MICROBIOLOGY

LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER

(BACTE) MIDTERMS UNIT 1 HISTORY

DISCOVERY OF MICROORGANISMS
LECRETIUS (ABOUT 98-55 BC)
● Roman philosopher who suggested the existence of
invisible disease causing organisms. —> “invisible living
creatures”

FRANCESCO STELLUTI (1478 - 1553 BC)

● Made the earliest records of microscopic observations
● Investigated bee and weevil with Frederico Cesi.
● PUBLICATION: Stelluti’s Italian translation of the Latin
satires of Persius written in the rst century A.D.

Showed the microscopic appearance of a dissected bee from

dorsal, ventral, and side views, and other several parts. He did not
show parts of a dissected weevil, but did a direct comparison
between what is seen by the naked eye and what is seen with a
microscope.
● Results:
○ Fly eggs and maggots appeared on meat in
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632 - 1723) uncovered jar but did not appear on meat in the
● The “First True Microbiologist” covered jar.
● “Father of Protozoology and Bacteriology” ○ His results were a serious blow to the long-held
● First person to observe and describe microorganisms belief that large forms of life could arise from
accurately nonlife.
● Used his self-made microscope with 50 - 300x
magni cation to study protozoans and bacteria ● Conclusion:
● Discovered “animalcules” he found in rainwater, in his ○ Fly eggs and maggots (life) do not spontaneously
own feces, and in material scraped from his teeth. generate from decaying meat (non-living matter).
● Described his discoveries to the Royal Society of London ○ Maggots could only form when ies were allowed
but did not evaluate these organisms as agents of to lay eggs in the meat, and that the maggots
diseases were the offspring of ies, not the product of
spontaneous generation.
“Animalcules” – microscopic animals, now termed as
microorganisms
JOHN NEEDHAM (1748)
● Concept:
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION ○ Had poor experimental setup and incorrectly
● Life arose froom non-living matter. believed that brie y boiling a broth would
● Abiogenesis sterilize it.
ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)
Sterilization– process of killing all microbes in sample.
● Greek philosopher Aristotle that became the rst person to
proposed the theory of spontaneous generation.
● Also called abiogenesis. ○ He observed that boiled mutton broth eventually
● Idea that that living things could arise from nonlife. became cloudy with microorganisms after pouring
● Idea lasted almost 2000 years. it into a ask and sealed tightly.
● Results/Conclusion: ○ He proposed that organic matter possessed a
○ life arouse from nonliving material if the material “vital force” that could give rise to life.
contained pneuma (“vital heat”).

FRANCESCO REDI (1626-1697)

● Concept:
○ Italian scientist that became the rst to disprove the
idea of spontaneous generation.
○ In 1668, he demonstrated that y eggs and
maggots do not arise spontaneously from
decaying meat

‣ First piece of meat was left opened to allow to ies to enter and
lay their eggs on the meat.
‣ Second piece of meat was covered with ne gauze to prevent ● Results:
ies from entering and laying their eggs. ○ after brie y boiling a ask of broth, allowing it to
‣ Third piece of meat was covered with cork-sealed container to cool and sealing it with a cork, Needham saw
prevent ies from entering and laying their eggs. microbial growth.
● Conclusion:
○ Redi left meat in each of six containers ○ Needham incorrectly concluded that his “sterile”
ask of broth spontaneously generated microbes.

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 MICROBIOLOGY
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
(BACTE) MIDTERMS UNIT 1 HISTORY

○ In Needham’s mind, this nding suggested that the continued until 1861, when the issue was nally
lifeless broth had given rise to life. resolved by the French scientist Louis Pasteur.
○ It was not until that the scientist, Lazzaro
Spallanzani, performed a set of experiments to THEODOR SCHWANN
contradict these ndings. ● proposed the concept of CELL THEORY
○ All life are composed of cells
‣ Incorrectly believed all microbes died with a brief boiling.
‣ Incorrectly believed a cork seal would prevent contamination ‣ CELL THEORY
‣ Incorrectly concluded his experiments supported spontaneous • The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in
generation. living organism

● Around 1838 to 1839, a German botanist named

LAZZARO SPALLANZANI (1729-1799) Matthias Schleiden and a German zoologist named
● Concept: Theodor Schwann concluded that all plant and animal
○ Italian physiologist who performed experiments tissues were composed of cells; this later became
that contradicted Needham’s results. known as the cell theory.
○ He proposed that Needham’s experiment was ● Constructed apparatus to sterilize air coming into a ask
awed and that organisms do not spontaneously ● EXPERIMENT
generate. ○ Schwann allowed air to enter a ask containing a
○ Spallanzani sealed ask by melting it closed and sterile nutrient solution after the air had passed
then boiled broth for a longer period of time. through a red hot tube. The ask remained sterile

‣ He boiled broth in two bottles, left one bottle open and one
closed,
‣ the microorganisms entered the bottle through the air; they were
not generated spontaneously in the broth

● Results:
○ Spallanzani never saw microbial growth in sealed
asks; only saw growth in asks that were cracked.
● Conclusion:
○ microbes do not spontaneously generate; SCHRODER AND DUSCH
cracked asks allowed microbes to enter form the ● Georg Friedrich Schroder and Theodor von Dusch
air. allowed air to enter a ask heat -sterilized medium after
○ Opposers claimed Spallanzani’s sealed asks it had passed through sterile cotton wool.
excluded a “vital source” that was needed for ● No growth occurred in the medium even though the air
spontaneous generation. had not been heated

BIOGENESIS
● The theory that life originates only from preexisting life
and never from nonliving matter
● This also gave rise to the cell, cell theory and the theories
on the origin of life.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
● First person to challenge spontaneous generation
● Proposed Theory : Biogenesis
● “Father of Pathology.”

Omnis cellula e cellula

‣ Where a cell exists, there must have been a pre- existing cell,
just as the animal arises only from an animal and the plant
only from a plant
‣ “Every cell from a cell”

○ Because he could o er no scienti c proof,

arguments about spontaneous generation

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 MICROBIOLOGY
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
(BACTE) MIDTERMS UNIT 1 HISTORY

LOIUS PASTEUR ● The bacteria that emerge from the spores during the
● It is not the air that creates microbes but instead there are incubation steps are subsequently killed during the boiling
real microbes steps.
● Concept: ○ A process, 3 consecutive days of sterilization
○ According to his experiments, he proved that ○ We use moist heat
microbes come from other microbes. ○ In here, by 3 consecutive days of sterilization, it
○ all living organisms arise from the cells of can destroy endospores/spores
organisms on dust particles in the air, whereas not
from the air itself. FERDINAND COHN
● described the microscopic appearance of the two forms
of the “hay bacillus,”
‣ Selected several unique S-shaped asks and divided them into
two di erent sets. ○ which Cohn named Bacillus subtilis.
‣ Added the prepared broth to the rst set of S-shaped asks, “Spores” – He referred to small refractile bodies within the
boiled it, and sealed the asks with lids. bacterial cells as “spores” and observed the conversion of spores
‣ Added the prepared broth to the second S-shaped asks, boiled into actively growing cells.
it, and uncovered it.
‣ Later, he placed both asks ( rst and second) sets at di erent ● Cohn also concluded that when they were in the spore
locations. phase,
○ the bacteria were heat resistant.
• To d a y, b a c t e r i a l s p o re s a re k n o w n a s
endospores,
• whereas active, metabolizing, growing bacterial
cells are referred to as vegetative cells.

Only two bacteria has spores (Bacillus and Clostridium)

‣ Bacillus – produces spores aerobically in the presence of
oxygen
‣ Clostridium – produces spores anaerobically in the absence
of oxygens

ANTOINE LAURENT LAVOISER

● This intangible “vital force” was given all the more
credence shortly after Spallanzani’s experiment, when
Anton Laurent Lavoisier showed the importance of
oxygen to life.
● Observation
FERMENTATION AND PASTEURIZATION
○ dust collected on the neck of the asks. ● Schwann state that yeast cells were responsible for the
○ In the rst set of asks, there was no microbial conversion of sugars to alcohol.
growth,
○ Fermentation was not due to microorganisms but a
○ In the second set of asks, there was microbial chemical instability that causes the conversion.
growth.
LOUIS PASTEUR
● Conclusion
● Fermentation
○ microbes are present in the air but will not arise
○ He describers that yeast converts sugar to alcohol
from the air or dust.
in absence of air.
○ In both sets of asks, he used the same boiled
○ Souring and spoilage of wine are caused by
broth, but the rst set of asks was sealed, and the
di erent microorganisms called bacteria
second set was left open for microbes to enter,
○ Due to air, bacteria change the alcohol in the
reproduce and multiply.
beverage into vinegar (acetic acid)
• contaminating bacteria, such as Acetobacter,
JOHN TYNDALL
convert glucose to acetic acid (vinegar) by
● certain bacteria exist in two forms:
fermentation
○ a form which is readily killed by simple boiling (i.e., ● Pasteurization
a heat-labile form)
○ Heating the beer and wine just enough to kill most
○ form that is not killed by simple boiling (i.e., a heat- of the bacteria
stable form).
○ The process of mild heating to kill particular
● He developed a fractional sterilization technique,
spoilage microorganisms or pathogens.
known as tyndallization, which successfully killed both
○ The main advantage of pasteurization is that
the heat labile and heat stable forms.
treatment at this temperature reduces spoilage

“Tyndallization” – boiling, followed by incubating, and then Note: Pasteurization does not kill all of the microbes in liquids—
reboiling; these steps are repeated several times. just the pathogens.

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 MICROBIOLOGY
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
(BACTE) MIDTERMS UNIT 1 HISTORY

ANTISEPSIS ● Was the rst to propose the use of agar as culture media
● Antisepsis is a chemical process of reducing or inhibiting for growing and isolating bacteria.
microorganism on living tissue or mucous membrane.
JULIUS RICHARD PETRI
IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS ● invented the standard culture dish, or Petri dish
● Ignaz Semmelweis, aka "savior of mothers", is an ● further developed the technique of agar culture to purify
unacclaimed hero for his advances in the antiseptic or clone bacterial colonies derived from single cells.
method.
● considered to be an important pioneer for the promotion MARTINUS BEIJENRINCK
of asepsis. ● Along with Sergei Winogradsky they were credited with
the discovery of “general microbiology”
“Asepsis” – a condition in which no living disease-causing
microorganisms are present. ● Father of Virology
● Developed the enrichment - culture technique and the
● Semmelweis demonstrated that routine hand washing use of selective media.
can prevent the spread of disease in a Vienna maternity
hospital. CHARACTERISTICS OF AGAROSE
JOSEPH LISTER WHAT IS AGAROSE?
● He introduced the concept of aseptic surgery using ● Agarose is a polysaccharide that is isolated and puri ed
carbolic acid, now called phenol. from agar or agar-bearing marine algae (sea kelp).
○ Use of phenol an antimicrobial agent for surgical ● Main component of all culture media in bacteriology
wound healing. ● The agar used as a solidifying agent in laboratory
culture media is a complex polysaccharide derived from
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE a red marine alga.
● Based on the concept that microorganisms might cause
disease ‣ Most common solidifying agent that can melt at high temp
(≥95°C) & can resolidify below 50°C
● The medical community became aware of the problem of
‣ Adding agar allows a solid medium to be prepared by heating to
nosocomial infections and the need to practice asepsis to
high temperature which is required for sterilization, and cooling
prevent the contamination of wounds, dressings, and to 55-60 °C for distribution into petri dish.
surgical instruments. ‣ Agar — stable solid gel formed upon further cooling of the
agarose medium
ROBERT KOCH ‣ Agar plate — petri dish w/ agar
● 1st to show proof that bacteria can cause a disease
● Discovered largest pathogenic bacteria KEY AGAROSE PROPERTIES
○ Bacillus anthracis Sulfate is the major ionic
● Discovered bacteria that causes tuberculosis group present and is
Sulfate content
○ Mycobacterium tuberculosis therefore used as an
● First cultivated bacteria in potatoes, gelatin, meat extracts indicator of purity.
and protein
The force that must be
○ All of them have nutrients and bacteria can grow Gel strength
● Discovered culture media applied to the gel to fracture
it.
○ For observing bacterial growth isolated from the
body The temperature at which
KOCH’S POSTULATE an aqueous solution of
agarose forms a gel upon
1. The microorganisms must be present in every case of disease Gel point cooling. Agarose solutions
but absent in a healthy host exhibit hysteresis when
2. Suspected microorganisms is isolated from a diseased host & transitioning from liquid to
grown in pure culture gel.
3. Grown microorganism in a culture medium, when inoculated in
a healthy individual, same disease must be present from the Refers to the transfer of
rst host liquid through a gel. The
4. Same organism must be isolated again from the diseased host Electroendosmosis (EEO) anionic groups of the
agarose gel are attached to
the matrix and cannot
CULTURE MEDIA migrate
● A nutrient material prepared for the growth of
microorganisms in a laboratory is called a culture
● Agarose could be used directly without supplementation
medium.
for plaque assays ensuring high cell variability.
ROBERT KOCH
● The use of agarose is suggested for media where the
● He was the first to culture bacteria on boiled potatoes,
absence of a nutrient is mandatory.
gelatin and used meat extracts and protein digests for
cultivation
AGAROSE PREPARATION
● He developed culture media for observing growth of
● When preparing agarose for cell culture work, it is always
bacteria isolated from the human body.
best to prepare the agarose in water suitable for cell
FANNY HESSE
culture and separate from any growth media or nutrients.
● Dubbed as the “Mother of Microbiology”
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LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
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● Agarose solutions and media solutions should be ○ Discovered that the virus of rabies can be
prepared at 2X concentrations, autoclaved separately, conserved alive for weeks in glycerine.
and aliquoted into useable aliquots.
CHARLES CHAMBERLAND
DIFFERENT TYPPES OF CULTURES ● Created the rst actual autoclave in 1876.
TYPE PURPOSE ● created a porcelain bacterial lter (1884) and developed
anthrax vaccine together with Pasteur.
Growth of
Chemically de ned chemoautotrophs and EMIL VON BEHRING
photoautotrophs; ● Developed a diphtheria antitoxin in 1901 and tetanus
microbiological assays antitoxin.
● Showed that by means of blood plasma, or serum,
Growth of most
Complex chemoheterotrophic antibodies could be transferred from one person or animal
organisms to another person, who also then became immune.
● In 1900 Behring introduced serum from immune horses as
Reducing Growth of obligate a method to cure and prevent diphtheria.
anaerobes

Suppression of unwanted ‣ Diphtheria – caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae

Selective microbes; encouraging ‣ Tetanus – caused by Clostridium tetani
desired microbes ‣ Antitoxin – antibody is injected for you to get protected
‣ Vaccine – antigen (weakened, attenuated or dead) is injected for
Di erentiation of colonies you to produce antibody
Di erential of desired microbes form
others

Similar to selective media

but designed to increase ELIE METCHNIKOFF
Enrichment numbers of desired ● Discovered phagocytes, immune cells that protect
microbes to detectable organisms by ingesting foreign particles or
levels microorganisms, by conducting experiments on star sh
larvae.
● Developed a theory of the cellular process involving
VACCINATION
phagocytes, known as phagocytosis,
EDWARD JENNER
○ to explain how in ammation is a part of the self
● Demonstrated the world’s rst vaccine.
defense system found in both vertebrates and
● He experimented on how people can be protected against
invertebrates.
smallpox.
● He collected scrapings from cowpox blisters and
TYPES OF VACCINES
Inoculated a healthy volunteer with cowpox material by
INACTIVATED VACCINES
scrathing the person's arm with a pox-contaminated
needle. Vaccines prompt the immune system to
Inactivated make disease- ghting antibodies, which
1. inoculates 8-year-old James Phipps with matter collected from vaccines give you the bene t of acquired immunity
a cowpox sore on the hand of a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes. without having to get sick rst.
Phipps made a full recovery.
2. Two months, Jenner inoculates Phipps with matter from a Live- Live vaccines use a weakened (or
human smallpox sore in order to test Phipps’ resistance. ( rst attenuated attenuated) form of the germ that causes
human to be vaccinated against smallpox) vaccines a disease.

Messenger mRNA vaccine mimics a viral infection by

○ The term ‘vaccine’ is later coined, taken from the
employing the host cell protein machinery
Latin word for cow, “vacca”. RNA (mRNA)
to convert mRNA into a defend antigen
vaccines and to elicit a robust humoral and cellular
LOUIS PASTEUR AND PIERRE ROUX immune response.
● Used the term "vaccine"
○ For cultures of avirulent microorganisms used for Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide,
Subunit, and conjugate vaccines use speci c
preventive inoculation.
recombinant, pieces of the germ—like its protein, sugar,
● About 1880, Pasteur discovered that avirulent bacteria
could be used as a vaccine for fowl cholera. polysaccharid or capsid (a casing around the germ).
e, and Because these vaccines use only speci c
● Pasteur developed vaccines to prevent chicken cholera,
conjugate pieces of the germ, they give a very
anthrax, and swine erysipelas (a skin disease). strong immune response that’s targeted
● Pasteur developed a vaccine to prevent rabies in dogs vaccines to key parts of the germ.
and successfully used the vaccine to treat human rabies.
A toxoid is an exotoxin that has been
1. He begins a course of 13 injections with patient Joseph Toxoid
inactivated (made nontoxic) by heat or
Meister, each containing a stronger dose of the rabies virus. vaccines chemicals.

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LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
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Viral vector vaccines use a modi ed EDWARD ABRAHAM

version of a di erent virus as a vector to ● Developed a process for the puri cation of penicillin
Viral vector and discovered cephalosporin C for those who are
deliver protection. Adenovirus is one of
vaccines the viral vectors used in some COVID-19 allergic to penicillin
vaccines being studied in clinical trials. ● Abraham developed a chromatographic process for
penicillin puri cation.
MODERN THERAPY
SELMAN WAKSMAN Chromatographic processes separate mixtures into their
constituents by exposing the mixture to a material that selectively
● “Father of Antibiotics”
gathers only certain of the constituents into a layer on its surface
● Waksman and H. Boyd Woodru had devised a
technique for identifying natural substances with
antibacterial properties ● Abraham, working with Guy Newton,
● The rst true antibiotic Waksman identi ed was from
○ isolated from a mold the pure form of another
Actinomyces antibioticus, a member of the antibiotic called cephalosporin C, an antibiotic
actinomycetes family which also has the beta-lactam ring structure.
● proposed the now standard term “antibiotics” for this
class of natural growth inhibitors. Cephalosporin C
used against bacteria that cause diphtheria and typhoid fever
‣ He identi ed more than 20 new natural inhibitory
and is especially useful for patients who are allergic to penicillin
substances, including
• streptomycin
• neomycin
‣ He won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1952 PAUL ERLICH
“for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic ● Father of Chemotherapy
e ective against tuberculosis.” ● In 1908, he was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology/
Medicine for his pioneer work on the antibody production,
● In 1944, he discovered streptomycin, Waksman initiated pioneered the modern chemotherapy by discovering his
a collaboration with Merck and Company. He succeeded magic bullet for syphilis, called "606" or
in developing manufacturing processes for products such "Salvarsan" (arsphenamine) in 1909 with a Japanese
as young scientist, Sahachiro Hata (1873-1938) from
○ streptomycin, "Denken" (Institute for Infectious Diseases, now called
○ ribo avin, IMS for Institute for Medical Sciences) in Tokyo.
○ cortisone, ● His magic bullet was used to eradicate syphilis for more
○ vitamin B12, and than a half century
○ penicillin
CHEMOTHERAPY
ALEXANDER FLEMMING ● “Magic Bullet”
● “I did not invent penicillin. Nature did that. I only ● Chemotherapy refers to the use of any chemical (drug) to
discovered it by accident.” treat any disease or condition.
○ The chemical drugs used to treat diseases are
‣ 1982, He discovered penicillin after arriving back to his London referred to as chemotherapeutic agents..Is the
laboratory from a two-week vacation he noticed there was a
treatment of disease by using chemical substances
zone around an invading fungus on an Agar plate; in which the
bacteria did not grow.
● It also refers to the chemical treatment of noninfectious
‣ He found it to be e ective against all Gram-positive diseases, such as cancer.
pathogens, which are responsible for diseases such as scarlet
fever, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, meningitis and diphtheria. Synthetic Drugs - Prepared from chemicals in the laboratory
Antibiotics - produced naturally by bacteria and fungi to act
● he noticed that penicillin had an antibacterial e ect on against microorganisms
staphylococci

HOWARD FLOREY CLASSIFICATIONS OF BACTERIA

● Made the puri cation process for penicillin. GRAM POSITIVE
● in 1940, with the help of Norman Heatley,
○ the experimental penicillin, made from their COCCI BACILLI
production and puri cation process, had su cient
Bacillus
potency to protect organisms form Listeria
Streptococci Micrococcus
Corynebacterium
AEROBES Staphylococcus
Erysipelothrix
‣ This was achieved because the experiments had 8 mice injected Streptococcus
Mycobacterium
with Streptococcus and then 4 of these mice with penicillin,
Nocardia
whilst the other four were left as controls. The mice that were
left as controls all died, but the four that were treated with Actinomyces
penicillin survived. Peptococcus Clostridium
Peptostreptococcus Propionibacterium
● the rst human recipient of penicillin was Albert ANAEROBES Sarcina Bi dobacterium
Alexander Ruminococcus Eubaterium
Coprococcus Lactobacillus
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 MICROBIOLOGY
LECTURE \ FIRST SEMESTER
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GRAM NEGATIVE
Alexander
Plague Yersinia pestis 1894
Acinetobacter Yersin
Aeromonas
Alcaligenes Botulism (food Clostridium
Vicrio Van Ermengem 1896
poisoning) botulinum
Branhamella Bordetella
AEROBES Neisseria Brucella enterics Shigella
Francisella Dysentery Kiyoshi Shiga 1898
dysenteriae
Legionella
Pasteurella
Avian in uenza
Pseudomonas Bird u WHO 1900
virus
Fusibacterium
Veilonella Treponema
Bacteroides Syphilis Schaudin 1905
ANAEROBES Acidaminococcus pallidum
Prevotella
Megasphera
Porphyromonas
Whooping Bordetella Bordet and
DISCOVERY OF CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF 1906
cough pertussis Gengou
MICROBIAL DISEASES
Causative Rocky
Disease Discoverer Year Rickettsia
agent mountain Ricketts 1909
rickettsii
spotted fever
Mycobacterium
Leprosy Hansen 1874 Leptospira
leprae Inada and Ido 1914
Leptospirosis interrogans
Bacillus
Anthrax Robert Koch 1876 Creutzfeldt-
anthracis CJD prion Creutzfeldt 1920
Jakob disease
Actinomyces
Actinomycis Bollinger 1877
bovis Coxiella burnetii Derrick 1935
Q- fever
Neisseria
Gonorrhea Albert Neisser 1879 Monkey pox
gonorrhoeae WHO 1958
Monkey pox virus

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Eberth 1880

Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Purcell et al. 1972
Plasmodium
Malaria Laveran 1880 Human
spp. Lac
AIDS immunode cienc 1983
Montagnier
Pyogenic y virus
Staphylococcus Alexander
1881
infections aureus Ogston
Helicobacter Warren and
Gastritis 1983
pylori Marshall
Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis Robert Koch 1882
tuberculosis
Human T-cell Robert Gallo et
Leukemia 1984
virus al
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Rober Koch 1883
Respiratory
SARS
disease Carlo Urbani 2003
Corynebacterium Coronavirus
Diphtheria Theoder Klebs 1883 (SARS)
diphtheriae

Clostridium Arthur
Tetanus 1885
tetani Nicolaier

Streptococcus
Pneumonia Fraenkel 1886
pneumoniae

Neisseria
Meningitis Weichselbaum 1887
meningitidis

Salmonella August
Gastroenteritis 1888
enteritidis Gaertner

Clostridium
Gas gangrene William Welch 1892
perfringens

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