Energy 288 (2024) 129809

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Passive and hybrid battery thermal management system by cooling flow

control, employing nano-PCM, fins, and metal foam
Arman Moaveni , Majid Siavashi *, Sepehr Mousavi
Applied Multiphase Fluid Dynamics Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: Henrik Lund The performance and safety of lithium-ion batteries, especially in electric and hybrid vehicles, rely on efficient
thermal management. Thus, researchers have shown interest in investigating passive, active, and hybrid ap­
Keywords: proaches for battery thermal management (BTM). This study presents a novel hybrid design for a BTM system
Phase change material (PCM) involving three cylindrical 18650 batteries encased in phase change material (PCM). The research evaluates the
Battery thermal management (BTM) system
impact of fluid flow velocity and direction in the channels on battery temperature, seeking temperature
Fin
reduction and uniformity. To optimize the proposed system performance, three methods for improving heat
Nanoparticle
Metal foam transfer in the PCM have been explored and compared, including using nanoparticles (3 %–9 % volume per­
Hybrid cooling centage), employing fins (2 and 4 fins), and implementing metal foam (porosity ranging from 85 % to 95 %).
Results indicate that, for a 4C discharge rate, incorporating 9 % nanoparticles and 4 fins in the hybrid mode
reduces peak temperature by 5.18 and 10.36 K, respectively, compared to the hybrid modes without nano­
particles and fins. These reductions are 10.41 and 9.20 K superior to the corresponding passive modes dimi­
nutions, respectively. Additionally, using copper foam with 90 % porosity reduces battery peak temperature by
12.57 K at a 3C discharge rate, highlighting the effectiveness of this method.

voltage, high ability to store energy, long lifespan, and low

self-discharge rate [8–10]. On the contrary, there are some consider­
1. Introduction ations that require special care when using Li-ion batteries. These factors
include working temperature, impact, pressure, and vibration [11–14].
The energy crisis is currently recognized as a worldwide problem due Temperature is one of the most critical causes that can reduce battery
to air pollution and the depletion of fossil energy sources [1]. On the power by increasing internal resistance. Furthermore, elevating the
other hand, the escalation in emissions of greenhouse gases, which is one temperature of the battery decreases its life. Moreover, if the tempera­
of the consequences of the inordinate consumption of fossil fuels, has led ture of the battery has a substantial rise, it may cause the phenomenon of
to global warming [2]. Greenhouse gases cause damage to not only the thermal runaway, which increases the possibility of explosion [12,15].
environment but also human beings. From the point of view of envi­ As a result, for the purpose of improving HVs and HEVs, providing new
ronmental damage, climate change due to heat trapped close to the solutions for keeping the temperature of Li-ion batteries under control is
earth’s surface can be mentioned. From the other point of view, many of particular importance [16,17].
diseases, such as blood pressure and diabetes, can be referred to Ref. [3]. During the past few years, there have been numerous proposed
One way to overcome this problem is to switch from vehicles working battery thermal management (BTM) techniques for keeping the battery
with the gasoline engine to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric temperature under control, which can be classified into distinct cate­
vehicles (EVs) [4–6]. Therefore, considerable research has been done to gories. These systems are generally classified into three primary cate­
boost the performance of these cars in the past few years, and in some gories: passive, active, and hybrid. This classification is based on energy
countries, car compani es are encouraged to produce EVs and HEVs [7]. consumption [13,18]. Active approaches require additional energy to
When it comes to storing the energy required to power HEVs and EVs, maintain battery temperature, whereas passive strategies require no
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are considered to be a highly suitable excess power [19]. Moreover, in order to simultaneously take advantage
choice. Some of the most important features of Li-ion batteries in com­ of the benefits of active and passive approaches, these two approaches
parison to other rechargeable batteries are lightness, high output

* Corresponding author. School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Narmak, Tehran, Postal code: 1684613114, Iran.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Moaveni), [email protected] (M. Siavashi), [email protected] (S. Mousavi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129809
Received 7 May 2023; Received in revised form 2 November 2023; Accepted 25 November 2023
Available online 30 November 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Nomenclature ε porosity
μ dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
Amush Mushy zone constant ρ density (kg m− 3)
Cf inertia coefficient of fluid flow in metal foams φ volume fraction of nanoparticles
Cp specific heat at constant pressure (J Kg− 1 K− 1) ω pore density (PPI)
df equivalent diameter of metal fiber (m)
dp pore diameter of porous media (m) Subscript
fl liquid fraction Al Aluminum
G gravitational acceleration (m s− 2) B battery
H total enthalpy (kj kg− 1) eff effective value
H sensible enthalpy (kJ kg− 1) l liquid phase
hsl latent heat of fusion (kJ kg− 1) nf nano-PCM
K permeability (m2) np nanoparticles
k thermal conductivity (W m− 1 K− 1) Qgen volumetric heat generation (W m− 3)
P Pressure (Pa) ref reference
T temperature (K) s solid phase
→
U velocity vector of coolant flow (m s− 1) Abbreviation
→
V velocity vector of nano-PCM (m s− 1) BTM battery thermal management
EV electric vehicle
Greek letters HEV hybrid electric vehicle
β thermal expansion coefficient (K− 1) Li-ion Lithium-ion
ΔH latent enthalpy (kJ kg− 1) PCM Phase change material
ΔT temperature difference between batteries (K)

can be combined with each other to achieve hybrid methods [20,21]. [46,47], heat pipe [48], nanoparticles [49–51], and porous media [52,
Passive technologies such as heat pipes and the utilization of phase 53] have been among the methods proposed by researchers to reduce the
change material (PCM) are widely acknowledged as one of the most heat transfer resistance in PCMs [27]. Choudhari et al. [54] numerically
prevalent techniques. On the contrary, active methods include conducted an investigation on how the shape and number of fins affect a
liquid-based cooling, air-based cooling, and thermoelectric BTM systems cylindrical battery temperature surrounded by PCM. Triangular, trape­
[22–24]. Nowadays, the regulation of battery temperature has garnered zoidal, rectangular, I-shaped, and I-shaped fins were scrutinized in their
significant scholarly interest, to the extent that machine-learning survey. They came to the conclusion that I-shaped fins exhibit the
methodologies have been employed in numerous investigations to highest level of efficacy, while triangular fins were shown to be the least
forecast battery temperature [25]. efficient. Heyhat et al. [49] used numerical simulation to assess the
Because of their distinctive latent heat storage and nearly isothermal impact of nanoparticles, metal foam, and fins on heat dissipation in an
procedure for solidification and melting, PCMs are known as one of the 18650 Li-ion battery. They found that, at a 9.2 W heat generation rate,
best materials for passive methods in BTM systems and thermoelectric metal foam and fins reduced the battery’s temperature by 6 K and 4 K,
generators [26–28]. PCMs possess unique attributes that enable them to respectively. Moreover, it was observed that nanoparticles were less
experience a transition in phase at a consistent temperature, thereby effective than metal foam and fins. Karimi et al. [55] empirically
facilitating the absorption or release of a substantial amount of thermal examined the effectiveness of various nanoparticles, including Cu, Ag,
energy [29]. The main applications of these materials are in building and Fe3O4, in enhancing a BTM system. Their investigation revealed
energy saving, energy storage units, and temperature management of that Ag nanoparticles, due to their superior thermal conductivity, out­
batteries [30–36]. One of the essential applications of PCMs is to use performed the other nanoparticles, establishing them as the most suit­
them as energy absorbers in BTM systems, and many pieces of research able choice for enhancing the system’s efficiency. Talele et al. [56]
have been conducted on this topic in recent years [37]. In an experi­ performed a numerical analysis of the battery behavior of a high voltage
mental study, Zhou et al. [38] examined the impact of varying PCM 18650 8:1:3 NMC cathodic chemistry battery pack. Paraffin wax PCM
thickness at both ends of prismatic batteries on their performance. They effectively controls temperature. However, it becomes entirely liquid at
found that increasing PCM thickness improved the BTM system’s effi­ 35 ◦ C ambient temperature with a 2C charge rate, making it ineffective
ciency; however, when PCM thickness exceeded 25 mm, there was a for the temperature delay effect. Therefore, they recommended using
decrease in heat dissipation efficiency. Mansir et al. [39] conducted a nano-enhanced PCM to resolve this issue.
computational investigation on the thermal behavior of a battery pack Although the high amount of latent heat in PCMs makes them a
comprising three batteries encapsulated by PCMs. Their findings suitable heat absorber for batteries, the amount of heat absorbed by
revealed that the central battery experienced the highest temperature, them has limitations. In other words, the heat absorption process in
and increasing the spacing between the batteries resulted in a reduction PCMs is limited until they are completely melted [57]. Therefore, hybrid
of peak temperatures. In a published numerical investigation, Wu et al. and active methods are of particular importance in situations where the
[40] scrutinized the influences of the arrangement of a cylindrical bat­ batteries work at high temperatures or the heat generation in them is
tery surrounded by PCM on its temperature. The horizontal configura­ considerable [58,59]. The influence of the enclosure design on PCM and
tion was found to offer more temperature uniformity than the vertical airflow velocity for a battery pack with 21 cylindrical batteries was
one. studied computationally by Tian et al. [60]. From their results, it was
Although possessing the benefit of great capacity for the storage of found that the circular enclosure has a better performance than the
latent heat, the low heat transfer coefficient in PCMs is considered a elliptical enclosure in lowering the temperature of the battery pack.
major limitation causing high heat transfer resistance [41,42]. There­ Furthermore, they found that the batteries’ temperature declines with
fore, the improvement of heat transfer in PCMs has received special the increase in flow rate. Lee et al. [61] conducted a two-dimensional
attention from researchers [43–45]. In passive methods, the use of fins simulation to manage the temperature of a cylindrical battery within a

2
A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

circular PCM chamber. They investigated the impact of varying air ve­ regulation under specific operating conditions.
locity and the PCM chamber’s aspect ratio on battery cooling. Results
indicated a direct relationship between higher air velocity and lower 2. Problem description
average PCM temperature. Additionally, the lowest PCM temperature
was achieved with an aspect ratio of 0.2. Cao et al. [62] carried out In this research, the performance of passive and hybrid methods for
research about how the peak temperature and temperature uniformity of managing the temperature of a Li-ion battery pack was studied. Three
cylindrical batteries in a hybrid BTM system varied as a function of the 18650 Li-ion batteries encased with PCM are placed in a rectangular
flow velocity and temperature of the inlet water. It was found that the enclosure, and two channels are designed at the bottom and top of the
best output pertains to the condition in which the inlet temperature is enclosure. The conceptual diagram of the battery pack is depicted in
under 313 K and nearly the same as the ambient temperature. Pordan­ Fig. 1. The 2D computational domain of the battery pack is demon­
jani et al. [63] researched the impact of various battery configurations, strated in Fig. 2. Paraffin RT44HC and water are considered as the PCM
inlet air cross-section, and inlet velocity. It was revealed that the circular and coolant liquid, respectively. Also, the walls of the rectangular
arrangement provided the best cooling efficacy, while also resulting in enclosure and the channels are made of aluminum. In terms of heat
the greatest pressure drop. In addition to the mentioned methods, recent generated by batteries, the cylindrical batteries generate heat at rates of
research explores nanofluid utilization in BTM systems [64]. Ouyang 124790, 238590, and 379630 W/m3 for 2C, 3C, and 4C discharge rates,
et al. [65] improved a BTM system by combining composite PCM with respectively. As part of the passive method, the PCM absorbs the heat
nanofluid cooling. Nanofluids outperform pure water in cooling; for released by the batteries. In the hybrid section, flowing water in
instance, with a 3 % nanofluid coolant, battery temperature decreases to embedded channels repels the heat captured by the PCM, thereby
400.70 K from 405.24 K with pure water. This demonstrates nanofluids’ enhancing the PCM’s capacity to absorb heat.
effectiveness in tempering battery temperature. For the passive method, the use of PCM, nanoparticles, rectangular
Based on the above literature survey, in recent years, studies have fins, and metal foam was studied. The impact of using 3 %, 6 %, and 9 %
focused on passive BTM systems, including PCMs, fins, nanoparticles, volume fractions of Al2 O3 nanoparticles on PCM performance was
and metal foam, as well as active cooling methods. Passive methods may examined. In terms of fins, the impact of the number of rectangular fins
prove insufficient during demanding thermal cycles, particularly when located on batteries was investigated. The material of the fins was
PCMs reach complete melting, while active methods, often relying on air considered to be aluminum, and the various arrangements of fins on the
as a coolant with complex channel designs, face criticism for their eco­ batteries are shown in Fig. 3. In addition, the impact of various porosity
nomic inefficiency and noise generation due to turbulent airflow. magnitudes of copper foam was scrutinized on the functionality of the
Furthermore, a notable gap in the literature pertains to the comparative BTM system. On the other hand, the efficacy of the hybrid method using
evaluation of fins, nanoparticles, and metal foam within a battery pack water as the coolant liquid was studied, and the influences of water
in conjunction with cooling fluid as a hybrid solution. Thus, this study velocity and direction of flows in the channels were investigated. In the
introduces an innovative hybrid design for temperature regulation in a hybrid method, water enters the channels at the temperature of 298.15
battery pack containing 18650 Li-ion cells. Water is employed as the C. Two modes shown in Fig. 4 have been considered for the flow di­
◦

cooling fluid in a laminar flow regime for cost-effectiveness in com­ rections inside the channels, which are co-current and counter-current
parison to turbulent systems and the streamlined channel design en­ flows. Moreover, the effects of nanoparticles and fins were examined
hances adaptability for space-constrained applications. The study in the hybrid method. The information regarding PCM, Al2 O3 , Li-ion
assesses the effectiveness of this hybrid design, comparing it with a battery, water, copper, and aluminum is included in Table 1.
passive approach using only PCM and evaluating the efficiencies of
hybrid and passive methods after the incorporation of nanoparticles and 3. Governing equations
fins. The impact of varying copper foam porosity integrated into PCM to
enhance passive technique efficiency is also investigated. This analysis The introduced BTM system consists of four physics. These physics
contributes to determining the optimal method for battery temperature include the coolant flow, PCM, batteries, and solid aluminum regions.

Fig. 1. The PCM and cooling channels included in the battery pack’s schematic design.

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Fig. 2. The layout of the battery pack, including its dimensions and geometry.

o Flows are considered steady-state, laminar, and incompressible.

o For the inlet of the channels, the velocity-inlet condition is applied.
o For the outlet of the channels, the pressure-outlet condition is
applied.
o The boundary condition of no slip is applied to the walls of the
channels.

The equations governing the coolant flow are as follows:

• Mass continuity equation [69]:

→
∇.U = 0 (1)

• Momentum equation [69]:

[ → ]
∂ U (→ )→ →
ρw + U .∇ U = − ∇P + μw ∇2 U + ρw →
g (2)
∂t

• Energy equation [69]:

∂Tw ( → )
ρw cp,w +∇. ρw cp,w U Tw = ∇.(kw ∇Tw ) (3)
∂t

In these equations ρw , μw , kw and cp,w are density, viscosity, thermal

→
conductivity, and specific heat of water, respectively. Also, U and → g
stand for the velocity vector of water and the gravity vector, respec­
tively.

3.2. PCM
Fig. 3. Arrangement of fins, (a) two fins on each battery and (b) four fins on
each battery. Aiming to model PCM melting, the enthalpy-porosity model was
applied. In the present model, the computational domain of PCM is
The governing equations of each physics will be explained in the assumed to be a porous region so that the porosity magnitude for the
following. solid and liquid phases is 0 and 1, respectively [70]. The area where the
melting process begins and continues is called the mushy zone. In this
area, the porosity is equivalent to the liquid fraction [71]. The as­
3.1. Coolant flow sumptions considered for simulating the PCM melting area are as
follows:
Water has been used as the cooling fluid in the channels. Assump­
tions for the flows in the channels are as follows:

4
A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Fig. 4. Illustration of flow direction in hybrid mode, (a) co-current flow and (b) counter-current flow.

Table 1
Computational domain materials and their thermophysical characteristics [49,54,66–68].
Property Paraffin RT44HC Al2 O3 Copper Aluminum Battery Water

Thermal conductivity (W.m− 1 K− 1 ) 0.2 40 387.6 202.4 3 0.6

Density (kg.m− 3 ) 750 3970 8900 2719 2720 998.2
Specific heat (J.kg− 1 .K− 1 ) 2250 765.0 386 871 300 4182
6
Thermal expansion coefficient (K− 1 ) 0.0001 8.5 × 10− − − − −
Dynamic viscosity (kg.m− 1 .s− 1 ) 0.02 − − − − 0.001
Latent heat of fusion (J.kg− 1 ) 270700 − − − − −
Solidus temperature (K) 314.15 − − − − −
Liquidus temperature (K) 317.15 − − − − −

o The viscosity, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity of PCM are PCM and the gravity vector, respectively. ρnf , μnf , and βnf are density,
regarded as constant and isotropic qualities. viscosity, and thermal expansion coefficient of nano-PCM, respectively.
o Volume variations brought on by the phase transition process in the Also, ε stands for the porosity of the metal foam.
PCM were neglected. →
S is the momentum sink which is characterized by the porosity of
o The liquid phase’s fluid flow in PCM is regarded as Newtonian,
the medium. It is expressed as follows [73]:
incompressible, and laminar.
o In the case where metal foam is utilized, the circumstances of local → (1 − fl )2 →
S = Amush 3 V (7)
thermal equilibrium (LTE) are considered for the energy equation. fl +0.001
These conditions state that both the metal foam and the PCM are in a
state of thermal equilibrium with one another. Inside the mushy zone, Amush is a fixed factor that establishes damping
o Walls of PCM housing and battery casing are subjected to the no-slip characteristics. In other words, the mushy zone constant defines the
boundary constraint. amplitude of damping of velocities in the mushy region. In this research,
a value of 106 is adopted for this parameter, drawing upon findings from
The nano-PCM and metal foam regions are outlined by the subse­ prior studies [74]. The liquid fraction, denoted by the symbol fl in this
quent equations: equation, is determined using the formula below [73]:
⎧
0 if T < Ts
• Continuity equation [72]: ⎪
⎪
⎪
ΔH ⎨ T − Ts
∂ρnf ( →) fl = = if Ts ≤ T ≤Tl (8)
+∇• ρnf V = 0 (4) hsl,nf ⎪⎪ T − Ts
⎪ l
⎩
∂t 1 if Tl < T

where hsl,nf and ΔH represent the effective latent heat of nano-PCM and
latent enthalpy. The following equation is used to determine the total
• Momentum equation [72]:
( ) enthalpy, which is equivalent to the combined values of the sensible and
ρnf ∂→ V 1 (→ )→ μnf → ( ) → latent enthalpies [75]:
+ V • ∇ V = − ∇P + ∇2 V − ρnf ,ref βnf ε T − Tref →g − S
ε ∂t ε ε H = h+ΔH (9)
→
− F The first variable on the right-hand side of the preceding equation is
(5) the sensible enthalpy, which can be computed as follows [75]:
∫T
h = href + cp,nf dT (10)
Tref
• Energy equation [72]:
( In these equations cp,nf is the reference enthalpy at a reference temper­
∂ερnf Cp,nf T → ) ( )
ature, and it refers to the effective specific heat capacity of the nano-
+∇ ρnf Cp,nf V T = ∇ keff ,nf ∇T − SL (6)
∂t PCM under constant pressure. The outcome of the inserted metal foam
→ can be found as the final term on the right-hand side of the equation for
In the momentum equation, V and →
g stand for the velocity vector of

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

momentum, and it is given as follows [72]:

⃒ ⃒) (ρhsl )nf = (1 − φ)(ρhsl )pcm (23)
( ⃒→⃒
→ μnf ρf ,nf Cf ⃒ V ⃒ →
F= + √ ̅̅̅
̅ V (11) where hsl stands for the effective latent heat of nano-PCM.
K K

The viscous loss term is denoted by the first term in this equation, 3.3. Batteries
and the other one stands for the inertial loss term. Also, K and Cf which
are the permeability and the inertial factor, can be obtained by the Batteries are considered as solid media with heat generation. The
following formulas [76]: subsequent formula is the energy equation that applies to the batteries:
( )− 1.11 ∂TB
df ρB Cp,B = kB ∇2 TB + Qgen (24)
K= 0.00073dp2 (1 − ε)− 0.224 (12) ∂t
dp
( )− where TB , ρB , Cp,B , and kB are temperature, density, specific heat, and
thermal conductivity of batteries. Moreover, Qgen stands for heat gen­
1.63
df
Cf = 0.00212(1 − ε)− 0.132
(13)
dp eration by batteries.

where df and dp are fiber diameter and pore diameter which can be 3.4. Aluminum regions
calculated as [76]:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅( ) In the battery pack, three regions are considered to be aluminum.
1− ε 1
df = 1.18dp (14) These two areas are the fins, the walls of the channels, and the walls of
3π 1 − e− (1− ε)/0.04
the battery pack. The energy equation for these solid regions is:
0.0254 ∂TAl
dp = (15) ρAl Cp,Al = kAl ∇2 TAl (25)
ω ∂t
where ω is the pore density and is expressed as the number of pores per In this equation TAl , ρAl , Cp,Al , and kAl are temperature, density, specific
inch (PPI). heat, and thermal conductivity of aluminum.
In the energy equation, Cp,nf is the specific heat of nano-PCM, and the
source term is given by the following equation [72]: 4. Numerical simulation and validation
∂ερf ,nf fl hsl,nf ( → )
SL = +∇ ρf ,nf V fl hsl,nf (16) Ansys-SpaceClaim is utilized for geometry creation, and the grid for
∂t
the computational domain is constructed via the ICEM-CFD software.
Moreover, keff ,nf in the energy equation defines the effective thermal Ansys-Fluent, which employs the finite volume method, is used for the
conductivity, which is determined as follows [72]: numerical simulation. For the purpose of coupling the pressure and
velocity equations, the SIMPLE algorithm is implemented. The PRESTO!
keff ,nf = (1 − ε)kporous + εknf (17) scheme is applied for the purpose of discretizing the pressure equation,
whereas the discretization of energy and momentum equations is per­
In this equation, kporous and knf are thermal conductivity of metal foam formed utilizing the second-order upwind technique. The computation
and nano-PCM, respectively. continues to reach convergence when the residuals of the continuity,
To simulate the case in which nanoparticles were used, the charac­ velocity, and energy equations reach 10− 3, 10− 5, and 10− 8, respectively.
teristics of the PCM were replaced by the characteristics of the nano- In solving problems by numerical simulation method, the two factors
PCM. ρnf , μnf , and βnf are effective density, viscosity, and thermal of the number of elements in the grid and the time-step size can
expansion coefficient of nano-PCM, respectively, and can be defined by significantly impact the reliability of the results. Therefore, checking the
the following expressions [67]: mesh and time step independence is necessary. In terms of mesh, a
ρnf = (1 − φ)ρpcm + φρnp (18) structured quadrilateral grid is generated to simulate the model shown
in Fig. 5(a). Mesh independence is studied for the 4C discharge rate in
μpcm the hybrid mode, in which the coolant flow velocity is 0.01 m/s. Five
μnf = (19) different grids in which the number of elements is 17920, 28500, 43135,
(1 − φ)2.5
63215, and 230367 are examined, and in each of them, the maximum
(ρβ)nf = (1 − φ)(ρβ)pcm + φ(ρβ)np (20) size of the elements in the solution domain is equal to 0.4, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2,
and 0.1 mm, respectively. The range of values for the liquid fraction for
In these equations, φ stands for the volume fraction of nanoparticles. these grids is shown in Fig. 5(b). As can be seen, the grid with 63215
Maxwell’s equation can be considered for computing the effective elements is selected as the optimal grid by considering the two param­
thermal conductivity of nano-PCM [67]: eters of accuracy and computational costs. The chosen mesh is associ­
( ) ated with the grid, whose elements have a maximum size of 0.2 mm. In
knf
=
knp + 2kpcm − 2φ kpcm − knp
( ) (21) terms of time-step, four different time-step sizes are studied. The influ­
kpcm knp +2kpcm + φ kpcm − knp ence of time-step size on the value of liquid fraction at the end of the
cycle is shown in Table 2. In accordance with the information in Table 2,
where knp stands for the thermal conductivity of nanoparticles. The the time step of 0.5 s is considered for simulating the problem.
effective specific heat of nano-PCM can be computed as [67]: The numerical approach is validated with earlier experimental [78]
( ) ( ) ( )
ρcp nf = (1 − φ) ρcp pcm + φ ρcp np (22) and numerical [79] works to guarantee the validity of the methodology
utilized in the present work. For the purpose of evaluating the efficacy of
the current solution strategy, the liquid fraction is used as the primary
In this equation cp,np refers to the specific heat of nanoparticles. The
criterion in comparison to the results of the experimental work of Jones
latent heat of the nano-PCM can be obtained through employing the
et al. [78] and the numerical research of Muhammad et al. [79]. Fig. 6
formula below [77]:
demonstrates that the current study is consistent with the outcomes of
these earlier investigations.

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Fig. 5. (a) The structured grid of the battery pack, (b) liquid fraction of the PCM for 4C discharge rate in hybrid mode in which the coolant flow has the velocity of
0.01 m/s for five grids.

5. Results and discussion

Table 2
The liquid proportion of PCM for various time-step sizes
This section will provide and analyze the outcomes acquired from
at the endpoint of the 4C discharge rate in the hybrid
mode with a coolant flow velocity of 0.01 m/s.
running the simulation of the problem. The results of each proposed
method to manage the battery pack’s temperature will be interpreted in
Time-step (s) Liquid fraction
a separate subsection. Suggested scenarios include the use of pure PCM,
0.25 0.5527 fins, nanoparticles, metal foam, and external cooling flow.
0.5 0.5531
0.75 0.5698
1 0.5821
5.1. Comparing pure PCM with hybrid mode

In this section, the effectiveness of using pure PCM as a passive

method will be compared with the hybrid method, in which water is
used as the coolant flow. Fig. 7 illustrates the functionality of the BTM
system for various discharge rates in the passive mode. From Fig. 7(a), it
is observable that the slope of the temperature graph reclines with the
commencement of the melting procedure in the PCM. This phenomenon
is because when the melting procedure starts in the PCM, the thermal
energy produced via batteries could be absorbed by the PCM in terms of
not only the sensible heat but also the latent heat. Therefore, the rate of
temperature increase in batteries occurs with a lower slope from this
moment. Fig. 7(a) indicates that the temperature of batteries in passive
mode at the endpoint of 2C, 3C, and 4C discharge rates is 320.74,
330.48, and 344.20 K, respectively. The change in the proportion of
liquid in the PCM over time is depicted in Fig. 7(b). It is apparent that at
higher discharge rates, the melting procedure starts earlier.
Since the majority of PCMs have poor thermal conductivity co­
efficients, therefore, using coolant flow in conditions where the tem­
perature of the batteries is high can improve the process of cooling. This
research introduces a hybrid method to manage the batteries’ temper­
ature. Water as the coolant flow enters the channels with a temperature
of 298.15 K. In the hybrid method, the impact of flow velocity and flow
direction on the batteries’ temperature is investigated. Two different
modes for the direction of flows, called co-current and counter-current,
Fig. 6. Comparing liquid fraction changes in this research with the outcomes of
the empirical investigation of Jones et al. [78] and the numerical research of
are investigated, which are shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 8 illustrates the peak
Muhammad et al. [79]. temperature and temperature difference for batteries for various water
velocities and different flow orientations at the endpoint of the cycles.
As it is observable by comparing Figs. 7 and 8, the peak temperature of
the batteries is considerably decreased when the hybrid approach is
used. For instance, in the best case, in accordance with the velocity of
0.15 m/s, the maximum temperature of the batteries in the hybrid mode

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Fig. 7. Variations in (a) the peak temperature of all batteries and (b) the liquid portion of PCM for 2C, 3C, and 4C discharge rates for passive mode.

Fig. 8. Impact of water velocity and flow orientation on the temperature difference between batteries and the peak temperature of the battery pack at the endpoint of
(a) 2C, (b) 3C, and (c) 4C discharge rate in the hybrid mode.

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is 5.71, 7.78, and 8.96 K lower than in the passive mode for 2C, 3C, and Obviously, with the growth in the volume fraction of nanoparticles, the
4C discharge rates, respectively. As it is observable from Fig. 8, temperature of the battery pack declines to a greater extent. In the most
regarding the temperature differences in batteries, however, the desirable scenario, corresponding to the volume percentage of 9 %, for
counter-current flow exhibits superior performance compared to the co- the passive mode, adding nanoparticles causes the highest temperature
current flow. For example, in the 4C discharge rate, at a velocity of 0.01 in the battery pack to decrease by 1.93 K and 3.48 K for 3C and 4C,
m/s, the temperature difference across all batteries is 0.22 K lower in the respectively. This elevated heat transfer coefficient in the PCM is
counter-current mode in comparison with the co-current scenario. responsible for the temperature drop, which leads to a reduction in
Regarding the temperature difference between batteries, the reason why thermal resistance. For the hybrid mode, the velocity of the cooling fluid
the counter-current flow has more efficient performance than the co- is fixed and is equal to 0.05 m/s. Fig. 9 illustrates that the effect of
current flow is that in the co-current flow, the cooling fluid in the nanoparticles is more significant in the hybrid mode than in the passive
upper channel and the lower channel both first pass near the 1st battery mode. For instance, when Al2 O3 nanoparticles are added at a volume
(naming is based on Fig. 4) and finally pass next to the 3rd battery. fraction of 6 % during the 3C discharge rate, the peak temperature
Therefore, the flow passing through the vicinity of 3rd battery has a experienced a reduction of 1.34 K for passive mode and 2.01 K for hybrid
higher temperature because of heat absorption from the prior batteries. mode. This phenomenon occurs as a result of the addition of nano­
On the other hand, in the counter-current flow, the cooling fluid in the particles, which decline the PCM’s thermal resistance and hence accel­
upper channel and the lower channel pass near the 1st and 3rd batteries, erate the heat transfer between the cooling fluid and the PCM. The
respectively. Therefore, in this case, unlike the case of co-current flow, enhanced thermal conductivity of the PCM facilitates the efficient
the third battery from the bottom is not exposed to heat transfer with the transfer of heat from the batteries to the PCM. Subsequently, in the
fluid that has absorbed heat from other batteries. As a result, in this case, presence of water flow, this heat is more effectively dissipated, as the
the cooling process in the batteries is done more symmetrically than in water carries it away, leading to a more pronounced cooling effect. To
the co-current flow, which provides better uniformity in the battery pack put it another way, the presence of nanoparticles emphasizes the cooling
temperature. Moreover, it is obvious that rising the water velocity has a fluid’s importance and makes its role more prominent.
desired impact on both peak temperature and temperature uniformity. Determining an optimal range of nanoparticle volume percentages in
However, from Fig. 8, it is concluded that the impact of changing the battery thermal control systems is crucial. As stated in Eq. (23), exces­
speed of water inside the channels is not noticeable over the ultimate sive nanoparticle concentrations have the potential to reduce the overall
temperature of the battery pack. Thus, to consider economic concerns, heat storage capacity of the PCM, potentially impairing its ability to
lower flow rates can be used in the hybrid method. For instance, for the effectively regulate battery temperature. Furthermore, nanoparticle
4C discharge rate, the highest temperature in the state where the flow aggregation in high concentrations can lead to non-uniform heat dis­
rate is at its minimum value (corresponding to the flow velocity of 0.01 tribution within the material, raising the risk of reduced thermal effi­
m/s) is only 0.8 K lower than the state when the flow rate is at its ciency and localized hotspots. Therefore, to enhance system reliability,
maximum value (corresponding to the flow velocity of 0.15 m/s). it is advisable to avoid high volume percentages and consider comple­
mentary methods like hybrid approaches.

5.2. The effect of nanoparticles on the BTM system

5.3. The impact of the number of fins
One of the approaches examined to boost heat transfer in the BTM
system is the addition of nanoparticles. In this research, the influences of Fins are extensions on objects’ exterior surfaces that increase the rate
Al2 O3 nanoparticles on the functionality of the BTM system are scruti­ of heat transmission by expanding the body’s surface area. Within the
nized. Fig. 9 demonstrates the peak temperature of the battery pack for scope of this research is an investigation of the usage of fins as one of the
various volume percentages of nanoparticles. The study reveals that passive approaches that can improve heat transfer. Two different modes
growth in the volume percentage of nanoparticles in the BTM system are considered for the fins. The first mode has two fins on each battery,
leads to a reduction in battery pack temperature in both passive and and the second mode has four fins on each battery which are shown in
hybrid modes, indicating that the nanoparticles boost heat transfer. Fig. 3. Fig. 10 illustrates the impact of fin numbers on the maximum

Fig. 9. Effect of the addition of nanoparticles on the peak temperature of the battery pack for (a) 3C, and (b) 4C discharge rates.

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

Fig. 10. Influence of fin numbers on the peak temperature of batteries, (a) 3C, and (b) 4C discharge rates.

temperature reduction of the batteries in passive and hybrid modes. augment heat transfer by increasing the surface area in contact with the
There is a decrease in temperature of 6.26 and 9.87 K at the final PCM, compensating for low thermal conductivity limitations. This
moment of the 3C and 4C discharge rates, respectively, when four fins improved heat transmission, combined with the hybrid system’s effec­
are used in the passive mode as opposed to the state of no fins. tive temperature regulation, ensures rapid heat dissipation during
Furthermore, the outcomes illustrate that the increase in the number of temperature spikes, maintaining battery safety and performance.
fins leads to the improvement of heat transfer, which in turn reduces the Additionally, the hybrid nature of the proposed system prevents com­
temperature of the batteries. Quantitatively, the peak temperature of the plete PCM melting, preserving thermal storage capacity despite the
batteries in the four-fins mode is 2.40 K and 3.82 K lower than in the reduced PCM volume.
two-fins mode at the end of the 3C and 4C discharge rate cycles, Fig. 11 is an illustration of the impact that fins have on the liquid
respectively. The velocity of the cooling fluid is assumed to be 0.05 m/s portion in the PCM in passive and hybrid modes. It has been noticed that
for the purpose of analyzing the effect of fins when operating in hybrid the commencement of the melting process is postponed in response to
mode. In this case, the peak temperature of the battery pack in the state the rise in the total number of fins. This phenomenon is explained by the
of using four fins is lower by 4.42 and 10.36 K compared to the condition fact that as the number of fins rises, heat accumulation at the PCM and
of using no fins at the end of the 3C and 4C discharge rates, respectively. battery border decreases, and heat transfer from areas close to the bat­
Moreover, the outcomes demonstrate that the presence of fins has a tery to areas farther away enhances. As a result, the PCM reaches its
greater impact in the state where heat generation is at a higher rate. The melting temperature later, delaying the melting process.
integration of fins into PCMs reduces the available volume for heat ab­ The contours of the temperature at the final moment of the 4C
sorption compared to pure PCM but addresses the challenges posed by discharge rate for different fin arrangements in passive mode are illus­
PCMs’ low thermal conductivity, especially in hybrid BTM systems. Fins trated in Fig. 12.

Fig. 11. Variation of liquid portion for pure PCM and PCM with fins in passive and hybrid modes, (a) 3C, and (b) 4C discharge rate.

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Fig. 12. The temperature contours for 4C discharge rate in the passive mode at the end of the cycle, (a) with no fins, (b) with two fins, and (c) with four fins.

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A. Moaveni et al. Energy 288 (2024) 129809

From Fig. 12(a), which is related to the passive state without fins, it on heat transfer is investigated. The other parameter affecting the
can be noticed that the battery located in the center is at a higher functionality of the metal foam is the pore density, whose definition is
temperature than the adjacent batteries. This phenomenon occurs due to the number of pores per inch (PPI). In the current work, pore density is
the fact that the central battery is exposed to the heat flux of other considered constant with a value of 10 PPI. The variation of the peak
batteries from both sides. Therefore, it reaches a higher temperature temperature of the battery pack for three various porosities in the pas­
than other batteries that are subjected to heat flux from only one side. sive mode is shown in Fig. 13. Even while the use of metal foam
Fig. 12 illustrates that adding fins to the batteries leads to better heat dramatically declines the battery pack temperature, it is clear that
distribution around the batteries. It can be seen that when implementing shifting the porosity from 85 % to 95 % makes only a minor influence.
a configuration that utilizes four fins, a more homogeneous temperature Higher porosity means that there is a greater void space within the foam
distribution can be observed in the vicinity of the batteries compared to structure. As a result, less of the actual foam material is needed to fill the
alternative configurations. Furthermore, it can be observed that the heat same volume. This reduced material consumption directly translates to
removal process occurs better in the areas where fins exist, and the cost savings, especially when foam materials are expensive. Further­
temperature of the battery in these regions exhibits a lower magnitude more, higher porosities in the porous medium enable greater PCM
compared to other sections of the battery. The aforementioned finding integration, enhancing heat storage capacity for improved thermal
can be substantiated by the fact that incorporating fins onto batteries management reliability compared to lower porosities. Additionally,
significantly increases the surface area for PCM contact, enhancing heat although the introduction of metal foam into the PCM boosts conduction
transfer. The high thermal conductivity of the fins allows for rapid heat heat transfer through its highly conductive pathways, it simultaneously
conduction from batteries. When the PCM in the vicinity of the batteries limits free convection due to the foam’s porous structure, which ob­
melts, the heat transmitted from the batteries to the fins initiates con­ structs fluid flow and reduces available space for the PCM. Hence, based
vection, ensuring even temperature distribution and preventing local­ on the close outcomes observed across various porosity values, it is
ized hotspots when multiple batteries are closely arranged. recommended from an economic standpoint to opt for a greater porosity
level, which is 95 % in this research. Fig. 14 illustrates the liquid fraction
in PCM versus time for various porosity values in the passive mode.
5.4. The impact of metal foam porosity From Fig. 14, it can be observed that the employment of metal foam
delays the beginning of the melting procedure in PCM when compared
As previously mentioned, the insufficient thermal conductivity of to the pure state of PCM. For instance, when employing 90 % porous
PCM prevents the desired heat transfer process from occurring. In the foam, the time needed to initiate the melting procedure in the PCM at 3C
current study, one of the methods investigated to boost the process of and 4C discharge rates is 268 s and 175.5 s, respectively. This delay is
heat transfer in the battery pack is the use of metal foam. Different metal justified in the way that the utilization of copper foam enhances the
foam parameters can affect the cooling performance. Among these pa­ effective heat transfer coefficient within the PCM, thereby leading to a
rameters, the material from which the foam is built, porosity, and pore more homogeneous temperature distribution for the PCM. Conse­
density can be mentioned as the main variables affecting how well the quently, it takes longer for PCM’s temperature to achieve its melting
metal foam performs. In terms of material, the material parameter can point.
play a significant role because the thermal conductivity coefficient de­
pends on the material used in the metal foam. The present study employs 6. Conclusion
copper foam due to its elevated thermal conductivity. Regarding
porosity, which is the fraction of the volume of voids over the total The present investigation presents a novel hybrid design for the
volume, its value affects the thermal conductivity of the medium, which, purpose of temperature regulation of a battery pack. The performance of
on the one hand, leads to an improvement in heat transmission when the the proposed design was evaluated through numerical comparison with
porosity is decreased. But from the other side, by porosity reduction, the the passive mode. Afterward, to boost the functionality of this BTM
volume of PCM will be decreased, which can decline the heat absorption system, the impacts of using nanoparticles and fins were examined for
capacity. In this study, the effect of changing porosity from 85 % to 95 %

Fig. 13. Influence of porosity on the peak temperature of the battery pack at (a) 3C, and (b) 4C discharge rates.

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Fig. 14. Impact of porosity on the liquid portion in the PCM at (a) 3C, and (b) 4C discharge rates.

both hybrid and passive methods. In the end, the influence of the CRediT authorship contribution statement
porosity of the metal foam that was inserted in the PCM was scrutinized
as a passive way to boost heat transfer in the BTM system. The outcomes Arman Moaveni: Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal anal­
demonstrated that: ysis, Visualization, Writing - original draft. Majid Siavashi: Conceptu­
alization, Resources, Data curation, Writing - review & editing,
• Compared to the passive method, the hybrid method dramatically Supervision, Project administration. Sepehr Mousavi: Conceptualiza­
declines the temperature of the batteries. tion, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis.
• In the hybrid method, although co-current flow and counter-current
flow have almost a similar impact on the maximum temperature of
batteries, counter-current flow makes the temperature difference of Declaration of competing interest
the batteries less than co-current flow. Therefore, the counter-
current flow mode makes the temperature uniformity of the batte­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
ries better than the co-current flow mode. For example, in the case interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
where the speed of the cooling fluid is 0.01 m/s, the temperature the work reported in this paper.
difference of the batteries in the 3C and 4C discharge rates in the
hybrid mode is 0.1 K and 0.22 K lower than in the passive mode, Data availability
respectively.
• The influence of adding nanoparticles on improving heat transfer in Data will be made available on request.
the BTM system is more significant in the hybrid mode than in the
passive mode. In other words, adding nanoparticles increases the References
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