ELECTROMAGNETISM

PHS 341/ PHYSICS

Dr. Gideon O. LAYADE

[email protected]
+234-0813 943 7356

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 MAGNETOSTATICS
#1: Introduction to Magnetostatics
#2: Bio-Savart Law
#3: Ampere’s Circuital Law
#4: Maxwell Circuital Law
#5: Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
#6: Magnetic Vector Potential
#7: Maxwell Equations in terms of Vector Potentials
#8: Inductance

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 Suggested Reading
 Theories and Problems of Electromagnetics: J.A. Edminister
 Classical Electricity and Magnetism: W.K.H. Panofsky and M.N.
Phillips:
 Classical Electrodynamics: J.D. Jackson
 UniversityPhysics (with Modern Physics): H.D. Young and R.A.
Freedman
 Electromagnetic Theory: P.C. Clemmow
 Electromagnetism: G.L. Pollack and D.R. Stump
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 #1: intro. To magnetostatics
 Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic
fields in systems where the currents are
steady (not changing with time).

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 It is the magnetic analogue of electrostatics,
where the charges are stationary.
 The magnetization need not be static; the
equations of magnetostatics can be used to
predict fast magnetic switching events that
occur on time scales of nanoseconds or less.
 Magnetostatics is even a good approximation
when the currents are not static — as long as
the currents do not alternate rapidly.
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 Magnetostatics is widely used in applications
of micromagnetics such as models of magnetic
storage devices as in computer memory.

 Magnetostatic focussing can be achieved either

by a permanent magnet or by passing current
through a coil of wire whose axis coincides with
the beam axis.

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 #2: Biot–Savart law
 The Biot–Savart law is an equation describing
the magnetic field generated by a
constant electric current.
 It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude,
direction, length, and proximity of the electric
current.
 The Biot–Savart law is fundamental
to magnetostatics, playing a role similar to that
of Coulomb's law in electrostatics.
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 The law is valid in the magnetostatic
approximation, and consistent with
both Ampère's circuital law and Gauss's law
for magnetism.
 It is named after Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix
Savart, who discovered this relationship in
1820.

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 Electric currents (along a closed curve/wire)

The Biot–Savart law is used for computing the

resultant magnetic field B at position r in 3D-space
generated by a flexible current I (for example due to a
wire).
A steady (or stationary) current is a continual flow
of charges which does not change with time and the
charge neither accumulates nor depletes at any point.
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The law is a physical example of a line integral,
being evaluated over the path C in which the
electric currents flow (e.g. the wire). The
equation is

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 The application of this law implicitly relies on
the superposition principle for magnetic fields,
i.e. the fact that the magnetic field is a vector
sum of the field created by each infinitesimal
section of the wire individually.

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#3:Ampère's circuital law

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In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's
circuital law (not to be confused
with Ampère's force law that André-Marie
Ampère discovered in 1823) relates
the integrated magnetic field around a closed
loop to the electric current passing through the
loop.
James Clerk Maxwell (not Ampère) derived it
using hydrodynamics in his 1861 published
paper "On Physical Lines of Force“.
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In 1865 he generalized the equation to apply
to time-varying currents by adding
the displacement current term, resulting in the
modern form of the law, sometimes called
the Ampère–Maxwell law, which is one
of Maxwell's equations which form the basis
of classical electromagnetism.

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 #4: Maxwell’s CirCuital law
 In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian
Ørsted discovered that an electric current
creates a magnetic field around it, when he
noticed that the needle of a compass next to
a wire carrying current turned so that the
needle was perpendicular to the wire.
 He investigated and discovered the rules
which govern the field around a straight
current-carrying wire:
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 The magnetic field lines encircle the current-
carrying wire.
 The magnetic field lines lie in a plane
perpendicular to the wire.
 If the direction of the current is reversed, the
direction of the magnetic field reverses.
 The strength of the field is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the current.
 The strength of the field at any point is
inversely proportional to the distance of the
point from the wire.
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 André-Marie Ampère investigated the
magnetic force between two current-carrying
wires, discovering Ampère's force law.
 In the 1850s Scottish mathematical
physicist James Clerk Maxwell generalized
these results and others into a single
mathematical law.
 The original form of Maxwell's circuital law,
which he derived as early as 1855 appeared in
his paper. "On Faraday's Lines of Force”
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 #5: Gauss's law for magnetism
 Gauss's law for magnetism is one of the
four Maxwell's equations that
underlie classical electrodynamics.
 It states that the magnetic
field B has divergence equal to zero, in
other words, that it is a solenoidal vector
field.
 It is equivalent to the statement
that magnetic monopoles do not exist.
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 Rather than "magnetic charges", the basic
entity for magnetism is the magnetic dipole.
(If monopoles were ever found, the law
would have to be modified, as elaborated
below.
 Gauss's law for magnetism can be written in
two forms, a differential form and an integral
form.
 These forms are equivalent due to
the divergence theorem
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 #6: Magnetic vector potential
The magnetic vector potential A is a vector field,
defined along with the electric
potential ϕ (a scalar field) by the equations:

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where B is the magnetic field and E is
the electric field.
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 In magnetostatics where there is no time-
varying charge distribution, only the first
equation is needed.
 In the context of electrodynamics, the
terms vector potential and scalar
potential are used for magnetic vector
potential and electric potential,
respectively.

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#7: Maxwell's equations in terms
of vector potential

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 #8: Inductance
 In electromagnetism and electronics, inducta
nce is the tendency of an electrical
conductor to oppose a change in the electric
current flowing through it.
 The flow of electric current creates
a magnetic field around the conductor.
 The field strength depends on the magnitude
of the current, and follows any changes in
current.
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 In 1831, from Faraday's law of induction, any
change in magnetic field through a circuit induces
an electromotive force (EMF) (voltage) in the
conductors, a process known as electromagnetic
induction.
This induced voltage created by the changing current
has the effect of opposing the change in current. This
is stated by Lenz's law, and the voltage is called back
EMF.
Inductance is defined as the ratio of the induced
voltage to the rate of change of current causing it.
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It is a proportionality factor that depends
on the geometry of circuit conductors and
the magnetic permeability of nearby
materials.
An electronic component designed to add
inductance to a circuit is called an inductor.
It typically consists of a coil or helix of
wire.

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Mutual & self Inductance
The property describing
the effect of one
conductor on itself is
more precisely
called self-inductance,
and
the properties
describing the effects of
one conductor with
changing current on
nearby conductors is
called mutual inductance
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