − 7x − 6) and hence solve the equation x3 − 7x − 6 = 0
When choosing possible values of x as roots of an equation, we examine the constant term in the expression and
select factors of that constant term as values that can be used for the trial and error method.

Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6
The constant term is −6; the factors of −6 include 1, 2, 3, 6. We therefore individually substitute values and
seek that one value which gives f (x) = 0

If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 – 7(1) – 6  0

If x = 2, then f (2) = 23 – 7(2) – 6  0
If x = 3, then f (3) = 33 – 7(3) – 6 = 0
Based on our understanding of the factor theorem, since f (3) = 0, then (x − 3) is a factor of (x3 − 7x − 6)
 17

At this juncture we have a choice:

1) we can continue our ‘trial and error’ method by substituting further values of x in the expression
(x3 − 7x − 6) and hope to arrive at the scenario in which f (x) = 0, or

2) having obtained one factor i.e. (x − 3), we can divide this into (x3 − 7x − 6) to give the other factor

Let us explore the 1st option.

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)3 – 7(−1) – 6 = 0, (x + 1) IS a factor
If x = −2, then f (−2) = (−2)3 – 7(−2) – 6 = 0, (x + 2) IS a factor
Based on this ‘trial and error’ method, the factors of (x3 − 7x − 6) are (x − 3), (x + 1) and (x + 2) from which

x = 3, −1, −2

Let us explore the 2nd option of dividing out:

x2 + 3x + 2
x − 3 x3 + 0x2 − 7x − 6
− x3 − 3x2 
3x2 − 7x
− 3x2 − 9x 
2x − 6
− 2x − 6
- -

Therefore,
𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 − 6
= (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2)
𝑥−3

We then factorise (x2 + 3x + 2) to get (x + 1)(x + 2)

Based on all that we have seen thus far, the following scenarios should become apparent:

𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 ( )( )( )
= 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 =( )
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ( )( )
𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 ( )( )( )
= 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = ( )( )
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ( )
𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ( )( )
= 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 =( )
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ( )

where ( ) represents a binomial expression

 18

Worked Example 5
Factorise (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) and hence solve the equation (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) = 0

As mentioned before, when choosing possible values of x as roots of an equation, we examine the constant term
in the expression and select factors of that constant term as values that can be used for the trial and error
method. The constant term here is 6, and therefore the factors of 6 include 1, 2, 3, 6.

If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 – 2(1)2 – 5(1) + 6 = 0, hence (x − 1) IS a factor

At this juncture we have a choice:
1) we can continue our ‘trial and error’ method by substituting further values of x in the expression
(x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) and hope to arrive at the scenario in which f (x) = 0, or

2) having obtained one factor i.e. (x − 1), we can divide this into (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) to give the other factor

Let us explore the 1st option.

If x = −1, then f (−1) = (−1)3 – 2(−1)2 – 5(−1) + 6  0,  (x + 1) is NOT a factor

If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)3 – 2(2)2 – 5(2) + 6  0(x − 2) is NOT a factor

If x = −2, then f (−2) =, (−2)3 – 2(−2)2 – 5(−2) + 6 = 0 (x + 2) IS a factor

If x = 3, then f (3) = (3)3 – 2(3)2 – 5(3) + 6 = 0 (x − 3) IS a factor

Based on this ‘trial and error’ method, the factors of (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) are (x − 1), (x + 2) and (x − 3) from

which x = 1, −2, 3.

Let us explore the 2nd option of dividing out:

x2 − x − 6
x − 1 x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
− x3 − x2 
−x2 − 5x
− −x2 + x 
−6x + 6
− −6x + 6
- -

Therefore,
𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
= (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6)
𝑥−1

We then factorise (x2 − x – 6) to get (x + 2)(x − 3)

 19

Practice Questions
Factorise the following expressions:
1. x3 + x2 − 4x – 4
2. x3 + 4x2 + x – 6
3. x3 − 2x2 − x + 2
4. 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 7
5. 2x3 − x2 − 16x + 15

Past-paper type questions on the factor theorem

1. Find the value of the constant ‘k’ such that:

(i) (x − 3) is a factor of the expression x3 + kx − 6. For this value of k, solve the equation x3 + kx − 6 = 0
(ii) (x + 2) is a factor of the expression x3 − 2x2 + kx + 6.
For this value of k, solve the equation x3 − 2x2 + kx + 6 = 0

2. Prove that (x − 1) is a factor of the polynomial f(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 − x − 6 using the factor theorem. Hence,
factorise completely the polynomial f(x).

3. Show that 2x3 + x2 − 13x + 6 is divisible by (x − 2), and hence find the other factors of the expression.

4. Given that (x + 4) is a factor of x4 + 4x3 + kx2 + 4x + 1 = 0. Find the value of k. Hence, solve the
equation.
 20

2.3 The Remainder Theorem

We understood from the factor theorem: if (x − a) is a factor of f (x), then it is implied that f (a) = 0.

As an example:
f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
If x = 1, then f (1) = 13 – 2(1)2 – 5(1) + 6 = 0, hence (x − 1) IS a factor
But what if x = 2?
If x = 2, then f (2) = (2)3 – 2(2)2 – 5(2) + 6  0,(x − 2) is NOT a factor
In this latter instance, when x = 2, f (2)  0. Therefore, we can say: when (x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) is divided by
(x − 2), we get a remainder. The Remainder Theorem states that:

if a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x − a), the remainder is f (a)

For the intents and purposes of this course, this remainder is usually stated for exam questions, and we are
required to utilize this information in our problem solving quest. Let us now take a look at a couple examples.

Worked Example 6

The expression (4x2 − kx + 7) leaves a remainder of −2 when divided by (x − 3). Find the value of k.
According to the remainder theorem, f (3) = −2

f (3) = 4(3)2 – k(3) + 7 = −2

 36 – 3k + 7 = −2

 k = 15
 21

Worked Example 7
The expression (8x3 + ax2 + bx – 9) leaves remainders −95 and 3 when divided by (x + 2) and (2x − 3)
respectively. Calculate the values of a and b.

f (−2) = 8(−2)3 + a(−2)2 + b(−2) – 9 = −95

 −64 + 4a − 2b – 9 = −95

 4a − 2b = −22 - - - 

f (3⁄2) = 8(3⁄2)3 + a(3⁄2)2 + b(3⁄2) – 9 = 3

 27 + 9⁄4 a + 3⁄2 b – 9 = 3

 9⁄4 a + 3⁄2 b = −15 - - - 

We then solve the pair of simultaneous linear equations.

Eqn   4⁄3  3a + 2b = −20 - - 

Eqn  +   7a = – 42

a=–6

Substitute for a = – 6 in equation , we get:

4(−6) − 2b = −22

 −24 − 2b = −22

 − 2b = 2

 b = −1

Past-paper type questions on the remainder theorem

1. f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx − 3. The remainders when f(x) is divided by (x − 1) and (x + 1) are 1 and −9
respectively. Find the values of a and b.

2. The polynomial x3 + ax2 + bx − 3 leaves a remainder of 27 when divided by (x – 2) and a remainder of 3

when divided by (x + 1). Calculate the values of a and b.

3. f(x) = 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 6. The remainders when f(x) is divided by (x + 1) and (x – 2) are 10 and 4
respectively. Find the values of a and b. Hence or otherwise, solve the equation f(x) = 0.

4. A polynomial f(x) = x3 + ax2 + x + b is completely divisible by (x – 3). When the same polynomial is
divided by (x + 2), it has a remainder of −20. Find the values of a and b. Hence completely factorize f(x).
 22

3 Indices and Logarithms

3.1 Indices
In the expression 24, 2 is called the base and 4 is called the index. When an index is an integer, it is
called a power. Thus, 24 is read ‘two to the power of four’. When simplifying calculations involving indices,
certain basic rules or laws can be applied, called the laws of indices. Let us now examine these laws.

Laws of indices
1. When multiplying two or more numbers having the same base, the indices are added.
am  an = a m+n
; 23  24 = 23+4 = 27 = 128

2. When a number is divided by a number having the same base, the indices are subtracted.

am 35
= a m−n ; = 35− 2 = 33 = 27
an 32

3. When a number which is raised to a power is raised to a further power, the indices are multiplied.
(am)n= a m×n
; (23)2 = 23×2 = 26 = 64

4. When a number is raised to a fractional power, the denominator of the fraction is the root of the number and
the numerator is the power.
m 2
a n
= n am ; 8 3 = 3 82 = (2)2 = 4
It does not matter whether the cube root of 8 is found first, or whether 8 squared is found first – the same
answer will result.

5. A number raised to a negative power is the reciprocal of that number raised to a positive power.
1 1 1
a−n = ; 3− 4 = =
an 34
81

6. When a number has an index of 0, its value is 1.

a0 = 1 ; (5)(3x0) = (15)(3) = 15 since x0 = 1
 23

Worked Examples

33  3 2 3 3+ 2 35
(1) = (by law 1) = = 35−1 (by law 2) = 3 4
3 3 3

(2)

(2 3 ) 3 (5 2 ) 3
5 3 (2 2  5) 2
2 33  5 23
= (by law 3)
5 3  2 22  5 2
29  56 29  56
= = (by law 1)
53  2 4  5 2 2 4  55
= 2 9− 4  5 6−5 (by law 2) = 2 5  5 = 160

3
(3) 814 = 4 813 (by law 4) = (3) 3 =  27

−1
 1 
(4)  2 = 2 2 (by law 5) = 4
2 

Practice Questions

Evaluate the following expressions using the Laws of Indices:

2 2  23  2 35 (2 2 ) 3 (33 ) 2  1 
−1
(b) (c) (d) 
24 32  3 (2  3) 4 3 
(a) 2 

1 2 3 −1
− −
 14 1

(e) 25 2
(f) 8 3
(g) 16 4
 81  9 2 
(h)  2 
 3 2  27 3 
 
 24

3.1.1 Solving indicial equations

The laws of indices can also be used to solve indicial equations.

If am = an,

then m = n, since the bases are equal.

This fact can be used to solve equations where:

✓ the bases are equal or can be equalised and
✓ the unknown quantity is in the index

Worked Examples
Solve the equations:
(a) 3x = 9

(b) 2x+1 = 4x

(c) (22x)(4 x+1) = 64

1
(d) 82x =
64

(a) Given that: 3x = 9

 3x = 32 {by bringing the RHS to base 3}

 x = 2 {since the bases are now equal}

(b) Given that: 2x+1 = 4x

 2x+1 = (22)x {by bringing the RHS to base 2}

 2x+1 = 22x {by applying Law 3 to the RHS}

 x + 1 = 2x {since the bases are now equal}

 2x – x=1
 x=1

(c) Given that: (22x)(4x +1) = 64

 (22x)([22]x +1) = 26 {by bringing both sides to the common base of 2}

 (22x)(22x+2) = 26 {by applying Law 3 to the LHS}

 22x+2x+2 = 26 {by applying Law 1 to the LHS}

 2x + 2x + 2 = 6 {since the bases are now equal}

 4x = 4

 x=1
 25

1
(d) Given that: 82x =
64

1
 82x = {by bringing the RHS to base 8}
2
8

 82x = 8−2 {by applying Law 5 to the RHS}

 2x = −2 {since the bases are now equal}

 x = −1

Practice Questions

Solve the following equations:

1) 32x = 243 2) 54x = 625 3) 73x = 2401

4) a3y+5 = ay−2 5) 643y−2 = 42y+5 6) 729y−5 = 32(1−y)

7) (4z)(82z+1) = 64 8) (32z)(9z−1) = 27 9) (52z)(253z−2) = 625

1 1 1
10) 83x = 11) 93x = 12) 493x =
256 243 343
 26

3.2 Logarithms
Logarithm is another word for an index or power.

Now 24 = 16
i.e. 4 is the power to which the base 2 must be raised to give 16
or 4 is the logarithm, which, with base 2, gives 16

This is simply written as 4 = log 2 16

Thus, in general terms, if a number y can be written in the form bx, then the index x is called the
logarithm of y to base b, i.e.

if y = bx, then x = log b y

Practice Questions
• Convert the following to logarithm form:

(a) 32 = 9 solution :

1
(b) 2 −3 = solution :
8

(c) 5x = 56 solution :

• Convert the following to indicial form:

(a) log2 64 = 6 solution :

1
(b) log 3   = −4 solution :
 81 

(c) log4 86 = x solution :

Logarithms were invented primarily as a means of simplifying the multiplication of large numbers. The inventors
of logarithms realised that multiplication could be replaced by addition using logarithms. For example:
46 × 28 = 1,288
log 46 + log 28 = log 1,288
1.662757832 + 1.447158031 = 3.109915863
The two bases that are used in calculators and computer software are 10 and 2.718281828. The latter is e and
we focus on this at a later stage. To distinguish one type of logarithm from the other, logarithms to the base 10
are written as lg, and logarithms to the base e are written as ln.
 27

3.2.1 Laws of logarithms

There are three laws of logarithms which apply to any base:

1. To multiply two numbers:

log (M × N) = log M + log N

2. To divide two numbers:

M 
log   = log M – log N
N

3. To raise a number to a power:

log Na = a log N

NOTE:
✓ log10 M is often written as lg M.
✓ Logarithm of a positive number may be negative.

✓ Logarithm of 1 to any base is 0, i.e. loga 1 = 0

✓ Logarithm of a number to a base of the same number is 1, i.e. loga a = 1
✓ Logarithm of a negative number is not defined.
✓ The base of a logarithm cannot be negative or 1.

Practice Questions
Express in terms of log p, log x, log y

(a) log px (b) log pxy (c) log p 2 x

 px   py   x3 
(d) log   (e) log  2  (f) log  5 
 y  x   y 
 

Simple problems on laws of logarithms and indicial equations (Some answers are given in square brackets…)

1) Solve the equation log 2x3 – log x = log 16 – log x [2]

2) Solve the equation 2 log x2 – 3 log x = log 8x – log 4x [2]
3) Solve the following indicial equations for x correct to 4 significant figures:
(a) 3x = 7.42 [1.824]
(b) x1.2 = 17.3 [10.76]
4) Find the value of x given the following:
(a) log2128 = x
(b) log5 0.04 = x
(c) log3 (2x – 3) = 2
 28

3.2.2 Logarithms as applied to quadratic equations

Worked Example

• Solve the equation: log10 ( 3 x + 2 ) − 2 log10 x = 1 − log10 (5 x − 3)

Solution:

log10 ( 3 x + 2 ) − 2 log10 x = 1 − log10 (5 x − 3)

log 10 (3 x + 2) + log 10 (5 x − 3) − log 10 x 2 = 1

 (3x + 2)(5 x − 3) 
log 10 
 x2  = 1

 (3x + 2)(5 x − 3) 
 = 10
1
 x2
(3x + 2)(5x − 3) = 10 x 2
15x 2 − 9 x + 10x − 6 − 10x 2 = 0
5x 2 + x − 6 = 0

5x 2 − 5x + 6 x − 6 = 0
5x( x − 1) + 6( x − 1) = 0
( x − 1) (5x + 6) = 0
6
x =1; −
5

Practice Questions

Solve the following equations:

(a) 2log2 x = 3 + log 2 ( x + 6)

(b) log3 x + log3 (2 x −1) = 2
(c) log (5 + x) + log (2x −3) = log (2x2 + 5)
 29

3.2.3 Change of Base of Logarithm

To convert the logarithm of any base to the logarithm of another required base:

Starting with base a… If log a m = x, then m = a

x

Taking log to base b of both sides  log b m = log b a

x

 log b m = x log b a

log b m
x =
log b a
log b m
Thus, log a m =
log b a

Worked Example

Find the value of log 7 9 giving answer to 4 significant figures.

Starting with base 7… If log 7 9 = x, then 9 = 7x

Taking log to base 10 of both sides  log 10 9 = log 10 7
x

 log10 9 = x log10 7
log 10 9
 x= = 1.129
log 10 7

Practice Questions

1. Use change of base to determine the values of the following logarithms:

log5 29 = log7 67 =

log11 87 = log13 95 =

1 1
log5 = log 7 =
37 83

2. Evaluate 2 log37 + log34

 12   32   18   16 
3. Evaluate log 6   + log 6   + log 6   − log 6  
 45   7  8  210 
 30

For change of base, in particular, when b = m,

log b m log m m 1
log a m = becomes log a m = =
log b a log m a log m a
1
Hence, log a m =
log m a

Worked Example

Solve the equation log 5 x = 4 log x 5

log 5 x = 4 log x 5
1
log 5 x = 4
log 5 x
log 5 x • log 5 x = 4

(log 5 x) 2 = 4

log 5 x =  2
x = 52; 5−2 = 25; 1/25

Practice Questions

Solve the equations:

a) log 3 x = 9 log x 3
b) 4 log 4 x − 9 log x 4 = 0
c) log x 2 + log 2 x = 3
d) log 3 x + 2 = 3 log x 3 (hint: use the substitution y = log3x)
e) log 2 x = log 4 ( x + 6)
 31

4 Exponential functions

4.1 The exponential function

An exponential function is a function which contains ex; e is a constant called the exponent and has
an approximate value of 2.7183. ex increases at a rate proportional to its own magnitude. The exponent arises
from the natural laws of growth and decay, all of which are of the form y = aex and thus the exponent is of
considerable importance in science and engineering.
In much the same way that logarithms to base 10 were introduced to facilitate calculations based on
powers of 10, logarithms to base e were developed by Napier to simplify calculations involving the exponential
function.

4.2 Evaluating exponential functions

The most common method of determining the value of ex is by using a scientific calculator.

Worked Examples

Using a calculator, evaluate correct to 5 significant figures:

➢ e2.731 = 15.348
➢ e –3.162
= 0.042341
5 5.253 5
➢ e = (191.138825...) = 318.56
3 3

Practice Questions
Using a calculator, evaluate the following, giving your answer correct to 4 significant figures:
1 4.9823
a. e [29.16]
5
−1.112
b. 0.015e [0.004934]

e0.25 − e −0.25
c. [0.2449]
e0.25 + e − 0.25

4.3 Evaluating Napierian logarithms

The most common method of evaluating a Napierian logarithm is by using a scientific notation calculator.
Most scientific calculators contain a ‘ln x’ function which displays the value of the Napierian logarithm of a number
when the appropriate key is pressed.
 32

Worked Examples

Use your calculator to check the following values correct to 5 significant figures:
ln 2198 = 7.6953
ln 8.954 = 2.1921
ln 1 = 0
ln 0.285 = −1.2553
ln e = 1
ln e3 = 3
ln e5 = 5

From the last three examples, we can conclude that:

logeex = x
This expression is useful when solving equations involving exponential functions as we shall in the following
worked examples:

Further Worked Examples:

1. Solve e3x = 8
Taking ln of both sides, we get
ln e3x = ln 8
3x = ln 8
1
from which x = ln 8 = 0.6931
3

2. Solve 7 = 4e−3x
Rearranging the equation and taking ln of both sides, we get
7
ln e−3x = ln
4
7
−3x= ln
4
from which x = −0.1865

 5.14 
3. Solve the equation ln   = 3.72
 x 
 5.14 
This implies that loge   = 3.72
 x 
 5.14 
Hence e3.72 =  
 x 

 5.14 
x=   = 0.1246
 3.72 
e 

Practice Questions
Solve the following giving your answers to 4 significant figures:
1. 1.5 = 4e2t

 1.59 
2. 3.72 ln   = 2.43
 x 
 33

5 Trigonometry

5.1 Trigonometrical ratios

In a right-angled triangle,
(i) the side that is opposite to the right-angle is called the hypotenuse, abbreviated hyp
(ii) the side that is opposite to the angle being considered is called the opposite side, abbreviated opp
(iii) the third side which forms the angle being considered with the hypotenuse is called the adjacent side,
abbreviated adj
It should be noted that the opposite side and the adjacent side depend on the angle being considered whilst the
hypotenuse is fixed. Consider the following right-angled triangle ABC:

The trigonometrical ratios for angle A are:

the side opposite to angle A opp BC
sin A = = =
the hypotenuse hyp AB
the side adjacent to angle A adj AC
cos A = = =
the hypotenuse hyp AB
the side opposite to angle A opp BC
tan A = = =
Figure 2: Right-angled triangle ABC
the side adjacent to angle A adj AC

Squares of the trigonometrical ratios

The squares of the trigonometrical ratios of an angle are usually written as sin 2A, cos2A, tan2A.
It should be noted that (sin A)2 = sin2A

Calculate the value of each of the following:

(a) sin2 24°
(b) cos2 35.7°
(c) tan2 64.9°
 34

5.2 Useful trigonometric equations in proving trigonometric identites

There are trigonometric equations which are quite useful when proving trigonometric identities. For example, it is
sometimes useful to remember that sin2 A + cos2 A  1 which may be easily proved by considering the right-
angled triangle in Figure 3:

a a2
sin A = ; sin 2 A =
b b2

c c2
cos A = ; cos A = 2
2

b b

a2 c2 a2 + c2
so sin 2 A + cos 2 A = + =
b2 b2 b2
.
But by Pythagoras’, a2 + c2 = b2

Figure 3: Right-angled triangle ABC b2

 sin 2 A + cos 2 A = =1
b2

sin A
Another useful relationship is tan A = which may be proved by considering the triangle shown in Figure 2.
cos A

a c
sin A = ; cos A =
b b

sin A a c a b a
=  =  =
cos A b b b c c

a
But tan A =
c

sin A
 tan A =
cos A

Some other useful relationships include:

1 1 1 cos A
sec A = , cos ec A = , cot A = =
cos A sin A tan A sin A

1 + tan2 A  sec2 A , 1 + cot2 A  cosec2 A

With trigonometric identities, we start with one side of the equation and attempt to make it equal to the other
side. It is wise to change all of the trigonometric ratios into sine and cosine where applicable.
 35

Worked Examples
Prove the identities:

sin x 1 1 1 1 − 2 cos 2 x
(a) + cos x = 2 cos x (b) 1 + tan x =
2
(c) − =
tan x cos 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x

(a)
sin x
+ cos x = 2 cos x (b) 1 + tan 2 x =
1 1 1 1 − 2 cos 2 x
(c) − =
tan x cos 2 x cos 2 x sin 2 x sin 2 x cos 2 x

L.H.S. =
sin x
+ cos x
L.H.S. = 1 + tan 2 x 1 1
L.H.S. = −
tan x 2
cos x sin 2 x
sin 2 x
=1+
sin x cos 2 x sin 2 x − cos 2 x
= + cos x =
sin x sin 2 x cos 2 x
cos x cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x 1 − cos 2 x − cos 2 x
 cos x  =
=  sin x   + cos x sin 2 x cos 2 x
 sin x  1
=
cos 2 x 1 − 2 cos 2 x
= cos x + cos x =
= R.H.S. sin 2 x cos 2 x
= 2 cos x
= R.H.S.
= R.H.S.

Practice Questions
• Prove the identities given below.

1. sin x = cos x.tan x

2. 1 − 2cos2 x = 2sin 2 x −1
cos 2 x
3. 1 −  sin x
1 + sin x
4. Given that a = (3 sin  − 5) and b = (3 cos  + 2), show that (a + 5)2 + (b – 2)2 = 9.
1
5. If x = 2 sin x and y = (4 cos x + 3), prove that x2 + (y – 3)2 = 4.
4

6. cos x + sin x tan x = sec x

7. (1 + cot )2 + (1 − cot )2  2 cosec2 

sin 4  − cos 4 
8. 1
sin 2  − cos 2 
(sin 2 x)(sec x + cos ec x)
9.  1 + tan x
(cos x)(tan x)
 36

5.3 Solving trigonometric equations

Trigonometric equations are those which contain trigonometric ratios. Such equations usually have infinite
solutions but solutions are often restricted to those between 0o and 360o.

Worked Example
Solve the equation 5 sin2 θ – 2 = cos2 θ for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o. o
90
Since sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ Sine
(and cosecant) All positive
So, if 5 sin2 θ – 2 = cos2 θ
positive
 5 sin2 θ – 2 = 1 – sin2 θ
o
6 sin2 θ – 3 = 0 o 0
180 o
2
6 sin θ = 3 360

sin2 θ = 0.5 Tangent Cosine

(and cotangent) (and secant)
sin θ =  0.5 =  0.707 = 45° positive positive

θ1 = 45°; θ2 = 135°; θ3 = 225°; θ4 = 315°

o
270

Practice Questions
Solve the following equations for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o to 1 decimal place.

1. 3 sin2  + sin  = 0 5. 3 tan2  + 2 tan  = 15

2. 3 – 3 cos  = 2 sin2  6. 2 cosec2  − 5 cosec  = 12
3. tan2  −3 tan  + 2 = 0 7. 2 tan2  − 5 tan  = 3
4. cosec (x − 45) = 2 8. 3 cos2  + 2 cos  = 0
9. 2 cos2  − 3 cos  − 2 = 0

5.4 Compound angle formulae

Thus far, we have been dealing with sine, cosine and tangent of single angles, e.g. sin A, cos B, tan A etc. If
however, we add a second angle, our trigonometric function may look like sin (A+B) or cos (A − B). The angles
(A+B) and (A−B) are called compound angles because they are the sum or difference of two angles. The
compound angle formulae for sine, cosine and tangent of the sum and difference of two angles A and B are:
sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin (A−B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos (A+B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos (A−B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tanA + tanB
tan(A + B) =
1 − tanA tanB

tanA − tanB
tan(A − B) =
1 + tanA tanB
 37

Worked Example
Expand and simplify the following expressions:
(a) sin( + B)
(b) −cos(90°+B)

(a) sin( + B) = sin  cos B + cos  sin B

= (0)(cos B) + (−1)(sin B) {remember that your calculator must be in radians when using }
= −sin B
(b) −cos(90°+B) = −[cos 90° cos B − sin 90° sin B]
= −[(0)(cos B) – (1)(sin B)]
= sin B

Worked Example

   
Prove that tan  A +  tan  A −  = −1
 4  4


tanA + tan
  tanA + 1 1 + tanA
Now tan  A +  =
4 = =
 4  1 − ( tanA)(1) 1 − tanA
1 − tanA tan
4


tanA − tan
  tanA − 1 tanA - 1
And tan  A −  = 4 = =
 4  1 + ( tanA)(1) 1 + tanA
1 + tanA tan
4

2 2
     1 + tanA   tanA - 1  tanA - 1 + tan A − tanA tan A − 1
Hence, tan  A +  tan  A −  =   = = =
 4   4   1 − tanA   1 + tanA  2
1 − tan A
2
1 − tan A

2
- (1 - tan A)
= −1
2
1 − tan A

Worked Example

 
Show that cos (A − ) + sin  A +  =0
 2 
Now cos (A − ) = cos A cos  + sin A sin  = (cos A)(−1) + (sin A)(0) = −cos A

   
And sin  A +  = sin A cos + cos A sin = (sin A)(0) + (cos A)(1) = cos A
 2 2 2

 
Hence cos (A − ) + sin  A +  = −cos A + cos A = 0
 2 
 38

Worked Example
Solve the equation 4 sin (A − 20°) = 5 cos A for values of A between 0° and 90°
Now 4 sin (A − 20°) = 4(sin A cos 20° − cos A sin 20°) = 4[(sin A)(0.940) – (cos A)(0.342)]
= 3.760 sin A – 1.368 cos A
Since 4 sin (A − 20°) = 5cos A
 3.760 sin A – 1.368 cos A = 5 cos A
 3.760 sin A = 6.368 cos A
By dividing throughout by (3.760 cos A), we get
3.760 sin A 6.368 cos A
=
3.760 cosA 3.760 cos A

 tan A = 1.694
 A = 59.4°

Practice Questions

1. Simplify the expression: sin 7x cos 3x − cos 7x sin 3x

2. Reduce the expression: sin 37° cos 21° + cos 37° sin 21° to the sine of one angle
3. Prove the following equations:

 3 
(a) − sin  − B  = cos B
 2 
sin (A + B)
(b) = tan A + tan B
cosA cosB

(c) cos θ + cos (θ + 120°) + cos (θ + 240°) = 0

4. Solve the equation 4 sin(x − 40°) = 2 sin x for values of x between 0° and 360°.

cos (A − B) 7
5. Given that = , prove that cos A cos B = 6 sin A sin B and deduce the relationship between
cos (A + B) 5

tan A and tan B.

Given further that A + B = 45°, calculate the value of tan A + tan B.

6. Prove the equation:

   3 
sin  A +  − sin  A − = 2 (sin A + cos A)
 4  4 
 39

5.5 Double angles

Recall that in the compound angle formulae:

sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and
cos (A+B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
If we let B = A in both cases, we get:
sin (A+A) = sin 2A = sinA cosA + cosA sinA = 2 sinA cosA and
cos (A+A) = cos 2A = cosA cosA − sinA sinA = cos2A − sin2A

Thus, we have obtained two new double angle formula:

❖ sin 2A = 2 sinA cosA

❖ cos 2A = cos2A − sin2A

Recall: cos2A + sin2A = 1

Therefore, cos2A = 1 − sin2A and
sin2A = 1 − cos2A
By substituting these formulae into the formula for cos 2A, two further formulae for cos 2A can be produced:
➢ cos 2A = 1 − sin2A − sin2A = 1 − 2sin2A

➢ cos 2A = cos2A – (1 − cos2A) = 2cos2A − 1

Additionally, in the compound angle formulae:

tanA + tanB
tan(A + B) =
1 − tanA tanB

If we let B = A, we get:
tanA + tanA 2tanA
tan(A + A) = tan2A = =
1 − tanA tanA 2
1 − tan A

2tanA
tan2A =
2
1 − tan A
➢
 40

Practice Questions
1. Prove the following identities:
1 − cos2A
(a) = tanA
sin2A

cos2A
(b) 1− = tan2 A
2
cos A
sin2A
(c) = tanA
1 + cos 2A

(d) (cos 2x + sin2 x) sec2x = 1

2. Find all the angles between 0° and 360° which satisfy the following equations:

(a) 2 sin 2 sin  = cos 

(b) 4tan 2x · tan x=1

(c) sin 2θ − 1 = cos 2θ

 41

5.6 Changing products of sines and cosines into sums or differences

sin A cos B = ½[sin (A+B) + sin (A−B)]

cos A sin B = ½[sin (A+B) − sin (A−B)]

cos A cos B = ½[cos (A+B) + cos (A−B)]

sin A sin B = −½[cos (A+B) − cos (A−B)]

Worked Examples
1. Express the following products as sums or differences:
a. 2 cos 5x sin 2x
b. sin 4t cos 3t
c. 3 cos 4 cos 

a. 2 cos 5x sin 2x
Using cos A sin B = ½[sin (A+B) − sin (A−B)]
2 cos 5x sin 2x = 2  ½[sin (5x+2x) − sin (5x−2x)]

= sin 7x − sin 3x

b. sin 4t cos 3t
Using sin A cos B = ½[sin (A+B) + sin (A−B)]
sin 4t cos 3t = ½[sin (4t+3t) + sin (4t−3t)]
= ½ (sin 7t + sin t)

c. 3 cos 4 cos 
Using cos A cos B = ½[cos (A+B) + cos (A−B)]
3 cos 4 cos  = 3  ½[cos (4+) + cos (4−)]
3
= (cos 5 + cos 3)
2

Practice Questions
1. Express the following products as sums or differences:
a. sin 7 cos 2
b. cos 8t sin 2t
c. 2 sin 7x sin 3x
d. 4 cos 3t cos t
 
e. 3 sin cos
3 6
 42

5.7 Changing sums or differences of sines and cosines into products

X+Y X−Y
sin X + sin Y = 2 sin cos
2 2

X+Y X−Y
sin X − sin Y = 2 cos sin
2 2

X+Y X−Y
cos X + cos Y = 2 cos cos
2 2

X+Y X−Y
cos X − cos Y = −2 sin sin
2 2

Worked Examples
Express the following sums or differences as products:
a. cos 2 − cos 5
b. sin 5t + sin 3t
c. sin 7x − sin x

a. cos 2 − cos 5
X+Y X−Y
Using cos X − cos Y = −2 sin sin
2 2
2 + 5 2 − 5
cos 2 − cos 5 = −2 sin sin
2 2
7  3 
= −2 sin  sin  − 
2  2 
7 3  3  3 
= 2 sin  sin  since sin  −   = − sin  
2 2  2  2 

b. sin 5t + sin 3t
X+Y X−Y
Using sin X + sin Y = 2 sin cos
2 2
5t + 3t 5t − 3t
sin 5t + sin 3t = 2 sin cos
2 2
= 2 sin 4t cos t

c. sin 7x − sin x
X+Y X−Y
Using sin X − sin Y = 2 cos sin
2 2
7x + x 7x − x
sin 7x − sin x = 2 cos sin
2 2
= 2 cos 4x sin 3x
 43

Practice Questions
1. Express the following sums or differences as products:
a. cos 5 + cos 3
b. sin 3t + sin t
1
c. (sin 9x – sin 7x)
2

1
d. (cos 5x – cos x)
8

1  
e. (cos + cos )
2 3 4

2. Show that :
sin 4t − sin 2t
(a) = tan t
cos 4t + cos 2t

1
[sin (5x – y) – sin (x + y)] = cos 3x sin (2x – y)
2
(b)

3. Solve the equation sin x − sin 2x + sin 3x = 0 for 0°  x  180°

 44

6 CALCULUS – Differentiation

Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with continuously varying functions. Differentiation is
primarily used in calculations involving maximum and minimum values of curves, velocity and acceleration and
rates of change.

6.1 Functional Notation

In an equation such as y = 5x2 + x – 7, y is said to be a function of x and may be written as y = f (x) where x is
called the independent variable and y is called the dependent variable. An equation such as this is termed
functional notation. The value of f (x) when x = 2 is denoted by f (2), and the value of f (x) when x = 5 is
denoted by f (5), etc.

Thus, when f (x) = 5x2 + x – 7,

f (2) = 5(2)2 + 2 – 7 = 15
and f (5) = 5(5)2 + 2 – 7 = 120

6.2 Differentiation from first principles

In Figure 4, A and B are two points close together on a curve. Point A has coordinate ( x, y) and point B has
coordinate (x + δx, y + δy) (where δ is the greek symbol called delta which represents a small change).

y
The gradient of the chord AB = ,
x
but δy = f (x + δx) – f (x)
y f ( x + x) − f ( x)
Hence =
x x

Figure 4
 45

y
As δx approaches zero, or as the point B moves closer to point A, approaches a limiting value such that the
x
gradient of the chord AB approaches the gradient of the tangent to the curve at point A. When B coincides with
A, the chord becomes the tangent to the curve. The gradient of the tangent to the curve at A can be written as:
y f ( x + x) − f ( x)
= f ( x) = lim
x  x → 0 x
For easy manipulation, let us replace x with h. The formula now becomes:
𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝛿𝑥 ℎ→𝑜 ℎ
When asked to differentiate from first principles, we find f  (x) by using the above formula.
y
Other than and f  (x), the gradient of a curve may be expressed in a number of ways, namely:
x
dy
✓
dx
d
✓ ( )
dx
✓ (first) derivative
✓ differential coefficient
In general, all of the above processes describe the process of differentiation.
The standard derivative of the functions that will be used during this course is listed in Table 1.

Table 1 – Differentials of some basic functions

Function Derivative

ax n anx n−1

sin x cos x
cos x ̶ sin x

sin( ax + b) a cos(ax + b)

cos(ax + b) − a sin( ax + b)

tan (ax + b) a sec2(ax + b)

ex ex

e ax+b ae ax+b

ln x , ln ax 1
x

ln(ax + b) a
ax + b
 46

Worked Example 1
Differentiate from first principles f (x) = x2

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝛿𝑥 ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

If f (x) = x2
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑥 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 𝑥 2
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ
= lim 2𝑥 + ℎ
ℎ→𝑜

= 2x

Worked Example 2
Differentiate from first principles f (x) = x2 + 2x – 3

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝛿𝑥 ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

If f (x) = x2 + 2x – 3

(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 2(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3 − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 – 3)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 2𝑥 + 2ℎ − 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 2ℎ
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ + 2)
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

= lim 2𝑥 + ℎ + 2
ℎ→𝑜

= 2x + 2
 47

Worked Example 3
Differentiate from first principles f (x) = 2x3 − 3x + 4

𝛿𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
𝛿𝑥 ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

If f (x) = 2x3 − 3x + 4

2(𝑥 + ℎ)3 − 3(𝑥 + ℎ) + 4 − (2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 4)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

2(𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 ) − 3𝑥 − 3ℎ + 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 4
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ℎ + 6𝑥ℎ2 + 2ℎ3 − 3𝑥 − 3ℎ + 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 4
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

6𝑥 2 ℎ + 6𝑥ℎ2 + 2ℎ3 − 3ℎ
= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

ℎ(6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 3)

= lim
ℎ→𝑜 ℎ

= lim 6𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 − 3

ℎ→𝑜

= 6x2 − 3

Practice Questions
Differentiate from first principles:
1. y = 5x
2. f (x) = 9x2
3. f (x) = –7x3
4. y = 4x2 + 5x – 3
5. y = 2x3 + 7
6. y = 2x3 – 5x + 7
7. y=8
 48

6.3 Product of two factors

To differentiate the product of two factors, differentiate the first factor, leaving the second alone and
then differentiate the second, leaving the first one alone.

Thus, if y=uv
dy du dv
Then, = v + u
dx dx dx

Worked Example 4

Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2 sin x at the point where x = 
y = x2 sin x
Let u = x2 and v = sin x
dy
Then = sin x (2x) + x2 cos x
dx
= 2x sin x + x2 cos x
dy
When x=, = 2 sin  + 2 cos  = −9.870 units
dx

Practice Questions

1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x cos x at the point where x = 
2. Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:

y = 3x2 sin x
y = 2x3 cos x
i = 15t sin t
 49

6.4 Quotients
There is a formula for quotients corresponding to that for products.
u
Thus, if y =
v
du dv
v − u
dy dx dx
Then, =
dx v2

Practice Questions
1. Differentiate the following with respect to x:

2x
(a) y =
x +1
2

4 sin x
(b) y =
5x 4
2 cos x
(c) y =
x3
2. Determine the gradients of the following curves at the stated points:

5x  3
y = at the point  3, 
2x 2 + 4  2 
(a) 
2x
y = at the point (2, −4)
(b) x −5
2
 50

6.5 The Chain Rule

This rule is applicable where an expression is described as ‘a function of a function’.
Suppose y is a function of t, and t itself is a function of x, then:
dy dy dt
= 
dx dt dx
Worked Example 5
Find the derivative of y
Let y = (4x3 + 5x2)3 and t = 4x3 + 5x2, then y = t 3
dt dy
= 12x2 + 10x; = 3t 2
dx dt
dy dy dt
But, by the chain rule, = 
dx dt dx
= 3t 2 (12x2 + 10x)

= 3(4x3 + 5x2)2 (12x2 + 10x)

Practice Questions
Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:
1) (4x3 – 3x)6

2) (2x3 – 5x)5

2
3)
(2 x − 5) 4
3

1
4)
( x − 2 x + 1) 5
3

5) 2cos5α
 51

6.6 Equations of tangents; stationary values; turning points

We would have learnt that the gradient of a curve at a given point is equal to the gradient of a tangent to
the curve at that point. A stationary value of a function in y is any value of y at which its rate of change with
dy
respect to x is zero, i.e. stationary values of a function y occur when = 0 . Thus, at a stationary value, the
dx
gradient of the curve is zero and the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis as shown in Figure 5 below.

Figure 5

The gradient of a curve can be zero at several points. The shape of the curve in the immediate neighbourhood of
one of these points belongs to one of the three categories shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

If we look at Figure 6, we can appreciate that:

✓ The gradient is zero at A. In the neighbourhood of A, the gradient of the curve changes from positive just
before A, to negative just after. This point is called a maximum turning point.

✓ The gradient is zero at B. In the neighbourhood of B, the gradient of the curve changes from negative just
before B, to positive just after. The point B is called a minimum turning point.

✓ The gradient is zero at C. However, the curve does not turn at C, i.e. it does not change sign when moving
through C. But, the sense in which the curve is turning does change (from clockwise to anticlockwise). Any
point on a curve at which the sense of turning changes is called a point of inflexion. Thus, apart from C,
there are two other points of inflexion in Figure 6: one between A and B, and the other between B and C.
It can be noted that the gradient at a point of inflexion is not necessarily zero.
 52

We need to be able to distinguish between a maximum turning point, a minimum turning point and a point of
inflexion, and there are several ways in which this can be done. Let us consider the following tables.

Maximum Minimum Inflexion

Values of y on either side One smaller and
Both smaller Both larger
of a stationary value one larger

Maximum Minimum Inflexion

dy
Sign of when
dx
+ 0 − − 0 + + 0 + or − 0 −
moving through a
stationary value

Slope

or

Maximum Minimum

d2y negative positive

Sign of
dx 2 (or zero) (or zero)
 53

Worked Example 6
Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y = 27 + 12x + 3x2 – 2x3 and deduce the nature of
each of these points. Hence, sketch the graph of the function y.
Stationary points occur when the gradient of the curve is zero.
y = 27 + 12x + 3x2 – 2x3
dy
= 12 + 6 x − 6 x 2 = 6(2 + x − x 2 )
dx
d2y
= 6 − 12 x
dx 2
At turning points, 2 + x – x2 = 0
 x2 – x – 2 = 0
x2 + x – 2x – 2 = 0
x (x + 1) – 2(x + 1) = 0
(x + 1) (x – 2) = 0

x = –1; 2
When x = –1, y = 20
d2y
= 6 − (12)(−1)  0 i.e. the gradient is increasing
dx 2
Therefore (–1, 20) is a minimum turning point.
When x = 2, y = 47
d2y
= 6 − (12)(2)  0 i.e. the gradient is decreasing
dx 2
Therefore (2, 47) is a maximum turning point.
As y = 27 + 12x + 3x2 – 2x3, the curve cuts the y-axis at (0, 27).
We can now sketch the curve…

Practice Questions
1. Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the following curves and deduce the nature of each of
these points. Hence, sketch the respective graphs of the function y.

(i) y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1
(ii) y = 2x3 + 3x2 + 4 − 36x