Number Theory

What is Infinity?
... it's not big ...

... it's not huge ...

... it's not tremendously large ...

... it's not extremely humongously

enormous ...

... it's ...

ENDLESS
Infinity has no end
Infinity is the idea of something that has no
end.
In our world we don't have anything like it. So
we imagine traveling on and on, trying hard to
get there, but that is not actually infinity.

If there is no reason something should stop,

then it is infinite.
Infinity does not grow

Infinity is not "getting larger", it is already fully

formed.
Sometimes people (including me) say it "goes on
and on" which sounds like it is growing somehow.
But infinity does not do anything, it just is.

Infinity is not a real number

Infinity is not a real number, it is an idea. An idea
of something without an end.
Infinity cannot be measured.
Even these faraway galaxies can't compete with
infinity.
Infinity is Simple
⚫ Yes! It is actually simpler than things
which do have an end. Because when
something has an end, we have to define
where that end is.
⚫ A Line goes in both directions without end.
When there is one end it is called a Ray, and
when there are two ends it is called a Line
Segment, but they need extra information to
define where the ends are.
So a Line is actually simpler than a Ray or Line
Segment.
What about 1/3
⚫ Is it finite, infinite, indefinite?

1
/3 is a finite number (it is not infinite). But
written as a decimal number the digit 3 repeats
forever (we say "0.3 repeating"):
0.3333333... (etc)
There's no reason why the 3s should ever stop:
they repeat infinitely.
 Infinite
We say a set A is countably infinite if N≈A, that is, Aand
N has the same cardinality as the natural numbers. We
say A is countable if it is finite or countably infinite
.If A is a countably infinite set and
f:N→A is a bijection, then
A={f(1),f(2),f(3),…}.
In other words, a set is countably infinite if and only if it can be
arranged in an infinite sequence.

Example The set Z of all integers is countably infinite: Observe that

we can arrange Z in a sequence in the following way:
0,1,−1,2,−2,3,−3,4,−4,…

This corresponds to the bijection f:N→Z defined by

f(n)=n/2 if n is even;
f(n) =−(n−1)/2 if n is odd.
Uncountably Infinite
We can’t order them and can always have more numbers
between two ‘given’ numbers (presumably ordered)

Example: Set of real numbers R.

How many Real numbers between two given numbers?

Ans.: Infinite.
We can’t map Set of Natural numbers to Real numbers
because there is really no order (even though we can
always say which real number is greater than the other but
still there can be infinite real numbers between the two)
 Natural Numbers
⚫ Is Zero (0) a natural numbers?

Answer: ????

It is convenient to include 0 (corresponding to the empty

set) as a natural number. Including 0 is now the common
convention among set theorists and logicians. Other
mathematicians also include 0, and computer languages
often start from zero when enumerating items like loop
counters and string or array-elements.

On the other hand, many mathematicians have kept the

older tradition to take 1 to be the first natural number.

In the following, we will consider 0 to be a natural number.

Natural Numbers
The Notion of Equality

Axiom 1. For every x∈N, x=x

Axiom 2. For every x, y∈N, if x=y, then y=x
Axiom 3. For every x, y, z∈N, if x=y and
y=z, then x=z
Axiom 4. For all x and y, if x∈N and x=y,
then y∈N
The Peano Axioms
⚫ Axiom 5. 0 is a natural number. That is,
0∈N0
In an alternate version, it starts with 1 (N1
,N+,N*).
⚫ Axiom 6. If x∈N0, then S(x)∈ N0. That is, if x
is a natural number, then so its successor
⚫ Axiom 7. For every natural number x∈ N0,
S(x) = 0 is false.
⚫ Axiom 8. For all x, y∈ N0, if S(x) =S(y), then
x=y
Set of Natural Numbers
{0, S(0), S(S(0)), S(S(S(0)))……}

N0 ={0,1,2,3,4, …..}

Addition:
a+0 = a
a + S(b)= S(a+b)
Multiplication
a.0=0
a.S(b)= a + a.b
a.1 = a.S(0)= a+ a.0 = a+0 =a
Integers
Integer is a Latin word for whole numbers.

Set of Integer consists of all positive whole numbers,

negative whole numbers and zero.

I = {…….,-3,-2, -1,0,1,2,3,………}

Set of Integers is closed under addition, subtraction

and multiplication but not under division.
 Representations of Integers

How can we construct the base b expansion of an

integer n?
First, divide n by b to obtain a quotient q0 and
remainder a0, that is,
n = bq0 + a0, where 0 ≤ a0 < b.
The remainder a0 is the rightmost digit in the base b
expansion of n.
Next, divide q0 by b to obtain:
q0 = bq1 + a1, where 0 ≤ a1 < b.
a1 is the second digit from the right in the base b
expansion of n. Continue this process until you obtain a
quotient equal to zero.
 Representations of Integers

Example for b=2 (binary expansion):

(10110)2 = 1⋅24 + 1⋅22 + 1⋅21 = (22)10

Example for b=16 (hexadecimal expansion):

(we use letters A to F to indicate numbers 10 to 15)
(3A0F)16 = 3⋅163 + 10⋅162 + 15⋅160 = (14863)10
 Division:
If a and b are integers with a ≠ 0, we say that
a divides b if there is an integer c so that b = ac.

⚫When a divides b we say that a is a factor of b and

that b is a multiple of a.

⚫The notation a | b means that a divides b.

⚫We write when a does not divide b.

Theorem:
Let a,b, and c be integers, where a ≠ 0. Then
i ) if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c);
ii) if a | b, then a | bc for all integers c;
iii) if a | b and b | c, then a | c.

Proof:
i)
Suppose that a | b and a | c.
Then there are integers ‘s’ and ‘t’ with b = as and c =
at .
b + c = as + at
= a(s + t)
Therefore, a divides b + c.
ii)
Suppose that a | b .
Then there is integer ‘s’ with b = as.
Mutiplying both sides by an integer c
bc = a(sc)
Therefore, a divides bc.

iii)
Suppose that a | b and b | c.
Then there are integers ‘s’ and ‘t’ with b = as and c =
bt .
c=(as)t
= a(st)
Therefore, a divides c.
Corollary
If a, b, and c are integers, where a ≠ 0, such that a | b
and a | c, then a | mb + nc whenever
m and n are integers.

Proof:
Given that a | b and a | c.
Therefore, by part (ii) above theorem a |mb and a | nc
Now from part (i) of the above theorem it follows that
a|(mb+nc).
 The Division Algorithm
Let a be an integer and d a positive integer.
Then there are unique integers q and r, with
0 ≤ r < d, such that a = dq + r.

⚫In the above equation,

• d is called the divisor,
• a is called the dividend,
• q is called the quotient, and
• r is called the remainder.

The following notations are used for quotient and

remainder
q = a div d, r = a mod d.
Example:
When we divide 17 by 5, we get

17 = 5⋅3 + 2.

• 17 is the dividend,
• 5 is the divisor,
• 3 is called the quotient, and
• 2 is called the remainder.
When we divide -11 by 3 , we have

-11 = 3⋅(-4) + 1.

• -11 is the dividend,

• 3 is the divisor,
• -4 is called the quotient, and
• 1 is called the remainder.

Note: the remainder cannot be negative.

 Modular Arithmetic & Congurence
If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer,
then a is congruent to b modulo m if m divides a − b.

⚫We use the notation a ≡ b (mod m) to indicate that a

is congruent to b modulo m.

⚫In other words:

a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if a mod m = b mod m
 Examples:
⚫Is it true that 46 ≡ 68 (mod 11) ?
Yes, because 11 | (46 – 68).

⚫Is it true that 46 ≡ 68 (mod 22)?

Yes, because 22 | (46 – 68).

⚫For which integers z is it true that z ≡ 12 (mod 10)?

It is true for any z∈{…,-28, -18, -8, 2, 12, 22, 32,
…}
Theorem:
Let m be a positive integer. The integers a and b are
congruent modulo m if and only if there is an integer k such
that a = b + km.

Proof:
If a ≡ b(mod m) then m | (a − b).
This means that there is an integer k such that a − b = km.
Therefore a = b + km.
Conversely, suppose there is an integer k such that a= b +
km, then km = a − b.
Hence, m divides a − b,
Therefore a ≡ b(mod m).
Theorem:
Let m be a positive integer.
If a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m),
then a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).

Proof:
We know that a ≡ b (mod m) and c ≡ d (mod m) implies
that there are integers s and t with b = a + sm and d = c
+ tm.

Therefore,
b + d = (a + sm) + (c + tm)
= (a + c) + m(s + t)
And bd = (a + sm)(c + tm)
= ac + m(at + cs + stm).
Hence, a + c ≡ b + d (mod m) and ac ≡ bd (mod m).
Arithmetic Modulo m
We can define arithmetic operations on Zm, the set of
nonnegative integers less than m, that is, the set {0, 1,...,m
− 1}.
Addition of these integers, denoted by +m is defined by
⚫ a +m b = (a + b) mod m,
where the addition on the right-hand side of this equation is
the ordinary addition of integers.

Multiplication of these integers, denoted by ·m is defined by

⚫ a ·m b = (a · b) mod m,
where the multiplication on the right-hand side of this
equation is the ordinary multiplication of integers.

⚫The operations +m and ·m are called addition and

multiplication modulo m respectively.
Example:
find 7 +11 9 and 7 ·11 9.

Solution:
7 +11 9 = (7 + 9) mod 11
= 16 mod 11
=5
7 ·11 9 = (7 · 9)mod 11
= 63 mod 11
=8
 Primes:
⚫A positive integer p greater than 1 is called prime if
the only positive factors of p are 1 and p.

⚫A positive integer that is greater than 1 and is not

prime is called composite.

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic:

Every positive integer can be written uniquely as the
product of primes, where the prime factors are written
in order of increasing size.
⚫If n is a composite integer, then n has a prime divisor less than
or equal √n .
Proof:
If n is composite then it has a factor a with 1 <a<n.
Hence, by the definition of a factor of a positive integer, we have
n= ab,
Where, b is a positive integer greater than 1.
We will show that a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n.
If a> √n and b> √n, then ab > n, which is a contradiction.
Consequently, a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n.
Because both a and b are divisors of n therefore n has a
positive divisor not exceeding √n.
This divisor is either prime or, by the fundamental theorem of
arithmetic, has a prime divisor less than itself.
In either case, n has a prime divisor less than or equal to √n
⚫ There are infinite many primes
⚫ The largest prime known has been an integer of the
special form 2p − 1, where p is also prime. Such
primes are called Mersenne primes.

⚫ Twin primes are pairs of primes that differ by 2, such

as 3 and 5, 5 and 7, 11 and 13, 17 and 19, and 4967
and 4969
 Prime Factorization
⚫ To find the factorization of any integer n, it is divided
by prime numbers 2, 3, 5… till √n.
⚫ If a prime factor p is found, continue by factoring n/p.
⚫ We know that n/p has no prime factors less than p.
⚫ Again, if n/p has no prime factor greater or equal to p and
not exceeding its square root, then it is prime.
⚫ Otherwise, if it has prime factor q, continue by factoring
n/(pq)
⚫ This procedure is continued until factorization has been
reduced to a prime.
Example
⚫ Find the prime factorization of 7007
⚫ Start with 2,3,5,7
⚫ 7 divides and 7007/7 = 1001
⚫ Now start with 7, 11..
⚫ 7 again divides giving 143
⚫ Again start with 7, 11..
⚫ 11 divides giving 13
⚫ So we get factors as 7.7.11.13
Note: To determine whether a given number is a prime is
one of the difficult problems (under NP complete
problems).
 Greatest Common Divisor:
Let a and b be integers, not both zero. The largest integer
d such that d | a and d | b is called the greatest common
divisor of a and b.
⚫The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by
gcd(a, b).

⚫Example 1: What is gcd(48, 72) ?

⚫The positive common divisors of 48 and 72 are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and 24, so gcd(48, 72) = 24.

⚫Example 2: What is gcd(19, 72) ?

⚫The only positive common divisor of 19 and 72 is
1, so gcd(19, 72) = 1.
 Using prime factorizations:
Suppose that the prime factorizations of the positive
integers a and b are
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi ∈ N for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
⚫gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1, b1) p2min(a2, b2) … pnmin(an, bn)
Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
gcd(a, b) = 21 31 50 = 6
 Relatively prime integers:
Two integers a and b are relatively prime if gcd(a, b)
= 1.
Examples:
⚫Are 15 and 28 relatively prime?
⚫Yes, gcd(15, 28) = 1.

⚫Are 55 and 28 relatively prime?

⚫Yes, gcd(55, 28) = 1.

⚫Are 35 and 28 relatively prime?

⚫No, gcd(35, 28) = 7.
 Pairwise Relatively Prime
The integers a1, a2, …, an are pairwise relatively
prime if gcd(ai, aj) = 1 whenever 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n.

Examples:
⚫Are 15, 17, and 27 pairwise relatively prime?
⚫No, because gcd(15, 27) = 3.

⚫Are 15, 17, and 28 pairwise relatively prime?

⚫Yes, because gcd(15, 17) = 1, gcd(15, 28) = 1 and
gcd(17, 28) = 1.
 Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple of the positive integers a
and b is the smallest positive integer that is divisible
by both a and b.
⚫We denote the least common multiple of a and b by
lcm(a, b).
⚫Examples:

lcm(3, 7) = 21
lcm(4, 6) = 12
lcm(5, 10) = 10
 Using prime factorizations:
Suppose that the prime factorizations of the positive
integers a and b are
a = p1a1 p2a2 … pnan , b = p1b1 p2b2 … pnbn ,
where p1 < p2 < … < pn and ai, bi ∈ N for 1 ≤ i ≤ n
⚫lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1, b1) p2max(a2, b2) … pnmax(an, bn)
Example:
a = 60 = 22 31 51
b = 54 = 21 33 50
lcm(a, b) = 22 33 51 = 4⋅27⋅5 = 540
 a = 60 = 22 31 51

b = 54 = 21 33 50

gcd(a, b) = 21 3 1 5 0 =6

lcm(a, b) = 22 3 3 5 1 = 540
Theorem:
Let a and b be positive integers. Then
ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b)
Euclidean Algorithm:
The Euclidean Algorithm finds the greatest common
divisor of two integers a and b.
procedure gcd(a, b: positive integers)
x := a
y := b
while y ≠ 0
begin
r := x mod y
x := y
y := r
end {x is gcd(a, b)}
The Euler Phi Function
Definition
Given an integer n, Φ(n) is the number of all
numbers a such that 0 < a < n and a is
relatively prime to n (i.e., gcd(a, n)=1).
Theorem:
If gcd(m,n) = 1, Φ(mn) = Φ(m) Φ(n)

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The Euler Phi Function
Theorem: Formula for Φ(n)
Let p be prime, e, m, n be positive integers
1) Φ(p) = p-1
2) Φ(pe) = pe – pe-1
3) If then

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Example:
n=72=23 * 32
Φ(n)=72*(1-1/2)(1-1/3)

=
72 *1/2*2/3
=24

1,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,25,29,31,35,37,41,43,47,53,55,59
,61,65,67,71,73
Residue Classes
• Given positive integer n, congruence modulo n is
an equivalence relation.
• This relation partition all integers into equivalent
classes; we denote the equivalence class
containing the number x to be [x]n, or [x] when n
is clear from the context
• These classes are called residue classes modulo
n
• E.g., [1]7=[8]7={…, -13,-6,1,8,15,22,…}

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Modular Arithmetic in Zn

• Define Zn as the set of residue classes modulo n

– Z7 = {[0], [1], [2], …, [6]}
• Define two binary operators + and × on Zn
• Given [x], [y] in Zn, [x] + [y] = [x+y],
[x] × [y] = [xy]
• E.g., in Z7: [3]+[4] = [0], [0]+[2] = [2]+[0] = [2],
[5]+[6] = [4]
• (Zn,+) is a group of size n; (Zn,×) is not a group
• Compute the table for Z4

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Properties of Modular Addition and
Multiplication
Let n be a positive integer and Zn be the set of residue
classes modulo n. For all a, b, c ∈ Zn
1. a + b = b + a addition is commutative
2. (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) addition is associative
3. a + [0] = a exists addition identity
4. [x] + [–x] = [0] exists additive inverse
5. a × b = b × a multiplication is commutative
6. (a×b)×c = a×(b×c) multiplication is associative
7. a×(b+c) = a×b+ a×cmult. distributive over add.
8. a×[1] = a exists multiplicative identity

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Multiplicative Inverse

• Theorem: [x]n has a multiplicative inverse if

and only if gcd(x,n) = 1

• We use Zn* to denote the set of all residue

classes that have a multiplicative inverse.

• What is Z15*?

• (Zn*,×) is a group of size Φ(n) .

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