Learners First:

Creating Engaging and Interactive

Learning Experiences

Publication No. FHWA-NHI-21-001 | February 2021

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences

Table of Contents
How to Use this Handbook ........................................................................................ 1
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors .............................. 5
Working with Learning Outcomes ........................................................................... 5
Understanding Bloom’s Taxonomy ......................................................................... 6
Understanding Adult Learners ................................................................................ 7
Knowles’ Adult Learning Principles .............................................................................................. 7
Learning and Instructional Preferences ....................................................................................... 8
Working with Different Types of Learners .................................................................................... 8
Meeting Learners’ Needs...................................................................................... 10
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs..................................................................................................... 10
Creating Classroom and Virtual Learning Spaces ..................................................................... 12
Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge ................................................................................... 21
Supporting Participants .............................................................................................................. 23
Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements .............................................................................. 25
Providing Effective Feedback..................................................................................................... 26
Guiding Review .......................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 2: Designing Courses for Adult Learners ................................................ 31
Identifying Learning Outcomes ............................................................................. 31
Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions .................................... 31
Assessing Learning .............................................................................................. 33
Chapter 3: Using Best Instructional Practices ...................................................... 36
Setting the Hook ................................................................................................... 36
Sharing the “What’s in it for me?” ......................................................................... 39
Creating a Positive Relationship ........................................................................... 40
Respecting Diversity ............................................................................................. 40
Communicating Ground Rules and “Netiquette” ................................................... 41
Redefining Instructor and Learner Roles .............................................................. 42
Dealing with Difficulties ......................................................................................... 44
Difficulties with Course Content ................................................................................................. 44
Difficulties with Technology ........................................................................................................ 45
Difficulties with Challenging Personalities .................................................................................. 46
Difficulties with Virtual Learning ................................................................................................. 47
Making It Your Own .............................................................................................. 48
Customizing Your Lesson Plan .................................................................................................. 48
Step 1: Analyze Participants’ Learning Needs ........................................................................... 50

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences

Step 2: Review the Learning Outcomes .................................................................................... 51

Step 3: Plan Your Opening ........................................................................................................ 51
Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies ...................................................................................... 52
Step 5: Plan for Knowledge Checks .......................................................................................... 52
Step 6: Plan Your Conclusion .................................................................................................... 54
Step 7: Estimate Your Timeline.................................................................................................. 54
Lesson Planning Action Plan ..................................................................................................... 55
Appendix: Tools and Techniques ........................................................................... 59
Action Plans .......................................................................................................... 59
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 59
Analogies .............................................................................................................. 59
Anticipation Guides ............................................................................................... 60
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 62
Assessment Checklists ......................................................................................... 62
Background Information........................................................................................ 64
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 64
Brainstorming ....................................................................................................... 64
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 66
Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 67
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 68
Concept Maps ...................................................................................................... 69
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 71
Concrete Examples .............................................................................................. 71
Cooperative and Collaborative Learning............................................................... 73
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 75
Course Outline/Syllabus ....................................................................................... 76
Current Event Articles or Commentaries .............................................................. 76
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 77
Demonstrations..................................................................................................... 77
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 79
Feedback—Peer or Instructor ............................................................................... 79
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 81
Games .................................................................................................................. 81
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 84
Graphic Organizers............................................................................................... 85
T-charts ....................................................................................................................................... 86
Attribute Matrices ....................................................................................................................... 86
Flow Charts ................................................................................................................................ 87
Mind Maps .................................................................................................................................. 88

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences

Group Discussions................................................................................................ 89
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 90
Hands-on Practice Activities ................................................................................. 91
Course Format Recommendations ............................................................................................ 94
Infographics .......................................................................................................... 94
Job Aids ................................................................................................................ 96
Journaling ............................................................................................................. 99
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 100
K-W-L Charts ...................................................................................................... 101
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 102
Lectures and Interactive Lectures ....................................................................... 103
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 105
Models ................................................................................................................ 106
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 108
Observational Activities ...................................................................................... 108
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 111
Oral Presentations .............................................................................................. 111
Problem Solving/Problem-Based Learning ......................................................... 112
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 113
Projects ............................................................................................................... 114
Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets ............................................................................ 115
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 116
Real-World Problems.......................................................................................... 117
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 119
Role Playing ....................................................................................................... 119
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 124
Rubrics ............................................................................................................... 125
Self-Questioning ................................................................................................. 127
Skimming and Scanning ..................................................................................... 128
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 129
Soliciting Participants’ Expectations ................................................................... 129
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 130
Statistics ............................................................................................................. 130
Structured Notes ................................................................................................. 132
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 134
Summarizing ....................................................................................................... 134
Course format Recommendations ........................................................................................... 135
Surveys/Interactive Polls .................................................................................... 135
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 136

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences

Test Questions ................................................................................................... 137

Theories .............................................................................................................. 140
Think-Pair-Share................................................................................................. 140
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 141
Visual Aids .......................................................................................................... 142
Word Clouds/Interactive Polls ............................................................................. 146
Course Format Recommendations .......................................................................................... 147
Worked Examples............................................................................................... 148
References .............................................................................................................. 149

List of Figures
Figure 1. The connection between learning outcomes and learner mastery ................................................ 5
Figure 2. Bloom's Taxonomy ........................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 3. Maslow's hierarchy of needs........................................................................................................ 11
Figure 4: Sample course webpage ............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 5: Example prior knowledge activation activity slide........................................................................ 22
Figure 6: Example scaffolded calculation worksheet .................................................................................. 24
Figure 7: Example review question slides................................................................................................... 30
Figure 8: Performance outcomes, directions, and props from “Flagger Certification Training Course” ..... 34
Figure 9: Example assessment checklist .................................................................................................... 35
Figure 10: Screenshots of the dynamic opening for “Utility Investigations” course .................................... 38
Figure 11: Link from mock incident to “Utility Investigations” course content ............................................. 38
Figure 12: Impact of not using “Utility Investigations” course training ........................................................ 39
Figure 13: WIIFM screenshot from NHI “Utility Investigations” course ....................................................... 40
Figure 14: Brainstorming prompt from "Conducting Effective Program Reviews" ...................................... 43
Figure 15: Steps for Planning an Excellent Training Session ..................................................................... 50
Figure 16: Knowledge check slide from “Sidewalk Collapse US 1 over Earman River” ............................. 53
Figure 17: Knotted rope analogy for highway station numbering ............................................................... 60
Figure 18: “NEPA Impacts” anticipation guide ............................................................................................ 61
Figure 19: Centerline stationing assessment checklist ............................................................................... 63
Figure 20: Post-tensioning tendon installation and grouting concept map ................................................. 70
Figure 21: Coffee mugs used as a concrete example ................................................................................ 72
Figure 22: Slides relating cylinder volume to drilled shaft capacity from “Drilled Shaft Volume,”.............. 73
Figure 23: Learning outcomes from “Accelerated Bridge Construction” ..................................................... 74
Figure 24: Demonstration explanation slide from “Drilled Shaft Volume” ................................................... 78
Figure 25: BINGO card for “Steel Bridge Inspection” ................................................................................. 83
Figure 26: Looking Around game ................................................................................................................ 85
Figure 27: Bridge construction technique T-chart graphic organizer .......................................................... 86
Figure 28: Attribute matrix for intersection types ........................................................................................ 87
Figure 29: Underwater bridge inspection procedure flow chart .................................................................. 88

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Figure 30: Post-tensioning tendon installation mind map ........................................................................... 89

Figure 31:Practice coding worksheet from “Superstructure Type Identification” ........................................ 92
Figure 32: Job aid from “Superstructure Type Identification”...................................................................... 93
Figure 33: Infographic on Connected Vehicle Safety for Rail system ........................................................ 95
Figure 34: Excerpt from “Getting into Business Objects” job aid ................................................................ 99
Figure 35: K-W-L chart for “Diving Inspection Intensity Levels”................................................................ 102
Figure 36: Thought-provoking question slide from “Construction Quality Assurance: Measuring Quality
with Inspection” ......................................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 37: Scour testing on Woodrow Wilson Bridge model .................................................................... 106
Figure 38: Cut-out model of Hamm asphalt roller drum............................................................................ 107
Figure 39: Photo of Community #1’s road design in “Local Road Safety” ................................................ 109
Figure 40: Photo of Community #2’s road design in “Local Road Safety” ................................................ 110
Figure 41: Cornell notes for observational activity in “Local Road Safety” ............................................... 110
Figure 42: Real-world problem slide from “Local Road Safety” ................................................................ 118
Figure 43: Real-world problem slide from “Drilled Shaft Volume”............................................................. 118
Figure 44: Context slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal Operational
Objectives” ................................................................................................................................................ 120
Figure 45: Character slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal Operational
Objectives” ................................................................................................................................................ 121
Figure 46: Intersection photo for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”............................................................................................................................. 121
Figure 47: Context slide for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal Operational
Objectives” ................................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure 48: Character slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal Operational
Objectives” ................................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure 49: Intersection photo #1 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”............................................................................................................................. 123
Figure 50: Intersection photo #2 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”............................................................................................................................. 123
Figure 51: Intersection photo #3 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”............................................................................................................................. 124
Figure 52: Excerpt from classroom management section of NHI Instructor Rubric.................................. 126
Figure 53: Survey question slide from “Bridge Inspector Refresher Training”.......................................... 136
Figure 54: Word cloud from Soils and Foundations Reference Manual ................................................... 147

List of Tables
Table 1: Classroom Layout Options ............................................................................................................ 14
Table 2. Common Action Verbs Used in Learning Outcomes .................................................................... 31
Table 3: WCT Engagement Techniques ..................................................................................................... 47
Table 4: Seven Steps for Planning a Lesson .............................................................................................. 55
Table 5: Job Aid Options ............................................................................................................................. 96
Table 6: “Instructor Development Course” Grading Scheme.................................................................... 125
Table 7: Example Structured Notes Formats ............................................................................................ 132

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Table 8: Objective Test Questions ............................................................................................................ 138

Table 9: Subjective Test Questions .......................................................................................................... 139

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences How to Use this Handbook

How to Use this Handbook

To be successful in their training, learners need to frequently and meaningfully engage
with the course content. There are many instructional strategies, and it is not always
easy for course designers and instructors to find ones that match the content, the
classroom limitations, and participants’ learning needs. This handbook is designed to
provide instructors, project managers, subject matter experts, and instructional
designers with tools and techniques to help make a course more interactive and
engaging. The handbook provides background information to help users select the most
appropriate option. Users will also find instructions and examples to help them replicate
the strategy or tool in a course. You can choose to read this handbook from cover to
cover, or you can focus in on a few tools to use in the course you are currently
developing or teaching. Either way, this handbook will be easy for you to navigate and
use.
The handbook is divided into three main chapters. Chapter 1 is for both course
designers and instructors and explains the importance of learning outcomes, how best
to work with adult learners, and ways to meet learners’ needs. Chapter 2 is targeted at
course designers and makes the link between training needs, learning outcomes,
instructional and practice activities, and assessments. Chapter 3 is designed for
instructors and provides information on and examples of instructional best practices. All
of the instructional strategies and tools mentioned in chapters 1, 2, and 3 are linked to a
detailed explanation in the appendix. Follow the links to learn more about the strategy or
tool, including a description, its pros and cons, examples, instructions, and application
ideas for instructor-led training (ILT), web-based training (WBT), and web conference
training (WCT) formats. If you have followed a link to a new section, select the link at
the end of the description to take you back to the previous section.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences How to Use this Handbook

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
Thank you to all the NHI “Instructor Development Course” participants who generously
shared their final training presentation materials. Their slides, handouts, activities, and
assessments, and other materials provided many of the transportation-related examples
in this publication.
◼ Abdalla Abdelmoez
◼ Brett Sposito
◼ Brigitte Mandel
◼ Chris DiPalma
◼ Dan Sant Anselmo
◼ David Cornish
◼ David Cox
◼ David Lamb
◼ David Wright
◼ Don Dwyer
◼ Douglas Whittaker
◼ Eddie Curtis
◼ Edgard Baltodano
◼ Edward Woolford
◼ Emily Wilder
◼ Greg Doyle
◼ Ian Kiwan
◼ Jamal Elkaissi
◼ Jeff Jasper
◼ Jonathan McDade
◼ Jon-Paul Kohler
◼ Marvin Ta
◼ Michael Hughes
◼ Mignon Whitted
◼ Mike Ergler
◼ Noel Mehlo
◼ Olivia Phelps
◼ Patrick Kane
◼ Ray Murphy
◼ Richard Kerr
◼ Steve Miller

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Acknowledgements

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and

Instructors

Working with Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes, or “objectives,” were first described by Dr. Robert Mager, a well-
known behavioral psychologist, as the “guides that will guarantee that you are teaching
what needs to be taught.” Learning outcomes are clearly defined statements that
describe the intended results of training. They describe what participants will be able to
do when they are competent. They do not describe what instructors will do or the
content of the lesson or unit.
Because learning outcomes describe a participant’s performance, they begin with an
action verb that describes the behavior or skill participants should perform by the end of
the unit or course. These outcomes should be both observable and measurable. To
illustrate, the verb “describe” is an action verb because we can observe a participant
describing something and we can measure the quality of their description using a set of
criteria. On the other hand, the verb “understand” is not an action verb because we are
unable to observe or measure a participant as they understand. To avoid using
“understand,” think about what participants would be able to do if they understood a
concept and you will be able to determine the appropriate action verb. Sometimes
learning outcomes have conditions that explain the performance criteria, such as a time
limit or use of a job aid. Course developers design knowledge checks and end-of-
course assessments to measure participants’ mastery of the learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are also important because they define the scope of the content.
Learning outcomes can help to separate the “nice to know” information from the “need
to know” information. Focusing on the content required to achieve the learning
outcomes rather than just covering content can show what should be taught and how to
determine if the training accomplished what was attended.
Learning outcomes help control the information in a training course and guide the
evaluation of participant’s mastery of the content. As figure 1 demonstrates,
instructional strategies connect learning outcomes with learner mastery. There should
be clear alignment between a learning outcome, the instructional strategy, and the
assessment used to determine learner mastery. A variety of instructional strategies are
described in detail in appendix: Tools and Techniques.

Figure 1. The connection between learning outcomes and learner mastery

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Example
Learning outcomes for a lesson on underwater bridge inspection frequencies.
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
◼ Identify the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) inspection frequencies
for above water bridge inspections
◼ Identify the NBIS inspection frequencies for underwater bridge inspections
◼ Explain the difference between the NBIS and the National Bridge Inventory
(NBI)
◼ Estimate the scour undermining of an example bridge

Return to What is the “need-to-know” and “nice-to-know” information?

Understanding Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy organizes learning outcomes (action verbs) into levels according to
their cognitive complexity. Figure 2 shows the six levels in the revised Bloom’s
Taxonomy:
1. At the remembering level, participants can remember or recall previously
learned information.
2. At the understanding level, participants can demonstrate their understanding
by explaining ideas or concepts.
3. At the applying level, participants can use the new information in another
familiar situation.
4. At the analyzing level, participants can break information into parts to see
how the parts relate to one another and to the overall conceptual structure.
5. At the evaluating level, participants can make judgements using criteria and
standards and can justify a decision or course or action.
6. At the highest level, participants can create new ideas, products, or ways of
viewing things by reorganizing information into new patterns or structures.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Figure 2. Bloom's Taxonomy

Use Bloom’s Taxonomy to see how lower-level thinking skills are used to support
higher-level skills later in the course. Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used as a guide to
selecting appropriate instructional strategies and aligning the questions and activities
with the learning outcomes.

Understanding Adult Learners

Knowles’ Adult Learning Principles

To develop courses for adults or to be an effective instructor, it is important that you
understand what motivates adults to learn. A lot of what we know about adult learners
comes from the research of Malcolm Knowles. He proposed his Adult Learning Theory
model. This model states adult learners:
1. Need to know why they should learn.
2. Learn through experience and use their prior experience in the process.
3. Want to take responsibility for their learning.
4. Want learning to be immediately relevant to their lives or jobs.
5. Are task-oriented rather than information-oriented.
6. Respond better to internal versus external motivators.

To be successful as an instructor, step away from the traditional teacher-student role.

Instead, adopt a learner-centered approach to training that allows participants to
engage with the content and provide them with problem-solving opportunities.
Participants bring a wealth of knowledge and experience to the classroom, but they

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

need help connecting it to new information. Explain how participants can use the
training to improve their lives or jobs, and create a supportive learning environment, so
participants will be less anxious about making mistakes when trying something new.
For more information on meeting the needs of adult learners, you can refer to the
following NHI publications:
◼ The Circle of Learning,
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/circle_of_learning.pdf
◼ Adult Learning Considerations,
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/adult_learning.pdf

Learning and Instructional Preferences

It is important to remember that when we learn, we access information through different
sensory pathways or modalities. Some researchers have identified four modalities of
learning: visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinethestic and it was thought that
learners prefer one modality over another. However, other researchers found that
participant learning preferences for learning change depending on the content or the
task. For example, there may be times when participants are most successful if they
take notes or build a model. Other times watching a video or reading an article clarifies
a concept for them. Sometimes they benefit from discussing or debating ideas, and
other times they may prefer to work alone with a checklist or set of procedures.
It is also important to recognize that personal learning preferences can affect an
instructor’s style. Instructors may rely on a certain style of instruction such as
discussions as a way for participants to use their new knowledge, or include short
reflective writing activities and graphic organizers because they have worked in the
past. However, participants may not always find those activities beneficial. To appeal to
different preferences and deepen their understanding, it is a best practice to provide
participants with more than one way to engage with the content. It is a good idea to plan
a mix of activities so participants to discuss, create, organize, and reflect on their
learning.
For more information on learning preferences, refer to the NHI publication, The Circle of
Learning, https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/circle_of_learning.pdf

Working with Different Types of Learners

Educational researchers Peter Honey and Alan Mumford looked into the different ways
people approached the learning process. Using the results from their learning style
questionnaire, they identified four types of learners:
◼ Activists—people who learn by doing
◼ Theorists—people who like to understand the theory behind the concept

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

◼ Pragmatists—people who need to put learning into practice

◼ Reflectors—people who learn by observing and thinking about what happened

The participants in any course will likely include a mix of these types of learners. It is
important that you, as their instructor, understand how each group prefers to engage
with the content and which activities are most fulfilling to them.
Activists
Have you had participants who seemed disinterested in the lecture and immediately
started looking ahead in their workbook? Or began exploring the software or the
equipment before instructions are finished? These people are what Honey and Mumford
called “activists.” They want to learn by doing and are willing to experiment and fail as
they figure it out on their own. They aren’t interested in abstract concepts or how-to
manuals. They just want to get involved now.

Suggested Activities

Here are some activities that can help satisfy the activists’ need for rich personal
engagement:
◼ Brainstorming
◼ Problem Solving/Problem-Based Learning
◼ Group Discussions
◼ Role Playing
◼ Hands-on Practice Activities

Theorists
Do you find that some participants tend to question everything? Are they interested in
the research behind the concepts or theories? Do they like to work logically through a
process? Do they prefer to have a model or system to follow? Are they uncomfortable
with ambiguity and ill-defined problems? These are what Honey and Mumford called the
“theorists.” They aren’t interested in creative assignments; they prefer structured
activities where they can analyze and synthesize information. They like activities that
allow them to work with statistics or to compile evidence to answer their questions. Here
are some activities that meet the “theorists” need for structure and data.

Suggested Activities

◼ Models
◼ Statistics
◼ Background Information
◼ Theories

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Pragmatists
You may notice some participants need to know the relevance of abstract concepts or
theories to their lives. They want you to provide examples and will often ask for them.
They require clear information up front about how they are going to be assessed. These
participants are what Honey and Mumford call the “pragmatists.” They need to see how
they can put their learning into practice. They like activities where they can experiment
and try out new ideas, theories, and techniques in realistic scenarios.

Suggested Activities

◼ Group Discusions
◼ Theoretical Applications, see Theories
◼ Case Studies
◼ Problem Solving/Problem-Based Learning
◼ Action Plans

Reflectors
You may observe that some participants step back while others in the class participate
in a demonstration. Are they happy to take notes for their group? Or, do they ask for
additional sources of information on the topics discussed in class? These participants
are what Honey and Mumford call the “reflectors.” They prefer to gather data by reading
and observing others in action and reflect on what they have learned before they come
to a conclusion. They liked to be well prepared before joining in an activity and are often
uncomfortable when asked to take the leader role. Reflectors appreciate activities
where they can observe or obtain multiple perspectives on an idea.

Suggested Activities

◼ Think-Pair-Share
◼ Observational Activities
◼ Feedback—Peer or Instructor

Meeting Learners’ Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In the 1940s, Abraham Maslow proposed a theory about motivation that, for the first
time, linked human biological needs and human psychology. According to Maslow,
humans strive to meet their needs in a predictable order or hierarchy, as shown in figure
3. People’s physical and safety needs must be met before they can focus on their
higher-order needs. Next, people need their social and self-esteem needs met. They
need to feel loved and accepted as part of a group. Then, they can focus on

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

achievement and gaining the respect of those around them. Only after all those needs
are fulfilled can they focus on self-actualization, or achieving their highest potential,
through professional growth, education, or other enrichment.

Figure 3. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

To create a positive relationship and allow participants to focus on learning, it is

important to address their basic physiological needs, for example:
◼ What is the temperature of the room?
◼ Are they hungry?
◼ Are the seats uncomfortable?
◼ Do they need a bathroom break?

Providing “housekeeping” information at the beginning of the training session, including

directions to the restrooms, food and drink options and policies, class hours and breaks,
and emergency procedures helps to reduce participants’ anxiety. You also need to
consider their safety needs, for example:
◼ Are they intimidated by another participant?
◼ Are they worried about returning to their car or to public transportation?
◼ Is their job at risk if they do not perform well in the course?

Offer to meet with participants privately so they can share their concerns and so you
can come up with ways to address them.
It is important to recognize and address participants’ social needs, for example:
◼ Are they among strangers?
◼ Are they seated with their supervisors or managers?

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

◼ Are they separated from others from their organization?

Icebreakers, team building activities, and temporarily mixing up groups and partners can
provide opportunities for participants to work collaboratively with different people and
become more comfortable with each other.
Participants’ self-esteem needs must be met as well, for example:
◼ Do they think they are in the right course for their needs?
◼ Are they different from other participants in terms of experience, age, culture, or
gender?
◼ Is someone dominating the conversations?

Collaborating with the participants in class to set and enforce ground rules will set clear
expectations for behavior. By partnering more experienced participants with novices,
the experts are given a role to play in the classroom while providing support that less
experienced learners need.

Creating Classroom and Virtual Learning Spaces

Why Layout is Important
To do their best learning, participants need to feel comfortable both mentally and
physically (see Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs). The way an instructor organizes and
manages participants’ physical (or virtual) learning space will have a major impact on
their readiness to learn. If participants struggle to see or hear important information, are
too hot or too cold, or are forced to work in cramped conditions, they may become
frustrated or fixated on thoughts of relief and disengage themselves from the leaning
process. To prevent this from happening, proactively think about participants’ needs,
and set up the tables and chairs in the training room in a way that will facilitate learning
and accomplish the learning outcomes.
The room layout is important for another reason: participants will make immediate
assumptions about the course just from the room layout. For example, if they see a
classroom or auditorium-style arrangement, they will assume it will be a lecture-based
course. On the other hand, if they see chairs arranged in table groups, they will expect
an interactive course with small group discussions or team work.
Sometimes you don’t have any choice about the layout of the room. But when you do,
it’s well worth the time and effort to create an arrangement that best matches the
interactivity planned in the course.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Classroom Layouts
When choosing a room layout, consider the following factors:
◼ Room size: The room should accommodate the number of participants
comfortably. If the room is large, you can move the tables closer to one another
and closer to the front of the room.
◼ Training requirements: If you expect participants to take notes, work in small
groups, or perform role plays, make sure they have the room to do so. Will they
work individually, frequently confer with a partner, or have small group
discussions? What seating arrangement will support the type(s) of learning?
◼ Accessibility: Leave at least 36 inches between rows of chairs to create aisles
wide enough for participants with mobility issues to maneuver. Check the
position of all chairs to ensure that all participants have an unobstructed view of
you and the projection screen. Make sure that they do not need to twist around
to see the screen and then twist back again to take notes or talk with their
tablemates. Make sure that extension cords and cables do not present tripping
hazards.
◼ Lighting: Make sure there is adequate lighting for reading and taking notes.
Close window blinds and adjust lighting configurations to minimize glare on the
screen. You may need to adjust the lights as the day progresses and conditions
change.
◼ Whiteboards and wall space: Some classrooms and video and web
conference platforms have whiteboards that you can use to record key points
or valuable information for participants to reference throughout the course.
Also, look to see if there is any space you can use to hang chart paper or easel
pad sheets for reference. Be sure to leave at least 6 inches of space at the
bottom, and hang any visual aid high enough so that people on the other side
of the room can read everything that is written on it.
◼ Climate control: It is impossible to find the perfect temperature for every
individual, but you need to be aware of how the room responds to thermostat
changes. Is the room cool in the morning but heats up because of afternoon
sun? Is there a noisy fan that makes it hard for participants to hear when it
turns on? Let participants know about known changes in advance and tell them
that the efforts that will be made to accommodate their learning needs.
◼ Audio: Is a microphone needed for the participants to hear the instructor? Is
there one to provide to participants for group report outs or question and
answer sessions? Will participants need headphones and microphones to
participate in the web conference training or virtual training?

There are many different types of classroom layouts (or seating arrangements). Table 1
displays some of the most common classroom layout options along with the pros and
cons of each of them.

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Table 1: Classroom Layout Options

Layout Description
Partner Groups—Arrange small tables in a
row with two seats per desk, facing the
instructor. More intimate than traditional
classroom layout. Good for hands-on work and
note taking. Facilitates partner discussions.
Small groups can be formed by pairs turning
and talking to the partners behind them. Easy
for instructor to observe and listen to
participants as they work together.
U-shape—Move tables to create a large U-
shape. Place chairs on the outside. The open
space in the middle provides room for the
instructor to walk and pass out handouts or to
place a low table for the projection system. This
layout allows participants to see both the
instructor and all their peers at the same time.
Plenty of room for note taking. Easy to break
the group into two or three small groups for
discussions. Harder to arrange a small group
discussion with participants from more than one
side of the U. If sides of the U are long, it can
be hard for participants at opposite ends to
make eye contact.
Conference—Similar to the U-shape, tables
are placed to make one long rectangle or
square and chairs are placed along three sides.
Participants have good visibility of instructor,
peers, and visuals. Sometimes there is limited
space for demonstrations or role play in front,
or to move behind chairs. Like with a U-shape,
easy to form groups along one side of the
joined tables. More difficult to hold discussions
across the joined tables.

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Layout Description
Clusters—Four to six seats are arranged
around one half of round tables or tables
grouped to form small squares or rectangles.
This prevents participants from having their
backs to the instructor. This arrangement
promotes teamwork and facilitates discussions.
Best for courses where the majority of the
content will be delivered through small group
work. Easy for instructor to walk around and
monitor discussions.
V-shape or herringbone—Tables are
arranged in diagonal rows on either side of a
classroom. Two to five chairs are placed at
each table so that all seats face or are at right
angles to the instructor. Good for note taking
and partner work or small group work. Easy for
instructors to walk around and listen to
discussions. Effective for computer training as it
allows the instructor to see all participants and
move through the aisles.
Traditional classroom—Create long rows of
tables with chairs on one side facing the
instructor. Provides all participants with an
unobstructed view of the visuals. Good for
lectures and interactive lectures. Although
participants can turn and talk to a partner or
person behind them, is not conducive for small
group discussions.

Source: NHI (2018).

Return to Visual Aids

Changing Participants’ Seats
It is important to note that once participants are settled and comfortable in their groups,
they may resist any request for them to change seats or form new groups. You can
lessen participants’ discomfort by explaining that the new seating arrangement is
temporary and they will be able to return to their original seats.

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There are other times when you may want to make a permanent change in participants’
seats (due to personality conflicts, physical accommodations, etc.) and you can re-
assign seats for all participants or shift one person from each table at the start of each
activity. For virtual instructor-led and web conference deliveries, you can change the
composition of participant breakout groups.
Online Course Web Pages
The virtual interface created for an online course can play a large role in usability and
student success. Most learning platforms and course development apps provide
templates that provide design options. No matter which design you choose, the location
of reading materials, assignments, tasks, collaborative opportunities, etc., should be
consistent and easy to find. You can create a course overview or home page that lists
all required readings, tasks and assignments, and their due dates. Some development
apps allow you to insert links directly to reading materials, assignments, and rubrics.
You can keep participants engaged by posting weekly announcements about due dates
or highlights of upcoming assignments. Adding instructor photos or videos and asking
participants to upload their photos also can help everyone associate a face with a
name. Course websites can offer many ways for participants to collaborate, including
emails, discussion boards, video conferencing, group phone calls, etc. Participants can
also create and post wikis, blogs and podcasts to engage their peers and demonstrate
their learning. Figure 4 shows a sample course webpage that provides a thumbnail
photo of the instructor, links to assignments, class discussion board, classmate
information, course files, collaboration platforms, etc.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 1: Information for Course Designers and Instructors

Example

Figure 4: Sample course webpage

Web or Video Conference Meeting Rooms

Whether you are instructing a single webinar or a series of web or video conferences as
part of a blended learning course, you can incorporate many of the engagement
activities used in a physical classroom in the virtual meeting space.
Each video or web conference platform has its own combination of features, but some
of the common features are as follows:
◼ Attendees list—A list of all of the attendees for the session. This list allows
you and the participants to see who is signed in for the day. You can save the
list as proof of attendance.
◼ Chat messaging—Allows participants and instructors to unobtrusively ask and
answer questions. Chats can be either visible to the entire class or private.
Often a host or co-instructor is needed to monitor and respond to chat
messages. The downside of the chat feature is that it facilitates side
conversations that may detract from learning.
◼ Polling—You can write and post poll questions to probe participants’ past
experiences, gather opinions, or test their comprehension. Poll results can be
displayed on a bar graph and can be either shared with the class or kept
private. You can use poll data to guide review or reteaching. Like with chats, it
is useful to have a host or co-instructor post and summarize the poll results.

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◼ Screensharing—Web conference platforms allow instructors (and sometimes

participants) to share whatever is on their computer screen or monitor directly
with the class, including software demonstrations, videos, PowerPoint
presentations, documents, spreadsheets, webpages, etc. You can also upload
documents to share during class.
◼ Voice and audio controls—Not all participants remember to mute their
microphones when they join a web conference. Instructors can use the default
mute setting to avoid distracting background noises and unintended comments
from being heard in the classroom. Instructors and participants can later adjust
their personal audio and microphone settings to allow them to hear and be
heard by others.
◼ Video controls—Instructors can choose to include live webcam video feeds as
part of their web conference interface. Seeing and hearing the instructor and/or
their peers can help keep participants engaged in a virtual class. However,
internet limitations and makeshift home offices may make live video broadcasts
problematic for some.
◼ Breakout rooms—Assign participants to small groups and set up virtual
breakout rooms for small group activities. It is best to first explain the activity
before breaking the class out into groups and then post the instructions to the
breakout room chat pod as a reminder. The instructor can pop in and out of
breakout rooms to monitor group discussions and answer questions. Some
instructors find that not sharing their webcam video when they enter a breakout
room results in the least disruption to the group dynamics.
◼ Meeting recording—Sometimes a participant may request a recording of the
class. If the recording will be made available only to the class, you need to
notify participants that you will be recording the session and explain why. If the
recording will be released to people outside of those in the class, you will need
to obtain written (or emailed) permission from all people seen or heard in the
recording.
◼ Reaction icons—Increase the interactivity of a class by encouraging
participants to use the reaction options available on the web conference
platform. Participants can communicate their sentiments non-verbally by using
icons for raise/lower hand, applause, thumbs up/down, yes/no, etc.) Reaction
icons can be used with polls or knowledge checks.

Other options that may be available include the following:

◼ Waiting room—Can be used to screen viewers and allow registered
participants to enter the course space all at the same time. Sometimes
instructors will post poll or survey questions for participants to answer while
they wait.
◼ Multi-screen sharing—Some web conference platforms allow instructors
and/or participants to share content from two monitors or screens at the same

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time. With multiple screens visible, participants can compare or make

connections between any combination of websites, documents, presentations,
or videos. The downside to multi-screen sharing is that the two screens are not
full-sized, and some text and images may be difficult to see clearly.
◼ File sharing—Using the Adobe Connect Content library, instructors and
participants can upload and download an image, audio, or video file or a PDF,
PPT, or HTML file. Multiple files need to be compressed and uploaded in a ZIP
file. Other web conference platforms may have different options or limitations.
◼ Document collaboration—Some web conference platforms allow participants
to interact and collaborate on documents. If that feature is not available, you
can share links to collaborative documents hosted on other websites.
◼ Interactive or collaborative whiteboard—Adobe Connect offers whiteboards
with both clear and white backgrounds. Instructors can add text, lines, shapes,
or other freehand drawings in real time. The white background is like a
conventional whiteboard. The clear background allows instructors to create an
overlay screen and write or draw on top of an existing document in the Share
pod. You can print the contents of a whiteboard. Other web conference
platforms also allow participants to collaborate on whiteboards in whole group
or breakout sessions.
◼ Timer—Using a digital countdown timer helps to bring participants back from
breaks on time. They also help instructors and participants keep track of the
time left for a discussion or activity. There are several timers available, and
displaying different ones throughout the day can introduce a little variety.
◼ Closed captioning—All media presented as part of a course needs to include
closed captioning. Captioned materials are sometimes identified with a “CC” or
TV icon. If a participant required closed captioning, you could contract with a
professional captioning service or assign in-meeting captioners. The captions
are transmitted to the Caption Pod in Adobe Connect. Other web conference
platforms allow attendees to be designated as captioners, and their typing
appears as captions in real-time.
◼ End-of-meeting feedback—NHI has its own course evaluation form, but if you
want to gather more specific feedback or follow up with participants to see how
they are applying their new learning on the job, you can send attendees a
survey via email.

Research the features and technology tools available in the conference platform. Plan
interactions in advance, such as discussion questions, poll questions and response
options, assigning participants to small groups, etc., and set them up in the meeting
space before the course begins. Sometimes it is easier to manage a web or video
conference if a host or facilitator posts poll questions, reviews and answers participant
questions, sets timers, troubleshoots technical issues, etc., while you focus on
presenting the training.

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Instructions
To run an effective web or video training conference:
1. Plan how you will incorporate the available technologies into the conference,
such as video clips, poll or survey questions, question and answer chats, small
group breakouts, collaborative documents or whiteboards, etc.
2. Create a one-page, timed agenda.
3. Gather all presentation and content materials and make sure they will appear
and function as intended.
4. If it is a web conference, create a slide that will appear when participants log in
so that they know they're at the right meeting site.
5. Plan to post a chat question for participants to answer while they are waiting for
the conference to begin that will give you an idea of their prior knowledge.
6. In the email invitation to participants include the link and access code, attach
any advance materials, and provide instructions on how they should prepare for
the conference. Including a link to an online pre-course survey to gather
feedback on participants’ background and expectations for the course is also
helpful.
7. Prepare another survey to gather feedback from participants after the
conference.
8. Practice! Run through the presentation using the moderator tools until to
practice posting questions, share your screen, switch to a different breakout
room, or review poll results. If there is a facilitator, practice with that person so
transitions are smooth.
9. Based on practice runs, make changes to the agenda, interactions, and/or
materials.
10. Conduct a dry run. Unlike a practice run, you will teach the entire course just
like you would during actual training.
11. Open the conferencing software at least 30 minutes before the meeting is
scheduled to start. Be sure all the links and content are working properly.
12. Send an email to participants, thanking them and asking them to complete the
post-course survey. Use the survey results to improve future web or video
conferences.

Refer to Surveys/Interactive Polls and Word Clouds/Interactive Polls for ideas on ways
to use interactive polls during a web conference course.
Refer to Group Discussions for more information on using small group discussions in a
web conference course.
For more information on classroom layouts, check out NHI’s Circle of Learning,
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/circle_of_learning.pdf. For more
information on NHI’s web conference standards, refer to the NHI Web-conference

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Training Standards Guide,

https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/wct_standards_guide_May2017.pdf.
Return to Group Discussions
Return to Surveys/Interactive Polls
Return to Word Clouds/Interactive Polls

Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge

Adult learners bring their knowledge, experiences, skills, beliefs, and attitudes with them
into the classroom. Participants use their prior knowledge to help them to process new
information. They try to fit the new information into their current understanding. When
they can connect old and new, the new information moves from their working memory
into their long-term memory.
Since prior knowledge is so important for participant comprehension and retention, it is a
good idea to help participants make connections at the start of a lesson. The information
you get from tapping into participants’ prior knowledge is also useful to you, the instructor.
Use that information to help decide the pace of your instruction, organize group activities,
and determine whether participants with less experience need extra help. Take the time
to draw out participants’ memories, ask questions to determine if some participants have
misunderstanding that needs to be corrected.
Activating prior knowledge can be as simple as asking some basic questions, for example:
◼ What do you already know about this topic?
◼ What have you read about this topic?
◼ What are your experiences in this field?
Several more techniques you can use to prime participants to learn include the following:
◼ Analogies
◼ Anticipation Guides
◼ Brainstorming
◼ K-W-L Charts
◼ Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets
◼ Skimming and Scanning
◼ Surveys/Interactive Polls

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Example
Jonathan McDade created a matching activity for his NHI “Instructor Development
Course” training presentation, “Risk-Based Stewardship and Oversight.” The
activity was designed to activate participants’ prior knowledge. It also gave him an
idea of how familiar participants were with basic stewardship and oversight
terminology. Figure 5 displays the matching activity slide.

Source: McDade (2018).

Figure 5: Example prior knowledge activation activity slide

Lesson Planning Challenge

Take a look at one lesson or unit to see which method for activating participants’
prior knowledge would be a good match for the content.
◼ Is there a difficult concept? Share an analogy.
◼ Do participants often have misconceptions or strong opinions on the topic?
Create an anticipation guide.
◼ Is there a lot of reading material? Ask them to skim the text.
◼ Do you often have participants with varying levels of experiences? Create a
survey or poll.
◼ Do you want to get all participants involved right from the start? Ask them to
brainstorm together.

Return to Redefining Instructor and Learner Roles

Return to Supporting Participants
Return to What do participants already know?

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Supporting Participants
The primary role as an instructor is to bridge the gap between what the participants
currently know and what they are expected to do at the end of the training session. To
do that, you will need to move them step-by-step toward a deeper understanding. At the
end of the training, participants should be able to perform the skill, task, or behavior
independently. It is helpful is for participants who are new to the topic or skill to receive
a little extra help. This help is sometimes referred to as “scaffolding.” Like the framework
used to support a building under construction, instructional scaffolding is meant to
provide temporary assistance to learners as they grow more competent in their ability to
perform independently. In the scaffolding process, the instructor systematically gives
participants the chance to acquire the necessary skills incrementally. Participants can
practice and receive feedback that reinforces their learning. As participants become
more independent, the instructor gradually removes the “supports.” This process is
sometimes referred to as “crawl, walk, run.” There are many instructional strategies and
techniques you can use to scaffold participant learning.
However, there are some downsides to scaffolding. It takes time to plan and implement
scaffolding activities. It can be difficult to find the appropriate scaffold to meet the needs
of all participants in the class. And it is not always clear when participants are able to
work independently and no longer need the scaffolding.
Some common scaffolding strategies include the following:
◼ Clearly make connections to knowledge and skills that participants learned in a
previous lesson. Refer to Step 3: Plan Your Opening for ideas on creating links
during a lesson introduction and Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge for a
list of effective activities.
◼ Break a lesson into mini-lessons that allow participants to master easier skills
first before moving onto more complex skills. Check for comprehension
between each mini-lesson.
◼ Present multiple opportunities for participants to engage with the material. For
example, you can orally describe the concept, show a video clip, and ask
participants to sketch a diagram or write a descriptions of how they would apply
the concept on the job. Using these or similar methods helps participants to
interact aurally, visually, and kinesthetically with the content.
◼ Provide participants with a high-quality example of what they are going to be
asked to complete. Explain the features of the assignment and what makes the
example exemplary. You can also model a process so participants can see
how it is performed before they try it themselves.
◼ Clearly explain the purpose of an activity, provide step-by-step instructions, and
supply the rubric, checklist, or other scoring tool that will be used to evaluate
participants’ work. When participants understand the relevance of an
assignment and how they will be assessed they will be more motivated to

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achieve the learning goal. Refer to Assessing Learning for more information on
assessment tools.

Other instructional tools you can use to support participants’ learning are:
◼ Analogies
◼ Case Studies
◼ Concrete Examples
◼ Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
◼ Games
◼ Graphic Organizers
◼ Infographics
◼ Job Aids
◼ K-W-L Charts
◼ Models
◼ Role Playing
◼ Visual Aids
◼ Worked Examples

Example
As part of his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation on
“Global Girder Stability,” Douglas Whittaker created scaffolded worksheets (figure
6) to help participants understand how length impacts the stability of a girder. He
provided the equation to calculate girder stability and the variables for two girders
of different length. A second sheet provided the same equations with boxes to
enter the data for the two girders. By providing the equation, participants could
focus on calculating the impact of a change in length—which was the intended
outcome for the lesson.

Source: Whittaker (2019)

Figure 6: Example scaffolded calculation worksheet

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Lesson Planning Challenge

Look at one lesson or unit in a course. Think about how you could help bridge the
gap between what the participants know and what you want them to be able to do.

◼ Do you want them to complete a multi-step process? Create a handout with a

flow chart or a list of instructions to use as a job aid.
◼ Do you expect a mix of novice, experienced, and expert participants? Create
mixed groups and allow participants to work with a partner.
◼ Do participants struggle with an abstract concept? Come up with an analogy or
concrete example that participants will recognize.

Return to Games
Return to How can I best meet participants’ learning needs?
Return to Job Aids
Return to Step 3: Plan Your Opening
Return to Worked Examples

Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Participant workbooks are the physical takeaways that learners get from a course. They
should be designed to be both interactive learning tools in the classroom and job aids
for use back at the job sites. They should contain much more than just copies of the
PowerPoint slides and should include key messages and important phrases or quotes.
They should also provide spaces for participants to take notes, write questions and
answers, and record their thoughts and summaries.
Interactive features, like note-taking sections, help to support learning. When
participants write about their learning, they will consider what they have heard and how
it connects to what they already know or have experienced. Then, they need to find the
words to express their thinking. Any time you ask participants to identify key points,
answer knowledge check questions, or express their opinions in writing, you reinforce
their learning and support retention and transfer. After the course, participants can refer
to their notes or job aids to refresh their memories.
Some of the common features in a high-quality participant workbook include the
following:
◼ Concept Maps
◼ Course Outline/Syllabus
◼ Journaling
◼ Self-Questioning

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◼ Structured Notes
◼ Summarizing

Familiarize yourself with the features of the course’s participant workbook. Plan how
participants can engage with their workbooks at key times during the lesson.
Participants won’t take advantage of all the benefits their participant workbooks provide
unless they are directed to do so.

Lesson Planning Challenge

Look at the participant workbook for the course to find the answers to these
questions:
◼ How is the participant workbook different from the instructor guide?
◼ What interactive features does it contain?
◼ How can you plan to incorporate these features into the lesson?
◼ If it is a “barebones” workbook, is there a handout to increase participant
engagement with the content?

Providing Effective Feedback

Constructive feedback, in the form of comments or suggestions from instructors or
peers, plays an important role in participants’ mastery of learning outcomes. Without
feedback, participants are unsure if they have grasped a concept or are performing a
task correctly. Instructor feedback can be either informal, like clarifications after a class
discussion, or formal, like final exam results or notes on a checklist or rubric. Refer to
Assessing Learning for more information on assessment activities and tools.
However, participants may not always perceive feedback positively. You need to
provide effective feedback to avoid damaging participants’ morale and negatively
impacting their job performance.
Research has shown that to be effective, feedback must be:
◼ Specific and objective—The feedback must provide participants with exact
details on what they have done correctly and the areas that still require
improvement. It can also be useful to tell participants what they are doing
differently than before.
◼ Immediate—The sooner you can provide feedback to participants, the more
successful they will be in improving their performance.
◼ Outcome oriented—The feedback should be based on a goal that participants
are working towards. It should provide clear information to help participants
improve their performance to achieve that actionable goal.

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◼ Noncompetitive—Participants should be aware of the purpose of all

observations and assessments and that the feedback is intended to guide their
improvement. It is also important to clarify that the feedback is not meant to
create competition between participants.
◼ Transparent—Participants should have access to information about their
performance. This knowledge helps them develop self-awareness about their
own learning. It also improves their ability to identify their own mistakes and to
develop long-term strategies for addressing their weaknesses.
◼ Limited—Too much feedback can be hard to process and, therefore, can be
counterproductive.

Peer feedback can be as effective as instructor feedback. Participants all have different
perspectives and their feedback can supplement feedback from the instructor. Peer
feedback can have another advantage. Sometimes receiving feedback from a peer can
be less intimidating than receiving it from an instructor.
However, you need to manage peer feedback well. You need to train participants to
observe and objectively measure peer performance based on clearly defined standards.
They also need to be trained to provide specific details in their comments. As with
instructor-delivered feedback, peer feedback should include comments both about what
participants did well and suggestions for improvement. To help participants to be
receptive to feedback, explain that their role is to listen and not try to justify any choices
or actions.
Instructions
How to provide guidance on peer feedback:
1. Explain the purpose of peer feedback.
2. Emphasize that feedback should be objective, not personal.
3. Describe participants’ responsibilities during the observation process.
4. Explain that positive feedback will be delivered first and suggestions for
improvement will be shared afterward.
5. Share a peer assessment tool that details performance criteria.
6. Ask participants if they have any questions about the feedback procedure.
7. Remind participants that, when it is their turn to receive feedback, they are to
listen and not try to justify their choices or actions.
8. Once participants have gathered observational data on a peer’s performance,
ask for one or two volunteers to provide feedback.
9. Prompt the volunteers to first provide positive feedback and then provide
constructive feedback.
10. Ask all participants to share their completed assessment tool with comments
with the performer.
11. Continue the observation and feedback activity for the next participant.

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Example
Every few years, the FHWA Discipline Council conducts peer reviews. The
disciplines represent 22 technical fields including construction, safety,
environment, human resources, etc. The peer review assessments evaluate the
health of the discipline—identify its areas of strength, challenge, and
improvement—and any best practices or lessons learned that should be
implemented by all disciplines. The peer assessments feature a rating system and
data collection form. To provide a wide perspective, representatives from the
disciplines are assigned the roles of both reviewers and receivers so they are
exposed to the practices of at least two other disciplines. Peer reviews can be
conducted virtually using SharePoint Online and MS Teams platforms. The FHWA
Discipline Council uses the results from the peer reviews to inform its action plan
and strengthen its overall Discipline Support System.

Return to Assessing Learning

Return to Self-Questioning

Guiding Review
Review activities clarify and highlight key points for participants. You can plan review
activities during or at the end of a lesson or unit. These reminders help overcome
participants’ natural tendency to forget what they have learned. Research has shown it
can up to seven exposures before people can consistently recall a message. To ensure
the training sinks in, you need to regularly incorporate review into the lessons. A good
rule of thumb is to build in some type of review activity every 15-20 minutes.
Some review should focus on recalling important details but you should spend more
time getting participants to explain how they plan apply their new knowledge. See Step
5: Plan for Knowledge Checks for more information on recall and application questions.
You can ask review questions orally or print them on a handout. If you ask for written
responses, you will need to give participants some time to think and compose their
responses. Reinforce the content by sharing the correct answers at the end of the
activity.
Instructions
To conduct an effective oral review session:
1. Identify topics that support the learning outcomes you want to reinforce.
2. Write questions to elicit the level of information required by the outcome and
also the answers.
3. Announce the oral review. Explain that participants will be able to share their
answers out loud and will not need to write anything down.
4. Pose the questions to the whole group, half of the room, or to a table group.

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5. If an answer is incomplete, ask if there is anyone else who can provide more
details.
6. At the end of the review, provide participants with a copy of the questions and
answers you created earlier.
7. End the review by asking, “What other questions do you have on the topic?”

To conduct a written review after a significant amount of new content has been covered:
1. Identify topics or concepts that support the learning outcomes you want to
reinforce.
2. Write questions to elicit the level of information required by the outcome and
also some expected answers.
3. Create a review handout with the questions and room for participants to write
their responses.
4. Announce the written review and tell participants the amount of time they will
have to answer the questions (typically 10-20 minutes).
5. When the allowed time is up, go over the answers while you display a slide or
slides with the questions and the answers. Encourage participants to add to
their notes or correct their answers.
6. End the review by asking, “What are your questions on this topic?”

Other review activities can include the following:

◼ Concept Maps
◼ Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
◼ Games
◼ Mind Maps, see Graphic Organizers
◼ Summarizing

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Example
For his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Sidewalk
Collapse US 1 over Earman River,” Richard Kerr created a True/False review
question slide (figure 7) that used animation to display the correct answers.

Source: Kerr (2019)

Figure 7: Review question slides from “Sidewalk Collapse US 1 over Earman River”

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 2: Designing Courses for Adult Learners

Chapter 2: Designing Courses for Adult Learners

Identifying Learning Outcomes

Course developers identify and create learning outcomes using the Instructional
Systems Design (ISD) process, which is a systematic approach to designing,
developing, and evaluating training. ISD focuses on the needs of the participants. It
begins with analysis of why there is a need for the training, who needs the training, and
to what degree. It also determines how to measure training success. Learning outcomes
are developed based on the training needs analysis and take into consideration the
target audience and organizational goals. Subject matter experts (SMEs) and key
stakeholders verify and approve the learning outcomes, instructional strategies, and
assessment strategies.
Return to Step 2: Review the Learning Outcomes

Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions

There are two categories of outcome verbs: recall or application. Recall verbs indicate
that participants will be asked to recall facts or details about a concept or topic.
Application verbs indicate that participants will be asked to apply their recently acquired
knowledge to a new situation. Often, lessons or units include a mix of recall and
application verbs to allow participants to build their foundational knowledge so they can
apply their learning by the course’s end. Refer to table 2 for a list of common recall and
application verbs used in NHI training courses.

Table 2. Common Action Verbs Used in Learning Outcomes

Recall Verbs Application Verbs

Arrange Apply
Classify Choose
Compare Construct
Define Create
Describe Defend
Explain Demonstrate
Identify Derive
Label Diagram
List Differentiate

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 2: Designing Courses for Adult Learners

Recall Verbs Application Verbs

Locate Illustrate
Match Interpret
Name Measure
Outline Operate
Relate Organize
Replace Perform
Report Set up
Restate Solve
Select Test
Sequence Translate
State Use
Summarize
Source: NHI (2018).

If a learning outcome begins with a recall verb like “explain,” such as in “Explain how
dimensional variables affect global buckling capacity,” it suggests that the instructor
should provide an explanation of the equation used to compute global buckling capacity
and provide an opportunity for participants to substitute different variables to see the
impact on the results. Then, participants should have an opportunity to discuss their
findings with a partner or table group.
However, if the learning outcome begins with an application verb like “demonstrate,”
such as in “Demonstrate how dimensional variables affect global buckling capacity,” it
suggests a very different learning experience for participants. To demonstrate how
changing the variables affects the equation results, participants would have to have
access to 3D modeling software or other simulation method.

Lesson Planning Challenge

Start with one lesson or unit in the course and examine the action verbs used in
the learning outcome listed. Ask:
◼ Are they all recall verbs? All application verbs? Or are they a mix of both?
◼ What does the verb expect participants to do to demonstrate their learning?
◼ What instructional strategy will allow participants to practice that skill or
behavior?

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◼ What assessment activity will give them the opportunity to demonstrate their
learning?
Review the lesson plan in the instructor guide and make notes where you think
you need to add a discussion, practice opportunity, or other engagement activity to
best support the participants’ needs.

Return to Assessing Learning

Return to Step 2: Review the Learning Outcomes
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Test Questions
Return to What is the “need-to-know” and “nice-to-know” information?

Assessing Learning
The final step in the training process is the assessment or evaluation of participant
learning. Assessments measure and document participants’ acquisition of skills and
knowledge. To measure the effectiveness of the training, some courses supply a pre-
course assessment. The pre-test results create a baseline. Any improvements
participants show on their post-course assessment scores are a direct result of the
training they received.
Assessments should not be an afterthought in course design and delivery. To
accurately measure training effectiveness, assessments need to be aligned with the
course learning outcomes. Once the learning outcomes are identified, it is good practice
to outline the assessment technique most appropriate to measure their mastery. Then,
design instructional and practice activities so participants can successfully complete the
assessments. See Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions.
The traditional multiple-choice final exam is the most used assessment tool. However,
there are several other options that might be better suited to measure the skills, tasks,
and behaviors expected in the learning outcomes:
◼ Assessment Checklists
◼ Case Studies
◼ Concept Maps
◼ Oral Presentations
◼ Rubrics
◼ Test Questions

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Example
A multiple-choice test would not be the best way to measure achievement of the
learning outcomes for the Arizona Department of Transportation “Flagger
Certification Training Course.” A performance assessment is a better option. An
assessment checklist or rubric can be used to document participants’ motions
during the assessment activity. During his NHI “Instructor Development Course”
training presentation, Edgard Baltodano provided props (paper copies of the
Slow/Stop paddle) so participants could demonstrate the motions while he
observed the sequence and clarity of the gestures.
Figure 8 shows slides from his training presentation and the mockup paddle props
he provided. Figure 9 displays an example assessment checklist for the activity.

Source: Baltodano (2019).

Figure 8: Performance outcomes, directions, and props from

“Flagger Certification Training Course”

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 2: Designing Courses for Adult Learners

Flagger Signal Assessment

Date:

Stop Release Slow

Name Paddle Hand Paddle Hand Paddle Hand Pass/Fail
Participant A X X X X X Fail
Participant B X X X X X X Pass
Participant C X X X X X X Pass
Participant D X X X X X X Pass

Source: Baltodano (2019).

Figure 9: Assessment checklist for “Flagger Certification Training Course”

Lesson Design Challenge

Review a course lesson or module to see which method to assess participants’
learning would be a good match for the stated learning outcomes.
◼ Is a physical skill or behavior required? Create a performance checklist and ask
participants to demonstrate their ability to perform the skill or behavior.
◼ Is a written or oral report, plan, or presentation required? Create a rubric based
on the required elements that includes clear descriptions and scores for the
different levels of quality that participants may produce.
◼ Are participants expected to produce the results of calculations or other exact
answers? Create objective multiple choice test questions.
◼ Do participants need to recall the meaning of important terminology? Develop a
matching exercise for them to link the term to its definition.

Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Return to Providing Effective Feedback
Return to Supporting Participants

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 3: Using Best Instructional Practices

Chapter 3: Using Best Instructional Practices

Setting the Hook

Not every participant comes into the classroom with a burning desire to learn. It is easy
to recognize the “Volunteers” (those who willingly signed up for a course) and the
“Convicts” (those who were told to attend). You need to start the course with a strong
opening statement that grabs even the most unmotivated participant’s attention and
creates a desire in them to learn more. The “hook” should be a contextual anecdote,
thought-provoking question or statistics, statement, quote, video, or scenario. A hook is
not a preview of what topics will be covered. You will need to provide hooks at the start
of each module and lesson to focus participants’ attention again.
Here are some ideas to use to create contextual hooks for a course or module:
◼ Current Event Articles or Commentaries
◼ Demonstrations
◼ Real-World Problems
◼ Statistics

Example
Figure 10 displays the hook for the NHI “Utility Investigations” web-based training
course. A TV news reporter announces that road construction crews have severed
a buried cable, causing a wide spread power outage. The next screenshot (figure
11) relates the factors that caused the mock incident to the purpose of the course.
A compelling diagram (figure 12) shows what happens if information from the
course is not applied during construction planning.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Chapter 3: Using Best Instructional Practices

Source: NHI (n.d.g.)

Figure 10: Screenshots of the dynamic opening for “Utility Investigations”

Source: NHI (n.d.g.)

Figure 11: Slide showing link from mock incident to “Utility Investigations” course content

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Source: NHI (n.d.g.)

Figure 12: Illustration showing impact of not using “Utility Investigations” course training

Return to Step 3: Plan Your Opening

Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”

Participants may become intrigued by a dynamic opening, but they need a compelling
reason to learn. As an instructor, it is important to discuss the value of the course. To
motivate learners to fully engage in the training session, it is necessary to explain the
learning outcomes in a way that makes them relevant to participants. They need to
know what they are going to learn and why the learning will be important to them. This
is referred to as sharing the “What’s in it for me?” or WIIFM. One way to share the
WIIFM is to explain how the new skills or behavior can help solve a workplace problem.
Another way is to link the training to more advanced professional opportunities.
Participant expectations are a great place to look to get ideas for WIIFMs.
Here are some ideas to use to create a WIIFM for a lesson:
◼ Anticipation Guides
◼ K-W-L Charts
◼ Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets
◼ Real-World Problems
◼ Soliciting Participants’ Expectations
◼ Surveys/Interactive Polls
◼ Word Clouds/Interactive Polls

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Example
The course overview in the NHI “Utility Investigations” course provides a clear link
between the course learning outcomes and the benefit to learners (figure 13).

Source: NHI (n.d.g.)

Figure 13: WIIFM screenshot from “Utility Investigations” course

Creating a Positive Relationship

We’ve all been in uncomfortable situations—whether sitting with our organization
leadership team or sitting in a new class with a group of strangers—where we don’t feel
comfortable enough to participate. For training to be successful, participants need to
alter or change their behavior. For that to happen, they need to feel secure enough to
take risks and try something new. Anxiety is a real barrier for learning. As an instructor,
building a positive relationship between you and the participants and among participants
themselves is essential for creating an open, supportive learning environment that
meets the physical and psychological needs of adult learners.

Respecting Diversity
Course participants bring a wide range of characteristics, backgrounds, and
experiences to the classroom. It is the instructor’s responsibility to respect participants’
differences and create an inclusive environment that meets the communication needs of
all members of the class. Introductions, icebreakers, and team-building activities can

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help instructors and participants to create positive relationships by finding common

areas of interest or experience, personally and/or professionally.
There are many factors that influence how a person communicates and interacts with
others. However, there are some fixed factors which we have no control over. These
factors are as follows:
◼ Physical qualities and abilities
◼ Race
◼ Ethnicity
◼ Gender
◼ Sexual orientation
◼ Age

It is critical to be aware of these factors because they affect both the instructor and the
course participants and they impact interpersonal relations in the class.

Communicating Ground Rules and “Netiquette”

Ground rules are an important classroom management tool. When you define respectful
behavior during interactions and discussions, it establishes clear expectations for
classroom conduct and promotes an inclusive learning environment. Ground rules give
an instructor the recourse to stop disrespectful or disruptive behavior in the classroom.
Ground rules are most effective if you develop them with input from the class because
participants are more likely to take ownership of the rules and adhere to them. It is best
to set ground rules at the beginning of a course, but you can always take the time later
in the course to stop and create a list of rules to address unproductive or disrespectful
behavior.
Some examples of ground rules are:
◼ No side conversations
◼ Turn off or silence cell phones
◼ Turn off emails and other software programs prior to class
◼ Respect all opinions
◼ One person speaks at a time
◼ Class starts on time, don’t be late

The lack of face-to-face interaction in an online course can sometimes result in a sense
of anonymity. To encourage courteous and respectful online dialogues between
participants and instructors, it is necessary to address the challenges of communicating
without body language and verbal cues. If you are instructing an online course, it is
important to publish and enforce “netiquette,” which refers to a list of expectations for
social and academic behavior and writing style for online participants.
Here are some examples of netiquette ground rules:

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◼ Work in a separate room to maintain focus

◼ Address others by name and be mindful of tone
◼ Avoid writing in capital letters because it can be perceived as shouting
◼ Respect other people’s opinions
◼ Base disagreements on published facts
◼ Be professional by using spell check and avoiding slang and emoticons
◼ Communicate tactfully and avoid profanity

Return to Difficulties with Participants

Redefining Instructor and Learner Roles

In traditional information-oriented classrooms, instructors act as experts who impart
their knowledge through one-sided lectures. The role of the learner in those classrooms
is to passively listen and take notes so they can memorize and reproduce the
information on exams. This “sage on the stage” model is effective in presenting large
amounts of information. However, it does not support retention of learning and its
application in the workplace.
A more effective training model shifts the emphasis from information to the learner. In a
learner-centered classroom, the instructor becomes a “guide on the side,” facilitating
active learning situations in which participants use their existing knowledge and prior
experiences to help them understand the new material. Participants engage with the
content by discussing, analyzing, and manipulating it to reconstruct it in new and
personally meaningful ways. By linking the new information to what they already know,
it is easier for participants to recall and apply the information later in a different setting.

Example
A brainstorming session is a fast and easy way to encourage participants to link
new learning to existing knowledge. In his NHI “Instructor Development Course”
training presentation, “Conducting Effective Program Reviews,” Jon-Paul Kohler
displayed this slide (figure 14) and asked table groups to brainstorm answers to
the question, “Why are objectives critical to a good review?” Kohler distributed
index cards so participants could record their ideas. After allowing time for small
group discussion, he called on one group to report their answers. He then added
onto participants’ prior experiences with the following explanation:
“There is a logical relationship among objectives, observations, and
recommendations. The review objectives focus the review and tie it all together.
Everything about the review can be traced back to the objectives and they are vital
for a review in establishing logic, structure, and meaning.”

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Why are objectives critical

to a good review?

Source: Kohler (2019).

Figure 14: Brainstorming prompt from "Conducting Effective Program Reviews"

For more ideas on ways to help participants link new information to their existing
knowledge, refer to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge.
Online learning presents unique challenges, and the instructor’s role in this setting
expands to meet participants’ technological and learning needs. In an online course, the
participant accesses and consumes the new information. The instructor’s role can be to
create discussions among participants on the critical concepts, principles, and skills.
The instructor also must work hard to create a sense of class community, so
participants are comfortable working together and sharing their thoughts online. Student
introductions, group work assignments, and netiquette expectations can meet the social
and psychological needs of participants. Like in a face-to-face classroom setting, online
instructors manage the online classroom. It is also the instructor’s role to make sure
participants can use the features of the learning management system, including the
online discussion tools and any software required for the course. Instructors often share
“how-to” guides and instructions as part of pre-course reading assignments, along with
technical support resources.

Lesson Planning Challenge

Open the instructor guide to the course and review the introduction unit. Does it
include time to collaboratively create ground rules with the participants? If it
doesn’t or if that activity was skipped in the past, take a moment to jot down the
four most important rules for behavior in the classroom on a large sticky note or
piece of paper. Then, insert that note into the instructor guide as a reminder. When
the course is taught again, write the rules on a large piece of chart paper or a flip

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chart to start the activity. Then ask participants if they have any other rules they
would like to add. Post the rules in a visible spot in the room (or in the Notes pod
in Adobe Connect) and refer to them if you observe any behavior that violates
those rules.

Dealing with Difficulties

Difficulties with Course Content

Despite their expertise in a subject, instructors will sometimes encounter challenges
with the content in a course. Sometimes there is too much content and an instructor
may feel the need to to rush through the slides and skip the activities. Sometimes
participants are disappointed that the content isn’t challenging enough. Other times,
participants don’t have the necessary background knowledge and struggle to keep up.
To overcome these challenges, instructors need to take a hard look at the course
content to answer to some essential questions. Based on the answers to these
questions, instructors need to adjust their lesson plans or create instructional support to
improve the training experience for participants.
What is the “need-to-know” and “nice-to-know” information?
The learning outcomes clearly state what participants are expected to be able to do at
the end of the lesson. The learning outcomes should set the parameters for the lesson.
However, course designers sometimes include extra background material or examples
that expand the scope of a lesson. Depending on participants’ background knowledge,
this extra information may be considered review material or extraneous. Other times,
the examples may be outdated or irrelevant to participants’ work situations.
The learning outcomes should be the guide to what is “need to know” information.
Anything beyond that can be considered “nice to know” Information. Carefully compare
the course materials to the learning outcomes and highlight or mark the “nice to know”
information. If you are pressed for time, another option is to display a slide and ask
participants what bullet(s) is most important to them or which bullet(s) they have a
question about. For more information on using learning outcomes to make instruction
decisions, refer to Working with Learning Outcomes and Using the Outcome Verb to
Make Instructional Decisions.
What do participants already know?
The sorting of “need to know” and “nice to know” information becomes easier when an
instructor has a good idea of what participants already know. There are several ways an
instructor can learn what education, training, and experiences participants bring to the
classroom. Depending on the size of the class, an instructor can ask participants to
share this information when they introduce themselves to the class or provide this
information in a brief biography. If the group is too large for personal introductions, the

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instructor can survey the group on their training and experience. Using the information
gathered, the instructor can then decide if it is necessary to present the information,
skim over it quickly, or provide it as a handout for reference. The beginning of the
course is the best time to gather information about participants’ general knowledge. The
start of a lesson is a good time to ascertain their background knowledge of key
concepts or topics. Write questions to elicit that information from participants. Think of
different ways to gather that information, for example, an oral survey with a show of
hands, a brainstorming session, or another method. For more information on gauging
participants’ prior knowledge, refer to Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets,
Surveys/Interactive Polls, and Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge.
How can I best meet participants’ learning needs?
If the class features a mix of experienced and novice learners, an instructor has a
couple of instructional choices. If the majority of learners are experienced, the instructor
can discreetly ask for mentors to assist their less experienced table mates. The
instructor can also create supplemental handouts or job aids with calculations, step-by-
step instructions, or other essential information to support the struggling learners. If the
group is primarily made up of beginners, the instructor can again draw upon the
knowledge of the more experienced learners. It may be necessary to change how an
activity or discussion is structured to best take advantage of the brain power in the
classroom. For more information on how to bridge the gap between participants’
knowledge and the course content, refer to Supporting Participants.
How can I adapt a discussion or practice activity?
If novice participants will not benefit from whole group discussions and independent
activities, the instructor can adapt the instructional methods to better meet their needs.
Instead of posing questions to the group and calling on one or two participants to
answer, an instructor can turn it into a partner activity. After posing the question, the
instructor can ask participants to discuss their answers with a peer. This provides an
opportunity for the more experienced learners to share their knowledge with a peer and
provide additional feedback, if necessary. If the lesson plan describes an independent
practice activity, the instructor can alter the instructions so the task can be
accomplished either with a partner or as a group. Ask participants to work with one set
of material and ask each member of a group to be responsible for a part of the process.
To debrief the activity, call on table groups to report on their accomplishments,
challenges, and discoveries. For more information on collaborative learning activities,
refer to Think-Pair-Share and Cooperative and Collaborative Learning.

Difficulties with Technology

One challenge all instructors dread is when a battery or light bulb burns out and the
slideshow, video, or microphone doesn’t work. While this can be a shock, it does not
mean the training session will be a failure. The PowerPoint slides are not the course.

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They are just visual aids designed to be a reference tool for the instructor and a
common focus of attention for participants. If the slides are suddenly unavailable and
the participant workbook contains copies of the slides, the instructor can ask
participants to turn to the page in their workbook with the slide image and continue
instruction from there. If the participant workbook does not contain copies of the slides,
the instructor can continue teaching without the slides and, if possible, print lesson slide
handouts for the class during the next break. If the projection system malfunctions but
the video is available on the instructor’s laptop, small groups of participants can take
turns standing around the laptop to view the video. If the video is available on the
internet, the instructor can share the URL and participants can use their smart phones
to access it. The best way to deal with a malfunctioning microphone is to move away
from the projection screen and closer to the learners. This can mean pausing and
delivering instruction while you circulate around the tables or up and down the aisles. It
will be important to check in with participants to make sure they all can hear you. If they
cannot hear you, turn to face them and repeat the information. This is also a good
opportunity to convert whole group discussions into partner or small group activities.
Return to Visual Aids
Return to PowerPoint Slides

Difficulties with Challenging Personalities

Classroom management is another challenge instructors face. It is the instructor’s
responsibility to create and maintain a positive and supportive learning environment.
That means addressing any comments or behaviors that negatively impact the learning
of others in the classroom. Clearly communicating expectations for participant behavior
is a good way to set the tone for interactions and avoid common disruptions. Most often,
ground rules are established at the start of a course, but they can be agreed upon or
revisited any time it is necessary. For more information on developing and enforcing
class rules for behavior, refer to Ground Rules and “Netiquette” or refer to “Ground
Rules" in the NHI publication, The Circle of Learning, available at
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/circle_of_learning.pdf.
Types of Problems
There are two types of problems with participants: those that need to be addressed
immediately and those that are best handled outside the classroom. Disruptions such as
violating ground rules, conducting continual sidebar conversations, disrespecting other
participants or the instructor, telling off-color or racist jokes, etc., should be dealt with in
the classroom, but in a professional manner.
On the other hand, if a reaction from the instructor would embarrass the participant or
make the situation worse, it is best to make a “quick fix” and speak to the participant
during the next break. Behaviors like habitually interrupting other participants,

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continuously challenging the instructor, continually arriving late, etc., should be

managed through one-on-one conversations outside of class time.
If an intervention is necessary, be sure it is non-punitive. Make sure the intervention or
response to the behavior is not intended to hurt, insult, or put a participant on the
defense. Decide when you will speak with the participant. It is important to address the
situation in a timely manner. Be specific and honest when you describe the disruptive
behavior. An important question to ask is why the participant is exhibiting the behavior.
You may be surprised to learn there is a legitimate reason for the behavior. Then, get
consensus with the participant on how he or she will change their behavior.

Difficulties with Virtual Learning

Some difficulties or disruptions are unique to virtual or remote learning situations.
Among these may be the fact that participants may not be wholly focused on the course
and also may be looking at other projects or computer screens during the training. One
way to engage students in web conference or remote/virtual learning is to incorporate
polls and discussions in chat pods, but there are many other methods to help
participants link facts and information back to the content and purpose of the course.
Table 3 presents several techniques to help participants engage with the content and
connect to the instructor and their peers.
Table 3: WCT Engagement Techniques

Technique Description

Sort-it-Out This is a digital version of the traditional concept mapping

exercise. It challenges participants to examine how key
concepts in a unit, lesson, or chapter relate to one another.
Participants can work independently or in pairs to develop
the digital concept map. Ask participants to combine text
and visuals to show the relationship between concepts.
Instructors can have participants complete this activity
online asynchronously and then share them during face-to-
face sessions (blended) or in video conferencing sessions
(online).

Use Chat or Polls to Post survey or poll questions to check participant

Check understanding of concepts. Give the participants time to
Understanding consider the question and respond.

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Technique Description

Spider Web Prior to a remote learning session, participants first answer

Discussions questions independently. Then either participants discuss
their answers with a team that subsequently shares the
team’s responses with the class, or each participant can
share their own answers independently at the start of the
class as part of a larger class discussion.

Flipped Classroom Provide content to participants through a link to a video,

through an earlier class session, or through assigned
reading. Then have participants work individually or in
groups to present their synthesis of the information to the
rest of the class in the synchronous session.

Virtual Think-Pair- Use project-based learning techniques to engage

Share/or Small Group participants by giving participants a prompt, breaking them
Work into groups, and having them record their answers on a
shared document, presentation, or Adobe Connect
whiteboard. Once participants return to the main classroom,
ask volunteers from each group to share their answers with
everyone.

Teach Backs Have participants work in groups to study a niche element of

the lesson or unit. Then have them develop a presentation
and use it to teach the class. With this method, the instructor
will need to have clear expectations of what will be in the
presentation and how long it will be. The instructor also will
need to provide an overview of anything the participants
missed in their presentation.

Non-Verbal Feedback Allow participants to express their opinions by selecting an

icon (e.g., raise hand, thumbs up or down, etc.)

Making It Your Own

Customizing Your Lesson Plan

Although instructors have great training resources at their disposal, they still need to
prepare for teaching by customizing their lesson plans. When you mark up the instructor
guide with good questions or ideas for alternative activities or insert copies of job aids or

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handouts you have created, you are, in a sense, making the course your own. You can
refer to appendix: Tool and Techniques for information on a wide range of instructional
techniques and strategies, practice activities, assessment methods and tools, and ideas
you can use to customize the lesson plan. You can also add content with references to
local conditions or issues to increase the relevance of the course.
While instructors need to cover all the technical content in a course and use the
provided instructor guide and visuals, you can adapt the instructional strategies to meet
the needs of the participants. For instance, if a specific group of participants is hesitant
to join in the class discussions, you can switch to small group activities to encourage
their participation. Or, if you are pressed for time and you know that the participants
already have strong backgrounds in content in one unit, you can find a different way to
present what is review material without as much time on each of the slides in the unit.
The benefits to customizing the lesson plan include:
◼ Ownership of the material: If you have taken the time to customize your
lesson plan, you will have a better sense of ownership of the material. Based
on the instructional experience and your individual teaching style, you are free
to choose the specific teaching methods, illustrative examples, or practice
activities that meet the participants’ learning needs.
◼ Grasp of the delivery: As you review and make notes in the instructor guide,
you will become more familiar with the material and the options for delivery.
The process helps to create a more intimate relationship with the content. The
experience will help you project more confidence and personal experience
when you teach.
◼ Self-Awareness: When you customize the course lesson plan, consider how
you will deliver the content. It is important to recognize that the slides are not
your script and that they are just visual aids to help reinforce your training
delivery. It will help you think ahead regarding what you are going to say, do,
and ask participants. Thinking about this in advance will help you become more
self-aware as an instructor. It will also push you to assess what your strengths
are as an instructor.
• Are you effective at asking thought-provoking questions? Then brainstorm
interesting questions in advance to help learners think through problems
together with you.
• Do you have great examples to enhance the content? Use them.
• Can you think of an interesting scenario to role-play? Plan it out in advance.

The lesson plan customization process forces you to think about the flow of the training
session. It also gives you a chance to consider if there are other ways for you to explain
and sequence the content. You might choose to follow the sequence of slides, but if a
different sequence makes more sense for your approach to the content, you are free to
change the order of the slides. If you change the slide order, remember to let

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participants know so they can follow along in their workbooks.

It is important to remember that a lesson plan is a living document. Not every activity or
technique works the same with every audience. But keep experimenting with your
delivery. Make a note when things go well, as well as ideas for improvement when
things don’t go as planned. If you review and update the lesson plan regularly, you will
eventually figure out a range of effective teaching approaches.
The following sections in this chapter will lead you through the 7-step process that
experienced instructors use to plan an excellent training session (figure 15). If you are
an inexperienced instructor or new to lesson planning, you can start small and
customize one unit at a time. If you are more familiar with the process, you can take a
hard look at your delivery and the content of an entire you. You can use the action plan
at the end of this chapter to help you customize a lesson.

Source: NHI (2018).

Figure 15: Steps for Planning an Excellent Training Session

Step 1: Analyze Participants’ Learning Needs

The first step is to think about the course from the participants’ viewpoint. Ask yourself:
◼ What job(s) do they want or need to get done?
◼ What do they need to do differently?
◼ What are they going to learn from this training?
◼ What decision(s) do they need to make?

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◼ How will you know they are successful?

Step 2: Review the Learning Outcomes

It is crucial for you to review the learning outcomes before you customize the lesson
plan. The learning outcomes can give you a good sense of the scope of the lesson.
They will help you prioritize the “need to know” content rather than focusing on the “nice
to know” content. Look at the action verb that starts each learning outcome. It will
explain what participants are expected to do when they are competent at the task, skill,
or behavior. The verb can also be a clue to which instructional strategy or strategies you
should use to help participants demonstrate mastery.
For more information on lesson planning using learning outcomes, refer to Identifying
Learning Outcomes and Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions.
Return to Identifying Learning Outcomes

Step 3: Plan Your Opening

A great lesson always has a solid opening. The opening is often what determines
whether the instructor will be successful in a course or lesson. But openings are often
rushed or overlooked. It is essential to plan and practice an effective opening to open a
course and start each unit or lesson.
Openings are very versatile. You can use an opening to:
◼ Gain a better understanding of the participants
◼ Trigger interest in the topic
◼ Preview new material
◼ Highlight key points

If you use the few minutes of the lesson strategically, you can create a sense of
excitement and desire to learn in the participants. At the same time, you can gather key
details about them that will help you tailor the course to their specific needs.
For example, if you choose to introduce a topic with a hypothetical scenario, you will
immediately engage participants in the content by getting them to consider possible
outcomes. Their responses will provide you with information about their background
knowledge and experience so you can better meet participants’ needs.
To start his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, the “Project
Development Process,” Ed Woolford led with a question, “How many of you have had
project delays caused by late utility discoveries?” The question served two purposes: it
immediately gave participants a reason to pay attention and gave Ed an idea of how
many participants in his group had project development experience.

For more information on options for creating a strong opening, refer to Setting the Hook.

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Return to Supporting Participants

Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies

The instructor’s goal is to create an active learning environment for the participants so
they will be able to master the learning outcomes. Active learning strategies produce
knowledge that lasts beyond the classroom. They also encourage critical thinking,
creativity, and collaboration that are highly valued in the workplace.
The instructor guide may feature a lecture script, but you can take that as just a
suggestion. You are expected to incorporate different instructional and practice
strategies that will better align with the learning outcomes. Use the action verb in each
learning outcome as a guide to select an appropriate learning strategy.
Note: If something works, don’t break it. But, if your experience shows the as-written
material does not fully meet the needs of participants, you should consider what
strategy might support learners better. This may be the case when you often have a
large population of non-target audience members in your class.
The 10 most common learning strategies used in NHI courses are:
◼ Lectures, see Lectures and Interactive Lectures
◼ Interactive Lectures, see Lectures and Interactive Lectures
◼ Large-group Discussions, see Group Discussions
◼ Small-group Discussions, see Group Discussions
◼ Case Studies
◼ Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets
◼ Demonstrations
◼ Role Playing
◼ Hands-on Practice Activities
◼ Games

For more information on selecting an appropriate instructional strategy refer to Using

the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions.
It is important to note that you are not restricted to the frequently used strategies listed
above. You can explore the wide range of instructional techniques and strategies,
practice activities, assessment methods and tools, and ideas for course materials in
appendix: Tools and Techniques.
Return to Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional Decisions

Step 5: Plan for Knowledge Checks

As you look across the classroom, how can you tell which participants are keeping up
with the content and which ones need clarification or extra support? Tests and quizzes
are just one way for you to take measure of learner comprehension. But it is best not to

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wait until the end of a lesson to determine that some participants have knowledge gaps
or came away with misconceptions.
One simple, but effective way for you and the participants to monitor their learning is to
ask thoughtful knowledge check questions at strategic points during a lesson. When
customizing your lesson plan, review the learning outcomes and ask yourself: “What are
the most important and difficult concepts in this lesson?” Then, write questions to
address those difficult concepts. It is a good rule of thumb to insert a meaningful
question every 3–5 minutes during an interactive lecture.
When writing questions, it is important to remember that there are two types of
questions: application and recall. Use recall questions when you want participants to
produce facts or other details from the course. For example, “What are the
characteristics of a Thru-Turn intersection?” Application questions require higher level
thinking because participants need to apply their knowledge in a unique way. They are
often open-ended and do not have a single, correct answer. An example of an
application question is, “How would you sell the concept of a Thru-Turn intersection to
your local planning committee?”
Another way to check on participants’ understanding is to insert short quiz questions at
key points in your training presentation. You can ask participants to respond through a
show of hands or, if you have the technology, use electronic “clickers.” For more
information on incorporating quiz questions into the lesson, refer to Surveys/Interactive
Polls.

Example
In his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Sidewalk
Collapse US 1 over Earman River,” Richard Kerr inserted an animated slide with a
multiple-choice question to help monitor his participants’ understanding (figure 16).
He presented the answer after participants responded.

Source: Kerr (2019).

Figure 16: Knowledge check slide from “Sidewalk Collapse US 1 over Earman River”

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Return to Guiding Review

Return to Lectures and Interactive Lectures

Step 6: Plan Your Conclusion

Another often overlooked component of a successful training session is the conclusion
to the lesson. A well-written conclusion can:
◼ Reinforce learning
◼ Reiterate key points
◼ Connect new learning to previously covered topics
◼ Present a call to action
◼ Preview future lessons

Some phrases you can use to begin your conclusion include:

◼ “What is something you learned today that you will apply right away when you
get back to your job?”
◼ “What are your big takeaways from this lesson?
◼ “In our next lesson, we are going to expand on _____.”
◼ “Building on what we learned in the previous lesson, ...”
◼ “How do you plan to use this information during your next ___?”

Step 7: Estimate Your Timeline

One of the greatest challenges for instructors is to deliver the “need to know” content
and complete all the planned activities in the given period. Often, instructors find that
they take too long in some sections and feel they need to rush through content or skip
activities in later sections.
Getting a handle on the pacing of your instruction can take time and practice. But
customizing your lesson plan gives you an opportunity to explore and preview the
timeline for your training session.
When planning your timeline for instruction:
◼ Decide how much time each activity will take and write it into your plan.
◼ Identify what material must be covered fully and what items can be skipped if
you are short on time.
◼ Try not to spend more than 20 minutes on one single activity (unless it is
individual work/writing/calculations). An average person has an attention span
of 20 minutes or less, so your instruction will suffer if you don’t introduce a
dynamic change at that point.
◼ Make sure that you are prepared, and have all activities in writing, even if you
explain them verbally. A lot of useful instructional time can get lost on awkward
explanations and clunky transitions.

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Lesson Planning Action Plan

Use the action plan in table 4 to guide your decisions when planning a lesson.

Table 4: Seven Steps for Planning a Lesson

Step Considerations
Step 1: Participants’ Needs The first step is to think about the course from the
participants’ viewpoint. Ask yourself:
◼ What are they going to learn from this training?
◼ What do they need to do differently?
◼ What job(s) do they want or need to get done?
◼ What decision(s) do they need to make?
◼ How will you know they are successful?

Use this space to record your

thoughts about participants’
learning needs.

Step 2: Outcomes Learning outcomes help you focus on the critical

content and control what is taught. Critical
information and skills are the “need to know”
elements of the training and should be reflected
in the learning outcomes; anything else is “nice to
know” information that participants shouldn’t be
held accountable for learning.
You need to communicate the learning outcomes
in a way that links them to participants’
professional development needs. They need to
know what they are going to learn and why the
learning is important. Ask yourself:
◼ How can I make the learning outcomes
relevant to participants?

Use this space to record your

thoughts about learning
outcomes:

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Step Considerations

Step 3: Opening A great lesson will always have a solid opening.

Openings are very versatile. They can be used to
gain a better understanding of your participants
and trigger interest in the topic. How much do
they know? How can I modify this presentation to
fit this specific group of participants? These
questions can be answered if you use your first
minutes of your lesson strategically.
Use this space to record your
thoughts about an opening:

Step 4: Learning Strategies Every instructional strategy has advantages and

challenges. NHI will provide recommended
strategies for you. As an instructor, you know
what your participants need, what they already
know about the content, how they might use it,
and what they want to get out of the training
course. What mechanisms might help these
participants best interact with the content?
Use this space to record your
thoughts about learning
strategies:

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Step Considerations
Step 5: Check for The instructor must plan to check for
Understanding understanding during each segment of training.
Thoughtful and timely questions are the best way
to measure participants’ progress and
comprehension ahead of formal assessments.
Use this space to record your
thoughts about how you will
evaluate the participant
understanding:

Step 6: Conclusion A great lesson plan would use a conclusion

strategically, to reinforce learning and retention
and to build logical bridges between new and old
content.
Use this space to record your
thoughts about concluding the
lesson:

Step 7: Timing The timeline of instruction—or “pace”—is central

to the efficiency of the training. Decide how much
time each activity will take, and write it into your
plan. Decide what material must be covered fully,
and what items can be dropped if you are short
on time.
Use this space to record your
thoughts about how much time
you will use for each component
of your lesson:

Return to Customizing Your Lesson Plan

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Return to Customizing Your Lesson Plan
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Working with Learning Outcomes

Action Plans
An action plan is a strategic planning tool used to record the tasks required to reach a
goal. It is like a roadmap that divides the tasks into actionable segments along a
timeline. Each task has its own due date and person responsible for completing it. An
action plan can also be used to track a project’s schedule and budget. It is a living
document and can be updated or adjusted to meet the organization’s needs.
An action plan can include:
◼ A well-defined goal description
◼ Steps or tasks that need to be complete to reach the goal
◼ Names of people assigned to each task
◼ Deadlines and milestones
◼ Necessary resources
◼ Measures for evaluating progress

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Ask participants to begin an action plan on how they will implement what they have
learned in class when they return to their workplace. Ask them to identify two or three
changes they want to make, any resources they will need, any incremental steps they
will need to take in preparation, people who can assist or collaborate, and personal
deadlines. You can create a template to facilitate their planning.
Web Conference Training
If the course features collaborative work over several weeks, ask participants to create
an action plan outlining the incremental tasks, roles, responsibilities, resources required,
and deadlines. Participants can use the Gantt chart plug-in for PowerPoint to detail the
timeline for their project.
Return to Pragmatists

Analogies
An analogy is a comparison of two things that are alike in some way. Research has
shown that analogies can help participants understand the structure of new material in

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terms of what they already know. You can help participants recognize key features of a
new concept by creating analogies based on physical similarities or other relationships
such as synonyms, antonyms, part/whole, cause effect, thing/function, etc.
Analogies are very useful but they have their limitations. Participants can learn the
analogy but not truly understand the underlying relationship. When that happens, they
are unable to transfer their knowledge to a new situation. You can help them stretch
their understanding by providing more than one analogy. Or ask them to come up with
their own analogy and share it with a partner or small group. If you overhear an
incorrect analogy, you can help the participant understand what is incorrect about the
relationship they are trying to make and suggest another conceptually correct one.

Examples
During his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Highway
Plan Reading: Centerline Stationing,” Jeff Jasper used a knotted rope as an
analogy to explain highway stationing notation (figure 17).
“Highway stationing might be compared with a rope having knots at 100-foot
intervals. The beginning of the rope would be 0, the first knot at 100 feet would be
Station number 1 and would be written as 1+00. The second station number would
be 2 (which is 200 feet from the beginning) and would be written as 2+00 and so
on.”

Source: Jasper (2018).

Figure 17: Knotted rope analogy for highway station numbering

Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge

Return to Supporting Participants

Anticipation Guides
Anticipation guides are an easy way to get participants to think of what they know about
a topic and then help them link new information to their prior knowledge. Anticipation
guides are a list of statements related to a topic. Participants read the statements and
mark whether they agree or disagree. Anticipation guides also help participants set a
purpose for learning because they will want to look for information to confirm their initial
beliefs or provide reasons to rethink them.
Writing anticipation guide statements takes some thinking. Good anticipation guide
statements should:

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

◼ Focus on the information you want participants to think about (learning

outcomes)
◼ Be based on information in the course materials that either supports or
opposes the statement
◼ Challenge participants’ beliefs
◼ Be general rather than specific

Instructions
How to use an anticipation guide:
1. Create an anticipation guide using 2–10 statements and provide a way for
participants to mark their agreement or disagreement. The statements should
relate to the learning outcomes.
2. Ask participants to complete the anticipation guide independently. Then ask
participants to discuss their responses with a partner or small group. After the
discussion, give participants the opportunity to change their response if they
want.
3. Participants read and/or listen and engage with your interactive lecture with the
purpose of finding information about the statements. They take notes as to
where they found their supporting or disproving information and should be
allowed to change their response if they want.
4. At the end of the lesson or unit, conduct a brief class discussion and ask
participants if they changed their position about any of the statements. Ask
participants to supply specific examples from the course materials.

Example
An example of one statement in an anticipation guide that Abdalla Abdelmoez
could have used in his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation,
“Impacts under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)”, is shown in figure
18.
Statement Before Notes After
National Environmental Policy Act T/F T/F
(NEPA) mandates are unreasonable.
T/F T/F

Source: Abdelmoez (2018).

Figure 18: “NEPA Impacts” anticipation guide

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Provide a printed copy of the anticipation guide questions as a handout for participants
to complete and then revisit at the end of the lesson or unit. Or create the anticipation
guide using a free online form-building software and send participants a link to complete
it online. You can display the results and use them as a discussion starter later in the
lesson. Allow participants to take the survey again at the end of the lesson or course to
see if any of them have changed their minds.
Web-Based Training
Format anticipation guide statements as on-screen questions at the start of a lesson or
unit (for example, “Do you think/believe ….?”). Follow up with the question, “Why or why
not?” Present the questions again at the end of the lesson or module with slightly
different phrasing (for example, “What do you think now?” “Do you think/believe ….?”).
Again, follow up with the “why or why not” question. Self-answered questions like these
increase the level of active learning in an independent study or online course.
Web Conference Training
You can enter the anticipation guide statements as poll questions that appear while
participants are waiting for the online session to begin. You can display the poll results
and use them as a discussion starter later in the lesson. Re-post them again at the end
of the lesson or module to see if participants have changed their minds.
Sharing the "What's in it for me?"
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge
Return to Summarizing

Assessment Checklists
A checklist is an assessment tool that lists the specific criteria for the skills, behaviors,
or attitudes that participants should demonstrate to show successful learning from
training. Checklists usually feature statements or questions about the participant’s
performance of each criteria. Answer choices are generally limited to “Yes” or “No.”
Because they clearly state the skills, behaviors, and/or attitudes expected at the end of
training, both participants and instructors can use checklists to monitor learning.
Instructors and peers can use checklists to record their observations during participant
demonstrations or performances.
Instructions
To create an assessment checklist:
1. Identify the key skills, behaviors, or attitudes in a learning outcome, as well as

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any conditions (time limits, resources used, etc.)

2. Write a clear, specific, observable description of the skill, behavior, or attitude.
3. Write a sentence or question for each description.
4. Create a checklist document and leave a space for the date. This will help you
track participant progress if more than observation will take place.
5. Organize the statements/questions into a table with spaces for checkmarks or
Yes/No responses.
6. Leave space(s) to write anecdotal comments
7. Share the assessment checklist with participants at the start of the training.

Example
Figure 19 displays an assessment checklist that could be used with Jeff Jasper’s
NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Highway Plan
Reading: Centerline Stationing,” is shown below.
Participant Name: _______________________ Date: __________________

Centerline Stationing Checklist

Criteria Yes No
Participant uses correct terminology when defining centerline notation:
◼ Centerline X
◼ Station X
◼ Offset X
Participant can mark a centerline station if given stationing notation. X
Participant can write notation for a station marked on a centerline. X
Participant can calculate the distance and direction of an offset from the
X
centerline.

Comments:

Source: Jasper (2018).

Figure 19: Centerline stationing assessment checklist

Return to Assessing Learning

Return to Oral Presentations

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Return to Projects
Return to Test Questions

Background Information
Background information should provide the participants with relevant information about
the topic to be studied. Background information can include research studies, records of
historical events, statistics, case studies, interviews, etc. Background information can
provide context for the topic and help participants evaluate and organize new
information.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
In preparation for the course, gather industry references, professional articles, research
studies, or other resources that can provide additional details and context for interested
participants. Make copies of the background information and lay them out on a
resources table for participants to either peruse or—if you have enough copies—take
home to read.
Web Conference Training
In preparation for the course, gather industry references, professional articles, research
studies, or other resources that can provide additional details and context for interested
participants. Upload a resources list with publication and document titles and links to the
File Share Pod. At appropriate times during the course, mention a document or
publication listed in the File Share Pod that might interest participants. If a participant
suggests another document, allow them to share it using the Web Share Pod.
Return to Statistics
Return to Theorists

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a creative, collaborative method you can use to generate a list of ideas
or possible solutions to a problem. It is a powerful team building activity because all
participants can play a role. Everyone is invited to share their ideas without fear of
criticism. The goal of brainstorming is to generate many ideas quickly, and “out-of-the-
box” thinking can be encouraged. The ideas are then discussed, merged, and refined.
The group eventually works to achieve a consensus on the final list or best approach to
solve the problem.
You can also encounter challenges running a brainstorming activity. Some participants
need more time to formulate their ideas or are reluctant to speak in front of a group.

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Other participants will sometimes try to dominate the session. Also, if you find that you
are working in an organization with hierarchical leadership, participants may be less
motivated to share new ideas if they believe they will be ignored. You may have to
actively manage the activity so all voices can be heard. While the idea-generating part
of the activity is supposed to be judgement-free, disagreements can flare up during the
review and evaluation stage. Consensus building is not always peaceful.
Here are some guidelines for an effective brainstorming session:
◼ Set a time limit
◼ Provide a clearly defined question or goal
◼ Prohibit negative feedback (words or body language)
◼ Encourage different perspectives
◼ Allow one speaker at a time
◼ Encourage quantity and quality
◼ Expand on others’ ideas
◼ Record all ideas

Instructions
How to conduct a brainstorming activity:
1. Introduce the challenge (generate a list, come up with solutions, etc.).
2. Explain the ground rules for the activity.
3. Set the timer.
4. Participants take turns sharing their ideas.
5. Encourage creative, non-traditional thinking.
6. Record all ideas on a white board, easel paper, or sticky notes.
7. When time is up, review the ideas.
8. Guide a discussion on how to group or organize the ideas to refine the list
9. If the goal is to arrive at a recommended solution, facilitate a discussion on the
merits of the refined ideas.
10. Achieve a consensus with the group on the best option.

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Example
At a meeting on a corporate initiative, the Knowledge Management Unit gathered
participant input during a problem-solving brainstorming session using
crowdsourcing. The goal of the brainstorming session was to get information on
best practices, lessons learned, and action items. To encourage participation, the
unit sent registrants pre-event emails with question prompts and explained how
participant input would be used. At scheduled times during the event, the session
host posted open-ended questions, polls, and word cloud prompts in the virtual
platform (i.e., Microsoft Teams or Adobe Connect.) After the set time elapsed for
each prompt, the session host displayed the answers, poll results, or word cloud.
The session moderator facilitated discussions on the brainstorming results and
explained what would be done with the collected information. For registrants who
may have missed the event, a post-event survey was provided with all the
crowdsource questions.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Instead of verbally sharing, provide participants with a stack of sticky notes or note
cards so they can write down their ideas. Then, ask them to read their ideas aloud, have
the groups move around and read each other’s notes, or collect them and read them to
the group. Sticky notes make it easier to group and organize the ideas during the
refinement part of the activity.
Web-Based Training
For online courses, set a time limit in terms of hours instead of minutes. Participants can
post ideas to a common wiki or collaborative document. As they review the posted
comments, they can leave comments or contribute additional ideas if they become
inspired. If a consensus is required, schedule a web conference meeting, and facilitate
the discussion.
Web Conference Training
There are several collaborative online tools that allow participants to type on virtual note
cards or whiteboards during a live or asynchronous session. Using the web conference
platform, you can set up small discussion groups so participants can edit or expand the
ideas and arrange the cards or idea bubbles into groups or categories. Then bring the
groups together for a whole group discussion where they can present their ideas and
work together to achieve a consensus that meets the activity goal.
Return to Activists
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge

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Return to Summarizing

Case Studies
A case study refers to an in-depth study of a person or issue to get a multifaceted view.
Information is gathered from different sources, such as through observation and
interviews. The collected data is reviewed and relevant theories are applied to
recommend a course of action. While the case study method originated in the medical
field as a study of a patient, many professional fields use the case study method to
better understand a person, group, community, or event.
There are two types of case studies:
◼ Problem-solving case studies are used to investigate a problem or situation and
use analysis and theory to recommend a solution.
◼ Descriptive case studies are used to understand a situation better. This type of
case study looks closely at particular aspects of a situation, person, or group to
identify what happened and why. Descriptive case studies are useful for
guiding decision making in other cases with similar features.

Case studies offer some unique benefits. They provide in-depth information that
otherwise might not be able to be phyiscally or ethically created. Case studies also
provide a wealth of context to help understand a problem or situation. They allow
participants to analyze concrete data, and then view it through a theoretical lens, and
apply theoretical knowledge in real-life situations. Because the situation may resemble
actual workplace problems, case studies support the transfer of knowledge.
For more information on effectively using theories in instruction, refer to Theories.
There are also cons to using case studies in training. An existing case study may not fit
your training needs and developing a case study is a time-consuming process. It also
takes participants more time to work with a case study than other instructional methods.
To manage class time, make sure that participants clearly understand the objectives of
the case study analysis, any outside resources they can use, your expecations of their
final product, and the time limit. A rubric is the best assessment tool to measure the
quality and completeness of participant work. As there is no one, correct answer, the
results of the case study can be ambiguous. This can be a source of frustration to some
participants.
There are two options for using a case study in the training environment. You can
present one or more short scenarios that focus on a single aspect or problem. This is
good if you have a short class or want to concentrate on one learning outcome. Or you
can weave a case study of a complex situation throughout the course so the
participants can use it to master several objectives. In any case, you need to orient
participants to the points to note, provide questions for them to answer, and, in the end,

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ask for their takeaways from the activity.

Example
Here is an example to show how to use one case study throughout a course. The
activity is designed to meet the following objectives:
◼ Manage changes to construction projects
◼ Manage stakeholder expectations of change
The instructor presents a project charter with limited background information and
project requirements. The participants analyze the project charter and ask
questions to get a better perspective on the project scope and objectives.
Throughout the course, participants refer to the case study scenario to develop
project planning components including a:
◼ Scope statement
◼ Communication plan
◼ Project schedule
◼ Risk identification and management
◼ Stakeholder matrix
At some point during the activity, the instructor adds a change to the project to
force participants to think through how they can manage project changes. By the
end of the course, the participants have practiced applying all the topics they had
learned to a “real-life” project.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
You can ask participants to create a diagram to demonstrate their comprehension of
complex case study scenario. While they record what they know, they will be able to
identify information they are missing. Diagramming can also help them to visualize the
sequence, organization, or hierarchy involved in the decision-making process. You will
need to create and share a checklist or other assessment tool with criteria so
participants will be aware of the purpose and expectations for their final product.
Web-Based Training
Independent study courses offer an opportunity to add an interesting twist to the case
study analysis activity. Start with a compelling story and use avatar characters to create
an emotional appeal. Add branching options so participants need to navigate realistic
workplace situations. Each branching option allows participants to check their
assumptions or find more information. Participants get to see the consequences of their
choices as they work to achieve their desired outcomes, and if they don’t succeed the
first time, they can back up or begin again to test different choices.

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Web Conference Training

You can create small participant groups to analyze and discuss a case study. They can
communicate synchronously or asynchronously using a web conferencing platform or
other video or chat application. Assign participants roles in the case study analysis or let
them decide within their group who will do what. Using collaborating writing applications,
they can gather and organize their ideas, and create a final presentation to share with
the whole class.
Return to Assessing Learning
Return to Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
Return to Pragmatists
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Supporting Participants
Return to Theories

Concept Maps
A concept map is a diagram that visually represents relationships between concepts
and ideas. Ideas are contained in boxes or circles (or nodes) and are arranged in a
hierarchical structure connected with lines or arrows. The concepts are connected by
lines labeled with words and phrases to help explain the connections. You can hand-
draw a concept map or use an online concept map maker.
You can create a concept map to give participants a “big picture” view of a course and
show how the different topics fit together. Or you can ask participants to create their
own concept maps to demonstrate their understanding. One of the downsides to using a
concept map as an assessment is that you will need to develop a checklist or rubric to
assess the quality and completeness of the participants’ concept maps. Another
downside is that grading concept maps can be a time-consuming process.

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Example
Figure 20 displays a concept map based on some details from NHI’s Post-
Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual.

Figure 20: Post-tensioning tendon installation and grouting concept map

Instructions
To create a concept map activity:
1. Create a focus question from a learning outcome, such as “Why is
cybersecurity important to the transportation ecosystem?” or “How do all the
elements of a construction program review report relate?"
2. At the beginning of a lesson or module, ask participants to generate a list of
relevant concepts and details to answer the question. Encourage them to
organize their information hierarchically by level of specificity.
3. Demonstrate how they can draw or create a draft concept map using the
chosen method. Explain that, if needed, they can make multiple connections
between concepts.
4. At different points in the lesson, allow participants to add details to their map.
Ask them to provide examples to clarify the meaning of concepts.
5. If designed as an assessment, collect the concept maps for grading.
6. If designed as a practice activity, display an example concept map and ask
participants to discuss the map with a partner and share any other details or
connections they identified.

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Print out major details from the course on address labels and apply them to index cards.
Keep the details for each lesson separate from one another. Distribute the groups of
details among the table groups. Ask participants to review the details and, as a table
group, arrange them to show their connections to one another. Then, each group can
attach them to an easel pad sheet and share them with class. Other table groups can
point out connections to the details being shared. The concept maps can be hung on
the classroom wall and reviewed at the end of a lesson.
Web Conference Training
Create a concept map from the most important details of the course. Share the concept
map with participants at the start of the course to provide a general overview of what the
course will cover. Review the map again at the start of each lesson to allow participants
to see how the details to be covered fit into the context of the entire course.
Return to Assessing Learning
Return to Graphic Organizers
Return to Guiding Review
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements
Return to Structured Notes

Concrete Examples
Concrete examples are specific, real-life examples used to illustrate an idea. They can be
useful in helping participants grasp abstract concepts because they present the conceptual
elements in a recognizable context. Concrete examples can be verbal descriptions, stories,
actual objects (realia), and models. It can take time to come up with a concrete example.
Some ways to identify examples are to recognize concrete examples used by your peers;
search books, articles, and other courses for examples; and be on the lookout for examples
as you go about your day. As vivid and captivating as they may be, concrete examples may
not be enough for participants to truly grasp the underlying concepts. You will need to
explicitly point out the elements of the concept in the example. You will also need to
reference them again when you ask participants to transfer their conceptual understanding
to a new context.

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Example
In his NHI “Instructor Development Course” presentation, “Drilled Shaft Volume,” Don
Dwyer used three coffee mugs as a concrete examples to explain the challenges of
estimating the capacity of an irregularly-shaped hole. The mugs were the same height
but had different diameters (figure 21). He filled the mugs with water, then measured
the capacity of each by pouring its contents into a translucent measuring cup. Next,
he asked participants to explain why the mugs had different capacities even though
their heights were the same. He then asked participants to use what they had learned
about the impact of diameter on the capacity of the mugs to estimate the capacity of a
drilled shaft. Figure 22 shows slides containing the formula for calculating capacity of
a cylinder, instructions for plotting the depth of poured concrete in a drilled shaft, and
examples of the data recorded for concrete poured into two irregularly shaped shafts.
He explained, “A drilled shaft has the ‘perfect’ volume of concrete for its designed
diameter and length. But because the ‘mouth’ of the shaft is at the surface of the
ground and the rest is hidden underground, you cannot see the shape. So how can
we learn something about the shape using the volume?”

Figure 21: Coffee mugs used as a concrete example

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Source: Dwyer (2018)

Figure 22: Slides relating cylinder volume to drilled shaft capacity from
“Drilled Shaft Volume,”

Return to Supporting Participants

Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

Collaborative learning is an instructional strategy that asks participants to work in teams
to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project. Participants can be
located in the same classroom or can work together on the shared assignment via the
internet. Collaborative teams can hold discussions or contribute during real-time
meetings or post comments, upload files, or work on collaborative online documents
during times convenient to individual members. For ideas on how to structure a
collaborative learning assignment, refer to Projects, Case Studies, Observational
Activities, and Oral Presentations.
Unlike collaborative learning, which is designed for self-directed learning and
exploration, cooperative learning is organized around structured projects or activities.
While collaborative learning teams can work independently and combine their
contributions, cooperative groups meet face to face and their work is assessed both
individually and as a team. For collaborative and cooperative groups to succeed, they
need to be small enough so that all members can make meaningful contributions, and
they need clearly defined tasks.

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Example
Jamal Elkaissi incorporated a collaborative activity into his NHI “Instructor
Development Course” training presentation on “Accelerated Bridge Construction.”
Figure 23 displays the learning outcomes for his training presentation. To assess
achievement of the first outcome, “identify the advantages for using Accelerated
Bridge Construction,” he divided the class into groups of three. He then asked
them to identify the advantages from the perspectives of a bridge owner, bridge
engineer/designer, and construction contractor. The activity helped reinforce the
purpose of lesson: to be able to communicate the advantages of the novel
construction method. Participants had to reflect on their learning and then evaluate
it based on their assigned role. The activity served not only as a review and
assessment but also provided participants with an opportunity to practice using
their new information when they were back on the job.

Source: Elkaissi (2019).

Figure 23: Learning outcomes from “Accelerated Bridge Construction”

Collaborative and cooperative learning is beneficial for groups with mixed skill or
experience levels. Despite their differences, members can share and contribute. When
participants engage in collaborative and cooperative learning activities, they “construct”
new ideas based on both their own experiences and understandings and those of their
team members. The two learning strategies result in deeper understanding of the
content, increased engagement, and heightened motivation. Participants in
collaborative and cooperative learning activities tend to take ownership of the material
and think more critically about related issues when they work as a team. Collaborative
and cooperative learning also increases the number of opportunities learners get to
receive feedback. Unlike in whole group activities, where just one or two participants get
feedback from the instructor, small group members get personal feedback from their
peers on their ideas and responses.

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As with any group activity, group dynamics can come into play, and instructors may
occasionally need to address any conflicts that arise. The instructor should be aware
that collaborative or cooperative activities may place an unfair burden on more
experienced participants if they are expected to both teach their less experienced team
members and also produce more of the finished product. More assertive members also
may take it upon themselves to take over their groups and discount or ignore the
contributions of their peers. Instructors need to monitor group work and keep in touch
with all participants to make sure that all participants’ voices are heard and that their
contributions are valued.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
“Catch-Up” is an easy collaborative activity that can break up a lecture-heavy lesson. At
a transition point in the lecture, stop and ask participants to turn to a partner or work in a
small group. Explain that they will have 2–3 minutes to compare notes and ask clarifying
questions. Once the time is up, open the floor to a few questions.
Web Conference Training
“Four Corners” can be adapted to a web conference course by creating breakout rooms
or small group chats.
Instructions:
1. Select a topic aligned to the learning outcomes and provide participants with
four choices (for example, 4 bridge types, 4 construction methods, 4 crash
modification factors, etc.).
2. Ask participants to choose one. Based on the learning outcome, ask
participants to think of two or three examples, characteristics, issues, etc.
Explain that they will share their ideas with a partner who has made the same
choice.
3. Create a “corner,” i.e., a breakout room or small group chat space, for each
choice. Post the choices and assignment in the chat space as a reminder.
4. Set a time limit for small group discussions.
5. Participants navigate to their appropriate “corner.”
6. Participants pair up and discuss their answers with their partner.
7. When the time is up, the whole group returns to the main room and the
instructor calls on each “corner” to share their ideas.

Return to Supporting Participants

Return to Guiding Review
Return to How can I adapt a discussion or practice activity?

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Course Outline/Syllabus
A course outline, or syllabus, is a document that contains key information about a
course. It also explains the class rules, policies, and procedures and expectations for
behavior. A course outline can be a learning tool for participants because it clearly
describes what they need to be effective learners and provides information about
academic resources to support them. As it documents what is covered in a course, at
what level, and for what kind of credit, a course outline also serves as a permanent
record for the course.
Course outlines generally include the following information:
◼ Course description
◼ Course schedule
◼ Learning outcomes
◼ Learning/assessment tasks
◼ Due dates for assessments
◼ Assessment criteria
◼ Assessment submission procedures
◼ Prescribed texts and recommended readings
◼ Grades of assessment
◼ Participant responsibilities

If participants have a course outline, they will know what to expect from the course and
can plan their workloads accordingly. A course outline also allows participants to see
how the course content fits into other learning they may have accomplished or how it is
part of a larger learning progression. However, as many an instructor can relate,
participants do not always read their course outlines completely or carefully.
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Current Event Articles or Commentaries

Transportation is often in the background of many social or natural events. Starting off
with an article or opinion column on current events can offer participants a chance to
analyze a course or lesson through a different lens.
Instructions
1. Share a pertinent quote or section from the article or commentary and supply a
complete copy of the published piece for participants to review.
2. Start a brief discussion by asking some open-ended questions, like:
• What are the transportation issues associated with this event?
• The name of this module/lesson is ____. How do you think this article/
commentary relates to that topic?

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• What information do you think is missing?

• How does this event affect your community/job?
• What do you want to learn to be better prepared for events like this in the
future?

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Instead of displaying an image of the current events article or commentary on a slide,
just display the headline or short quote, and include the author’s name and the title of
the publication. Supply a copy of the entire text as a handout.
Web Conference Training
You can post a link to a current events article or commentary and assign it as pre-
reading. Then, either discuss it at the beginning of the first course conference session
or have participants create a discussion thread using the chat feature in the video
conferencing platform.
Return to Setting the Hook

Demonstrations
Demonstrations can prime participants for learning because they make participants
think of what they already know about a topic. Watching a demonstration can
sometimes highlight a participant’s misconceptions or gaps in knowledge and create a
desire to learn more.
Demonstrations can include:
◼ Experiments
◼ Surveys
◼ Data analysis
◼ Simulations

When an instructor uses a demonstration to walk participants through a website or

software interface, it is sometimes called a “tutorial tour.”
Instructions
How to conduct a demonstration:
1. Demonstrations need to be carefully planned, and it is a good idea to practice
them several times in advance.
2. Explain the demonstration and ask participants to make predictions about the
result.
3. Ask participants to take notes as you perform the demonstration in front of the

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class.
4. After the demonstration, ask participants to reflect on what they saw and
identify the differences between what occurred and their predictions.

Example
In his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Drilled Shaft
Volume,” Don Dwyer presented a demonstration on the challenges of estimating
drilled shaft volume. He used three coffee mugs that had the same height but
different diameters. He then related the volume and shape of the mugs to the
volume and shape of a drilled shaft. Figure 24 displays the slide he used to link the
coffee mug demonstration to the task.
◼ Put out three coffee cups of the same height.
◼ Ask the class to describe and compare the volume and shape of the cups.
◼ Ask if you can you infer relative volumes from your observations?
◼ Ask how could you better determine volumes of each cup?
◼ Connect this to drilled shafts.
◼ A drilled shaft has the “perfect” volume of concrete for its designed diameter
and length. But because the “mouth” of the shaft is at the surface of the ground
and the rest is hidden underground, you cannot see the shape. So how can we
learn something about the shape using the volume?

Source: Dwyer (2018)

Figure 24: Demonstration explanation slide from “Drilled Shaft Volume”

◼ We know the theoretical volume of the shaft. The volume vs. depth plots in a
straight line because Volume = Area x Depth.
◼ When area is constant, volume is linearly related to depth.

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◼ Concrete is delivered in trucks holding known volumes. If we plot the volume vs.
depth to top of concrete, we can compare this to the theoretical volume.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Take the number of participants and your classroom layout into consideration when
planning a demonstration. Will they all be able to see it? Would it be better if they left
their seats and gathered at the front of the room? Is physical safety a consideration?
Can you record the demonstration in advance and play the video instead? Can you
leave the classroom and conduct the demonstration outside or in another part of the
building?
Web-Based Training
Find a video of a similar demonstration or record yourself performing the demonstration
and embed it into the course materials. Preface the demonstration with predictive
questions and follow it with reflective questions.
Web Conference Training
Find a video of a similar demonstration or record yourself performing the demonstration
and present it during a course web conference. You can use the video conferencing
platforms polling tools or chat feature to allow participants to record their predictions
beforehand. Display the poll results after the demonstration and use them to start a
follow-on discussion.
Return to Setting the Hook
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies

Feedback—Peer or Instructor
Constructive feedback, in the form of comments or suggestions from instructors or
peers, plays an important role in participants’ mastery of learning outcomes. Without
feedback, participants are unsure if they have grasped a concept or are performing a
task correctly. Instructor feedback can be informal, like clarifications after a class
discussion, or formal, like notes on a checklist or rubric or final exam results. However,
participants may not always perceive feedback positively, provide effective feedback to
avoid damaging participants’ morale and negatively impacting their job performance.
Research has shown that to be effective, feedback must be:
◼ Specific and objective—The feedback must provide participants with exact
details on what they have done correctly and the areas that still require
improvement. It can also be useful to tell the participants what they are doing
differently than before.

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◼ Immediate—The sooner you can provide feedback to participants, the more

successful they will be in improving their performance.
◼ Outcome oriented—The feedback should be based on a goal the participants
are working towards. It should provide clear information to help them improve
their performance to achieve that actionable goal.
◼ Noncompetitive—Participants should be aware of the purpose of all
observations and assessments and that the feedback is intended to guide their
improvement. It is also important to clarify that the feedback is not meant to
create competition between participants.
◼ Transparent—Participants should have access to information about their
performance. This knowledge helps them develop self-awareness about their
own learning. It also improves their ability to identify their own mistakes and to
develop long-term strategies for addressing areas that need improvement.

Peer feedback can be as effective as instructor feedback. If work teams are training
together, members can learn about each other’s strengths and weaknesses and build
friendships based on mutual support during feedback sessions. Participant peers that
work closely together can provide each other accurate and detailed feedback based on
their unique perspective. Also, receiving feedback from a peer can be less intimidating
than from an instructor.
However, you must manage peer feedback well. Participants must be trained to observe
and objectively measure peer performance based on identified criteria. They also need
to be trained to provide specific details in their comments. As with instructor delivered
feedback, peer reviews should include comments on what participants are doing well as
well as suggestions for improvement. To help participants receiving feedback to remain
open to suggestions, explain that their role is to listen to the feedback and not try to
justify any choices or actions.
Instructions
How to provide guidance on peer feedback:
1. Share peer assessment tool that details performance criteria.
2. Explain the purpose of peer feedback.
3. Emphasize that feedback should be objective, not personal.
4. Describe participants’ responsibilities during the observation process.
5. Explain that positive feedback will be delivered first, suggestions for
improvement will be shared afterwards.
6. Ask for questions about the feedback procedure.
7. Remind participants that, when it is their turn to receive feedback, they are to
listen and not try to justify their choices or actions.
8. Once participants have gathered observational data on a peer’s performance,
ask for one or two volunteers to provide feedback.
9. Prompt the volunteers to provide positive feedback first, then constructive

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feedback second.
10. Ask all participants to share their completed assessment tool with comments
with the performer.
11. Continue the observation and feedback activity for the next participant.

Example
Every few years, the FHWA Discipline Council conducts peer reviews. The
disciplines represent 22 technical fields including construction, safety,
environment, human resources, etc. The peer review assessments evaluate the
health of the discipline—identify its areas of strength, challenge, and
improvement—and any best practices or lessons learned that should be
implemented by all disciplines. The peer assessments feature a rating system and
data collection form. To provide a wide perspective, representatives from the
disciplines are assigned the role of reviewers and receivers so they are exposed to
the practices of at least two other disciplines. Peer reviews can be conducted
virtually using SharePoint Online and MS Teams platforms. The FHWA Discipline
Council uses the results from the peer reviews to inform its action plan and
strengthen its overall Discipline Support System.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
At the end of an individual or group presentation, ask for volunteers from the class to
provide one or two positive comments and one recommendation or growth-producing
comment.
Web Conference Training
Instead of just highlighting the correct answers on knowledge check poll questions and
surveys, remind participants why the other answers are incorrect.
Return to Reflectors

Games
Typically, games are competitive activities based on rules. Competitive games include
BINGO and other games based on popular TV shows. Players compete individually or
as part of a team. Competitive games are versatile and are great for openings, team
building, review, or to energize a group during a period of low energy.
But did you know there are noncompetitive games that encourage participants to
interact or collaborate to achieve a common goal? These are great to use as
icebreakers at the start a course or new day of training.

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Games introduce pleasure, reward, and spontaneity into the classroom. They provide a
safe environment for experimentation and failure. Games are motivating because they
give participants a sense of autonomy and competency. Games force participants to
demonstrate their learning and they receive immediate feedback. As a result, games
increase learning and retention. Research shows that after playing a training game,
employees become more confident in their ability to perform the task, skill, or behavior
on the job.
Games have some drawbacks, though. Not all content is suitable for a game. Some
participants don’t see the value in games and feel they make the training less “serious”.
Games also take time to plan, test, and describe. Participants can become confused
and disengaged if a game is poorly designed. Games may also bring out the hyper
competitiveness in some participants and they may overwhelm or apply undue pressure
on their teammates to perform. Quieter, less assertive participants may feel
uncomfortable participating in boisterous team activities. Games may also inhibit
learning if the focus is on winning and not the support of learning outcomes.
Instructions
How to conduct a game:
1. Explain the objective of the game, how it will be scored, what is required to win,
and any time limits.
2. Describe the possible actions or moves.
3. If the game will involve more than one round, explain the game sequence.
4. Assign the players to teams if the game features team play.
5. Allow the team to choose their own captain or leader.
6. Distribute any game materials.
7. Answer any questions.
8. Start the game and remind players of the time limit.
9. At the end of the stated time, signal to the players that the game or round is
over.
10. If the game is aligned with a learning outcome, conduct a short debrief with the
participants on their takeaway.

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Example
You can use a BINGO generating app to produce customized cards with words or
phrases. The app scrambles the location of the items to produce unique cards.
The BINGO card shown in figure 25 is based on key vocabulary and concepts
from Steve Miller’s NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation,
“Steel Bridge Inspection: Understanding and Identifying Fracture Critical
Members.” Participants would attentively listen to the lecture and read the slides to
identify the words and phrases and mark them on their cards. The winner of the
game would mark all squares in a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal row. Another
option is to require the winner to mark the four corner squares.

B I N G O
cause a
performing the
steel member portion or the structural
weld detail bridge
in tension entire bridge redundancy
inspection
to collapse

tendency of a continued load

fatigue cycles stability elastic limit
member to fail cycles

primary
tension fracture critical
element
causes of FREE member
failure stage
failure

more
multiple
stress degree of elements of hands-on
independent
concentration redundancy support than inspection
load paths
are necessary

subject to
internal continuity of
cyclical fatigue life crack initiation
redundancy load path
loading
Source: Miller (2018).

Figure 25: BINGO card for “Steel Bridge Inspection”

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
A fun, noncompetitive game is Line Up. It is a good option for an icebreaker or to
enliven participants during the post-lunch doldrums. Ask participants to line up in order
of height (tallest to shortest) without talking. You can repeat the challenge with more
challenging tasks: line up by date of birth (youngest to oldest), line up by where you
were born (farthest to closest).
Web-Based Training
Sometimes employees are reluctant to complete mandatory compliance training
courses. Structuring the course around a game can increase worker motivation. The
game scenario heightens awareness of potential noncompliant situations. Employees
must use the desired decision-making skills or procedures to complete the game
narrative. Job aids or other reinforcements support after-course retention. As part of the
gamification program, employees are awarded points for completing the course and
they can see their standings among their peers on a virtual scoreboard. One
organization converted its annual ethics training course into an online game. Learners
had to explore a city to find the key to a code document. Branching options allowed
them to choose their path through the city. At each stage of the course, they were
challenged with real-life ethical situations. As they progressed through the game levels,
the learners earned points based on their decisions and level of expertise they
achieved.
Web Conference Training
Looking Around is a game that translates well to web or video conference courses. Ask
participants to turn on their video cameras so their heads are visible on screen (figure
26). Tell them you are going to tell them which direction to look. They will just need to
turn their heads (not their bodies) in the appropriate direction: toward the ceiling for “up,”
toward the floor for “down,” to the right on “right,” and to the left for “left.” After about a
minute, tell participants you are going to make a change. “Up” will mean look down and
vice versa, but “left” and “right” will mean the same as before. Call out the four
directions in random order and ask participants to follow the new directions. After
another minute, end the activity. Debrief: How difficult was it to follow the new
directions? What are some similar real-life experiences you may have had?

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Figure 26: Looking Around game

Return to Guiding Review

Return to Skimming and Scanning
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Supporting Participants

Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a visual representation of the relationships between facts, terms, or
ideas. They are usually a one-page form with blank areas. Graphic organizers come in a
variety of formats, each one best suited to organizing a particular type of information. They
allow participants to organize, clarify, or simplify complex information. You can find or
create graphic organizers to document sequences, to organize ideas during brainstorming,
to compare and contrast, for planning or decision making, and many other purposes. For
more ideas on how to use graphic organizers to support participant learning, refer to K-W-L
Charts and Concept Maps. You can create graphic organizers using Word, PowerPoint,
and other document design tools, or you can find templates online.
Graphic organizers scaffold learning because they provide participants with a way to
categorize a large amount of information, recognize patterns, and compare perspectives.
However, if the task is limited to participants filling in the boxes, they may not develop the
conceptual understanding or unique insights you intended. Participants need an opportunity
to apply the information they have deconstructed. They can apply the information through a
discussion, written explanation, plan for action, or other method as determined by the
learning outcome.

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T-charts
A T-chart is a simple table that provides space for participants to list two facets of a topic, for
example, pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, before and after, etc. They can be
used for brainstorming, decision making, preparation for writing, and many other purposes.
Because you only need to draw two lines, T-charts are fast to create on the fly. They are
suitable to any topic. However, you can only consider two options or sides of an issue.

Example
Figure 27 displays an example T-chart for comparing conventional bridge
construction and accelerated bridge construction techniques.

Source: Elkaissi (2019).

Figure 27: Bridge construction technique T-chart graphic organizer

Attribute Matrices
An attribute matrix, or decision matrix, is a table where you can enter the names of
options and list their respective attributes. Unlike the T-chart, which is limited to two
options, an attribute matrix can be used to compare the attributes of several options.
You can use an attribute matrix to prioritize tasks, support decision making, solve
problems, or defend a decision you have already made. For decision making or
prioritizing, you can assign weights to the different attributes and total the score for each
choice. The highest scoring option will be the best or first choice of action. Attribute
tables are best for comparing options with quantifiable criteria. They can become
unwieldy if there are too many options to consider.

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Example
Figure 28 displays an example attribute matrix for comparing the attributes of
Median U-Turn, Thru-Turn, and Four-way intersections. This matrix is based on
the NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Thru-Turn
Intersections,” by David Cox.

Median U- Thru-Turn Four-way

Turn Intersection Intersection
Intersection
Traffic
movement

Signal phasing

Vehicle
conflict points

Pedestrian
conflict points

Source: Cox (2019)

Figure 28: Attribute matrix for intersection types

Flow Charts
A flow chart is a diagram that represents the sequential steps in a process or plan. All
the actions, inputs and outputs, decision points, people involved, time involved, and
process measurements can all be displayed in a flow chart. Flow charts are useful for
understanding how a process works, explaining a process to someone else, finding
ways to improve a process, or planning a process. You can provide a flowchart to
participants to support their learning, or you can ask them to create their own to
document their understanding. A downside of flow charts is that you need to manually
trace the path to find any errors. Depending on the complexity of the process, it can be
tricky to make changes to a flowchart. Flowcharts for very complex logical processes
can also become messy and disorganized.

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Example
Figure 29 displays a simplified flow chart for level 1 and level 2 underwater bridge
inspections procedures.

Source: Cornish (2019).

Figure 29: Underwater bridge inspection procedure flow chart

Mind Maps
Mind maps diagram used to visually organize information. To create a mind map, write
the title, main idea, or concept in the center and write related concepts or ideas around
the center. Draw lines to show how they link to the main idea. You can use words,
phrases, or images in a mind map. As you add more details, or “nodes” to the main idea
or related ideas, the diagram spreads out. Mind maps created during a brainstorming
session often become free-form and flowing. You can also use mind maps for taking
meeting notes, outlining reports or documents, or documenting tasks. It is important to
keep mind maps uncomplicated. If you use complete sentences instead of key words
and phrases, they become difficult to understand. You can draw mind map free hand or
create them using software programs. If you create them by hand, it is sometimes hard
to predict how much space you will need and it is difficult to move a node to another
place on the diagram. Mind maps are best for less complex ideas or concepts because
the number of nodes and lines increases with each detail.

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Example
Figure 30 displays a mind map that captures some of the main points of the NHI
Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation and Grouting Manual.

Figure 30: Post-tensioning tendon installation mind map

Return to Guiding Review

Return to Structured Notes
Return to Supporting Participants

Group Discussions
Group discussions are more than requests to respond to recall questions. Group
discussions can help participants explore and interpret a topic. You can plan whole
group discussions, small group discussions, or even one-on-one partner discussions.
They all provide an opportunity for critical thinking in the classroom. Participants get a
chance to share their experiences and defend their opinions. Group discussions
promote a deeper understanding of a topic and increase long-term retention. Group
discussions can also help increase participants’ attention and help maintain their focus
by involving them in the learning process. Group discussions can also provide feedback
to instructors on participant comprehension. If you notice that participants are struggling
with a concept or are missing key information, you can step in and provide more context
or rephrase the information to fill the gap.

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It is easy to monitor responses in a whole group discussion. However, the number of

participants who contribute is often limited. You can increase participation if you shift to
a small group or table group discussions. So, the whole group can benefit from the
small group discussions, you can assign a spokesperson to report out for each group.
You will get the highest level of participation if you simply ask participants to turn and
talk with a partner. (If there is an odd number at a table, create a set of “triplets.”) Ask
participants to report what their partner said.
To make sure everyone can benefit from the small group or partner discussions, you
may need to provide a microphone to the group spokesperson.
Instructions
1. Identify a learning outcome from the module or lesson.
2. Prepare an open-ended question that will elicit responses that demonstrate
participants’ knowledge of the content.
3. At an appropriate time in the lesson or module, introduce the activity and
explain participants’ role.
4. Present the question and the time limit.
5. If possible, circulate around the room listening in to the conversations.
6. At the end of the time limit, ask for report outs from group spokespersons.
7. Provide clarification and reinforce correct information.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
You can facilitate the cross pollination of ideas around your class by rotating one or two
members of a group to other tables. Then, provide a different, but related concept for
the groups to discuss. This allows participants to share information from their previous
discussions with their new partners, but you will need to encourage the new table group
members to share ideas that were raised in their original groups. This helps keep the
participants engaged. The next time you introduce a question, ask one or two of the
participants who haven’t yet moved to rotate to a new table.
Web-Based Training
Voice chat apps allow you to have a spoken discussion that is not in real-time. You can
set up user groups and members can record and share their thoughts when it is
convenient for them. Other users can listen and add layers to the dialog by recording
their own messages.
Web Conference Training
As an alternative to small or large group text chats, you can use a video chat app to
allow participants to have “face-to-face” discussions in breakout groups. Some web
conference platforms offer video conferencing as a feature. If yours doesn’t, you can
check with the Office of Information Technology for an approved video conference

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platforms so they can join in on the conversation.

Return to Activists
Return to Pragmatists
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Web or Video Conference Meeting Rooms

Hands-on Practice Activities

A hands-on activity is an instructional technique that allows participants to learn by
doing. During a hands-on activity participants are directly involved in their learning.
Participants get direct practical experience as they apply their learning and learn from
their failures. Hands-on learning is appropriate for both physical and mental skills and
tasks.
Hands-on learning provides many benefits. Studies have shown that participants, who
are given the chance to practice what they have learned, retain 75% of the information
presented. The transfer of learning to the workplace is high with hands-on activities
because the materials and equipment are the same as what they will be using on the
job. Because the learning is relevant and immediate, participants in a hands-on learning
environment are highly engaged and motivated. Hands-on learning also supports critical
thinking and problem-solving skills as participants are expected to be more self-reliant
as they work through the activity.
There are also disadvantages to hands-on learning activities. While the activity
demonstration will focus on key skills, you still need to troubleshoot issues and answer
a wide range of participant questions. Often, you will find that more than one instructor
is needed. The primary instructor presents the demonstration and the other(s) circulate
around checking in on participants’ progress and answering questions. Also, hands-on
training is sometimes rushed. Participants may find they do not get enough practice
opportunities to memorize the steps. If you create a high-quality job aid to guide
participants during the training, you can help them recall the correct sequence or
procedure when they are back on the job.
For more ideas on how to use job aids to support participant learning, refer to Job Aids.
Instructions
How to conduct an effective hands-on activity:
1. (Optional) Distribute and describe how to use the job aid designed for the task,
technique, or procedure.
2. Demonstrate how to perform the task, technique, or procedure. Explain what
you are doing and pause to demonstrate the steps. Refer to the job aid when
appropriate.

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3. Ask participants to turn and describe the process to their partner. This helps
participants internalize what they have learned. It also serves as a knowledge
check as they can verify their memories of details with their partner.
4. Ask participants questions about the key points of the demonstration. Answer
participant questions.
5. Monitor and provide guidance as participants practice performing the task,
technique, or procedure.
6. Provide both positive and corrective feedback so participants understand when
they did something right and when they made mistakes.
7. Allow participants to practice until they can perform the action without any
errors.

Example
In the NHI “Bridge Inspector Refresher Training” course, participants practice
selecting the appropriate codes for structure inventory and appraisal and structure
type for the National Bridge Inventory (NBI). For his NHI “Instructor Development
Course” training presentation, “Superstructure Type Identification,” Patrick Kane
created a job aid for a hands-on activity using a page from the participant
workbook. Figure 31 displays the practice coding worksheet Kane created for his
training presentation. Figure 32 displays the job aid for used in the NBI coding
activity.

Source: Kane (2018)

Figure 31:Practice coding worksheet from “Superstructure Type Identification”

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Source: NHI (n.d.)

Figure 32: Job aid from “Superstructure Type Identification”

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
If the practice activity is complex, you can ask participants to work with a partner or in a
table group to complete it. Facilitate the collaboration by providing only one set of
documentation so that participants have to get out of their chairs in order to work
together.
Web Conference Training
If participants will be working independently, provide a worked example or job aid to
follow. Give participants a way to contact the instructor directly if they have any
questions or difficulties while completing the activity.
Return to Activists
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies

Infographics
An infographic is a visual representation of information or data. Infographics combine
imagery, statistics, and minimal text to convey large amounts of information quickly and
clearly. They allow readers to get a quick overview of a topic. Because they use eye-
catching visuals, diagrams, graphs, and charts, they are useful in presenting complex
processes or cause and effect relationships in a user friendly way. You can incorporate
existing U.S. Department of Transportation or other infographics into a course, if
appropriate, or create one of your own using a template. However, because
infographics are simplified by nature, they don’t always give the full story. They also
require careful distillation of data to create a clear message. A graphics designer is
often required to create the most effective layout and images. Sometimes infographics
can be overwhelming because they present too many statistics without providing
enough interpretation to help the reader grasp the meaning behind the numbers.

Example
USDOT has published a variety of infographics on Intelligent Transportation
Systems. Figure 33 displays an infographic showing how the Connected Vehicle
Safety for Rail system works.

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Source: USDOT (n.d.)

Figure 33: Infographic on Connected Vehicle Safety for Rail system

Return to Supporting Participants

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Job Aids
Job aids are any tool that directs or guides a performance of work. They can be high
tech, like the mobile Bridge Inspector Reference Manual app (available at
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/birm/); low tech, like a document template; or no tech,
like a reminder scribbled on a sticky note. What makes job aids so useful is that they
are handy, easy to read, and focused. Job aids can feature graphics, tables, diagrams,
and photographs to support workers with low literacy skills or non-native English
readers. They can be used in a classroom setting, for on-the-job training, or as post-
training reinforcements. Job aids can be created for all kinds of repetitive tasks,
complex processes, unique situations, or changes in work routines.
Job aids help to decrease training or retraining time, reduce errors; boost productivity;
and increase customer and employee satisfaction. One downside to job aids is that
those designed for complex tasks or processes can be very long. Workers may need to
scan a large poster or flip pages in a manual to find the section(s) they need to
reference.
Common job aids include:
◼ Information sources—Contain facts that are organized according to their
natural structure or how they will be used. A phone directory or a list of error
codes are examples of information sources.
◼ Process prompts—Explain how and when to do something. Tend to be verb-
oriented. Examples of process prompts include instruction sheets or flow
charts.
◼ Coaching guides—Provide suggestions, not directions on how to complete the
work. Good for new, difficult, or ambiguous situations. Sometimes present
different perspectives. This handbook is an example of a coaching guide.

Table 5 presents several job aids and when they may be useful.
Table 5: Job Aid Options
Job Aid Format Description Useful Situations
Checklist Groups of items to A task with:
remember or consider ◼ Steps that do not need to be
completed in specific
sequence
◼ Inspection, observation, or
planning components

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Job Aid Format Description Useful Situations

Decision Table Table that lists options for A task with:
completing a task based ◼ Several conditions or
on a set of conditions variables
◼ Limited options for each
decision variable

Flow Chart Diagram with tasks A task with:

organized sequentially ◼ Several yes/no decisions to
with decision points and be made
conditions ◼ Decisions that must be
made in a specific order
◼ A completion path guided by
answers to the questions

Form or Directions that guide A task with:

Worksheet worker through the
◼ Steps that must be
process and provide a
completed in a specific
place to record
sequence
information
◼ A routine that involves
calculations
◼ Information that must be
documented so it can be
referenced later

Reference Information required to A task with:

Source complete the task ◼ Steps that do not need to be
completed in specific
sequence
◼ A need for data not
performance of a process or
procedure

Step-by-step Information and direction A task with:

Instructions presented in a sequence ◼ Steps that must be
completed in a specific
sequence
◼ A linear procedure that
requires no decision making
◼ Only one completion path to
follow

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Example
For his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation on “Business
Objects Basics: Building a Simple Query,” Ian Kiwan created a set of job aids
using his PowerPoint slides. He combined images of the slides with his slide
notes. Participants could see where to click on the software interface and what
information they needed to enter to complete the task. Figure 34 displays one
page of the job aid that guides participants through opening the Business Objects
program.

From the FMIS Launch Page, mouse over the “Reports” button

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Click the link labeled “Business Objects Reports”

Source: Kiwan (2019).

Figure 34: Excerpt from “Getting into Business Objects” job aid

Return to Hands-on Practice Activities

Return to Supporting Participants

Journaling
Journaling is the practice of writing accounts of the day, reactions to experiences,
personal reflections, and questions. Journaling promotes critical thinking because
participants will ponder and then express the links between new information and their
existing knowledge. Journaling is beneficial to those participants who need more time to
reflect to be able to express their ideas or who are not good oral speakers. Journaling
can be free-form reflective writing or you can add more structure to the exercise by
providing short answer prompts linked to learning outcomes.
Some of the types of prompts you can use in a journaling activity include:
◼ Self-questioning: This type of journaling prompt asks participants to create
their own questions about their learning. They can choose to answer them or
just pose them for reflection.
◼ Metacognitive: Participants are asked to write about their own thinking, that is,
if they noticed any trends, recognized any knowledge gaps or misconceptions,
or realized their thinking changed during the course.

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◼ Change: Training should result in a permanent change. This type of journaling

prompt ask participants to express the changes in their knowledge, skills,
and/or behaviors. They can also write about the impact of their new knowledge
on their pre-existing knowledge.
◼ Connecting: This type of journaling prompt asks participants to make
connections between their new knowledge and their prior knowledge or to the
world at large—data, business, technology, science, society, etc.
◼ Transfer: Participants are asked to express how they would transfer their
learning to the workplace and to new and unfamiliar circumstances, for
example, health and safety or home design.
◼ Visualization: This type of journaling prompt asks participants to create a
visual metaphor or analogy for the function of something they have learned.
◼ Sketch: Participants are free to sketch or diagram how they visualize their
learning.
◼ Concept/example: This type of journal prompt asks participants to explain an
abstract concept and provide concrete examples of how it appears or functions
in real life.
◼ Five Ws: Participants ask asked to explain the who, what, where, why, and
when of their new knowledge.

Journaling can be used as a review activity. To refresh their memories, participants

could reread the entries they recorded in the designated spaces in their workbooks.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Distribute several large sticky notes to each participant. At the end of each day, ask
them to take 2-3 minutes to record the “ah-ha” moments, questions, connections, or
other impressions they had of the day’s learning. Ask them to stick these notes inside
the cover of their workbook binders as mini journal entries. At the end of the course, ask
for volunteers to share some of their reflections that relate to the expectations
expressed at the beginning of the course.
Web Conference Training
At the end of the day, ask participants to compose a short email to themselves to record
the “ah-ha” moments, questions, connections, or other impressions they had of the
day’s learning. Explain that they will read their own emails the next morning as part of a
review activity. The next day, facilitate a review of the previous day’s learning by asking
for volunteers to share some of their reflections or questions.
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements
Return to Rubrics

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K-W-L Charts
A K-W-L chart is a three-column graphic organizer that provides space for participants
to record what they Know, what they Want to know, and what they have Learned. K-W-
L charts are an easy way to activate participants’ prior knowledge and get them to set
an intention for their learning. You can start the activity as a brainstorming session and
use the chart to record information gathered or ask participants to fill them out
individually. At the end of a lesson or module, participants can reflect and record their
new, expanded knowledge in their own words.
One drawback to a K-W-L chart is that participants sometimes recall incorrect
information, and it may be a challenge for them to let go of their misconceptions.
Instructions
How to use a K-W-L chart:
1. Create a blank K-W-L chart following the example and make a copy for each
participant. Or ask participants to fold a piece of paper into three sections and
label them Know, Want to Know, and Learned.
2. Ask participants to brainstorm the words, phrases, or terms they associate with
the topic and record them in the Know column.
3. Ask participants to record what they want to learn about the topic, in the form of
questions, in the Want to Know column. Ask for a few volunteers to share their
learning intentions with the group.
4. As a review activity, ask participants to share the new knowledge they recorded
in the Learned column, as well as their “ah ha” moments and unanswered
questions.
5. Provide resources to assist participants in locating additional information to
answer unresolved questions.

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Example
Figure 35 shows a K-W-L chart based on David Cornish’s NHI “Instructor
Development Course” training presentation, “Diving Inspection Intensity Levels.”
Know Want to Know Learned
Basic visual and tactile What do I need to do and Level I:
techniques for look for at the different ◼ Detect obvious
underwater bridge levels of inspections?
damage/deterioration of
inspections How are the procedures the total exterior
different for piers and
surface
pilings?
◼ Detect undermining or
exposure
◼ Limited probing

Source: Cornish (2018).

Figure 35: K-W-L chart for “Diving Inspection Intensity Levels”

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
A digital option to printing paper K-W-L charts is to create and share a fillable PDF form
that participants can complete on their laptops or smart phones. An alternative to
participants working individually is to create a K-W-L chart as a whole group activity.
You can record the results of a brainstorming session on one piece of easel paper
labeled Know. Then ask for volunteers to share their areas of interest and record them
on a second piece of easel paper labeled Want to Know. At the end of the module or
lesson, refer to the Want to Know list and ask for input from volunteers to complete the
Learned list.
Web-Based Training
You can create and share the K-W-L chart using free online form-building software to
gather information on participants’ background knowledge and areas of interest. If the
course is hosted on a learning management system (LMS), you can create a K-W-L
chart on a wiki or other collaborative writing platform or have participants complete and
post a K-W-L chart on the course discussion board.
Web Conference Training
One option is to create and share the K-W-L chart using free online form-building
software. Another option is to use the web conference platform’s chat feature to gather
information on participants’ background knowledge and areas of interest. Depending on
the size the group, you can also consider asking participants to create and post a K-W-L
chart on one (or three) PowerPoint slide(s) and post them to the web conference

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platform.
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge
Return to Graphic Organizers
Return to Summarizing
Return to Supporting Participants

Lectures and Interactive Lectures

A lecture is an oral presentation that is used to present a large amount of information to
a group. Lectures are a form of one-sided communication. Participants are expected to
play a passive role as listeners. Because they prioritize the delivery of content, lectures
are an information-centered instructional approach.
You will find that lectures are good if training time is limited because a lot of information
can be presented quickly. Lectures are also preferred if the subject matter changes
quickly. Lectures are the most economical choice when training a large group. It is
much easier to keep the group together and on the same point if you use a lecture.
While lectures are a common instructional method, they are not as effective as other
methods that engage learners in the content. Because they are passive learners,
participants may lose focus and their interest may wander. As we all know, lectures can
be boring if the instructor is not dynamic or the same instructor presents all day.
Participants who are non-native English speakers or have hearing impairments may find
it difficult to follow along with a lecture. Another drawback is that it is difficult to assess
participant learning during a lecture.
Interactive lectures provide all the benefits of a lecture and, at the same time, minimize
the drawbacks. You can make your lecture more interactive by incorporating frequent
question and answer sessions. Questions turn a passive learning event into an active
one by engaging participants in the content now and then. The act of remembering what
they heard and putting it into their own words forces learners to use both their short-
term and working memories. Higher-level questions support critical thinking. If
participants can link the new information to some knowledge or experience in their
memories, then they will be more likely to remember and use it back on the job. Asking
questions is a quick method to test how well participants understand the topic. For more
information on questioning techniques, refer to Step 5: Plan for Knowledge Checks.
While the size of the group sometimes makes it difficult for all participants to share their
answers, thinking of an answer is just as beneficial.
There are different techniques for directing questions to a group and for directing
questions to an individual.

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Instructions
To direct a question to the whole class, one side of the room, or a table group:
1. Ask—Pose the question to the whole class
2. Plant—Wait 5–10 seconds for someone to respond
3. Call—If you don’t get an answer, call out to the class, one side of the room, or
a table group for a response

It is not a good idea to direct a question to an individual participant without first asking
permission. When surprised, some participants may not be able to provide their best
answer or may become embarrassed because they were singled out. Other participants
may shut down for fear that you will do the same to them.
To direct a question to an individual:
1. Confirm—Make sure the participant you plan to question is an expert in the
topic.
2. Ask permission—Before class or on a break (or via a private chat during a
WCT course), explain that you would like to draw on their expertise. Ask
permission to direct a question to them.
3. Call—Call on the individual participant.
4. Ask—Pose the question.
5. Plant—Wait for the response.

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Example
At a key point in his interactive lecture on “Construction Quality Assurance:
Measuring Quality with Inspection,” Greg Doyle asked participants in his NHI
“Instructor Development Course” training session a thought-provoking question,
“Who is responsible for inspection?” To prompt a robust class discussion, he
displayed four photographs on the slide (figure 36) that showed workmen during
different stages of a paving project.

Source: Dwyer (2018)

Figure 36: Thought-provoking question slide from “Construction Quality Assurance:

Measuring Quality with Inspection”

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
To encourage all participants to participate in a whole group question and answer
session, you can ask them to share their answers with a partner. Depending on the size
of the group and the room layout, you can either walk around and listen to the
discussions or call on a few partners to share their responses. For instructions on how
to conduct this activity, refer to Think-Pair-Share.
Web Conference Training
Instead of requiring oral answers, you can ask participants to respond to poll questions
or provide short answers in the web conference platform’s chat pod. You can post the
results of the poll for everyone to see and provide clarification or correction when
needed. For short answer responses, it may be more efficient if a WCT host or technical

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assistant sorts the answers and provides you with a summary of the results. For
instructions on how to conduct this activity, refer to Surveys/Interactive Polls.
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies

Models
A model is a representation of a system, thing, phenomena, or process that is used to
make it easier to understand. Models are used to describe observed behavior or results
from an experiment, to explain why the behaviors or results occurred as they did, and to
predict future behaviors or results.
There are four types of models:
◼ Visual models: Graphical representations of objects and systems. They
include flowcharts, pictures, and diagrams. Visual models are useful as
educational tools.
◼ Physical models: Larger or smaller three-dimensional representations of an
object. They display the characteristics of the original but on a scale that is
easier to view. Some physical models are interactive and have moving parts.
They are used for experiments, visualization, or education.

Example 1
Before the new Woodrow Wilson Bridge was built across the Potomac River,
physical models were tested for scour in FHWA Hydraulics labs (figure 37).

Source: Kevin Kerdash/ FHWA, (2000).

Figure 37: Scour testing on Woodrow Wilson Bridge model

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Example 2
During his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Vibration
vs. Oscillation,” Daniel Sant Anselmo used a cut-out model of a Hamm asphalt
roller drum (figure 38) to demonstrate how the inner mechanisms created the
oscillating effect. He rotated the drum by turning a handle. The participants could
see the resulting movement of the weighted cams.

Source: Sant Anselmo (2020)

Figure 38: Cut-out model of Hamm asphalt roller drum

◼ Mathematical models: Descriptions of a system using mathematical concepts

and language. They include statistical models, differential equations, dynamic
systems, and game theory models. Mathematical models are used to predict
what will happen in the future and to design new devices, processes, and
systems. Some technical courses will include mathematical models.
◼ Computer models: Computer program versions of mathematical models. They
are used to run computer simulations of complex real-world events. Using
computer models, researchers can quickly obtain results that are not available
through mathematical analysis or natural experimentation. An example of a
computer model is the Interactive Highway Safety Design Model (IHSDM). The
IHSDM is used to evaluate the safety and operational effects of geometric
design decisions on highways.

There are some limitations to working with models. While model makers strive for
accuracy, they are not always able to include all the details of the actual object or
complex natural phenomena. Because our knowledge of the world is limited, some
models include approximations which affects the accuracy of predictions upon which

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they are based. To help us understand complex structures or concepts, some models
are simplified and lack details that are present in real life.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
If a physical model is not available but a diagram is, before explaining how things work,
ask participants to make predictions based on the diagram and share them with their
table group. Call on table groups to share their predictions. Then, use their ideas,
supplementing or correcting when necessary, to explain the model’s functionality.
Web Conference Training
Before showing a video of a model, ask participants to predict what they think would be
a part of the model. Ask probing questions to reveal more about their thinking. Then,
show the video and follow up with a discussion of how close their preconceptions were
to reality.
Return to Theorists
Return to Supporting Participants
Return to Visual Aids

Observational Activities
Solid thinking depends on careful observations. Critical thinkers gather data during
observations, and they sift out the irrelevant details to focus on the meaningful
information. They look for subtle differences or patterns in the details. They compare
their observations to information that already exists to form new ideas or hypotheses.
Participants can make observations when viewing role play scenarios, videos, photo
series, and other activities.
You can help participants become better observers by setting expectations. Participants
need to why they are to observe, what their role is as observers, and the specific
information you want them to look for. They need to know what question they are
expected to answer at the end of their observation. You can also ask participants to
come up with their own questions about what they have seen. A graphic organizer or
other structured note-taking form can help participants record their observations. Before
you debrief the activity, it is a good idea to give participants time to reflect on their
notes. You can ask them to reflect individually, with a partner, or in a small group before
holding a whole group discussion.
Instructions
How to conduct an observational activity:
1. Identify a learning outcome from the module or lesson.

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2. Obtain an appropriate video (or video clip) or develop a role play or other
physical activity for observation that supports the learning outcome.
3. Write one or more essential questions for participants to seek answers to or
identify a hypothesis for them to gather data to test during their observation.
4. Explain the purpose of the observational activity.
5. Describe participants’ roles and responsibilities as observers.
6. Share the essential question or hypothesis with participants.
7. Distribute graphic organizer or note-taking outline.
8. Encourage participants to formulate their own questions to be answered.
9. Begin the role play/video/other activity. Set a time limit for the activity.
10. At the end of the observational activity, provide 5 minutes for participants to
review their notes with a partner or group.
11. Conduct a whole group discussion to identify key details, patterns, or other
observations to answer the essential question or support or refute the
hypothesis.
12. Ask volunteers to share their questions and use the class as a resource for the
answers.

Example
For his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, “Local Road
Safety,” Marvin Ta developed an observational activity to illustrate the impact of a
community’s vision on its roadway design. Ta asked participants to share their
observations on the road designs in two communities (figure 39 and figure 40). This
activity was modified so that, participants could use Cornell notes (figure 41) to
record their observations and questions before sharing them in a group discussion.

Source: Ta (2019)

Figure 39: Photo of Community #1’s road design in “Local Road Safety”

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Source: Ta (2019)

Figure 40: Photo of Community #2’s road design in “Local Road Safety”

Cornell Notes Local Road Safety

Topic/Outcome: Name: Participant A
Describe a community’s
transportation vision based on
its roadway design
Essential Question: Based on evidence in the photos, what do you think are
the community’s transportation priorities?
Questions: Notes:
Why is the bike lane between Community #1—bike lane, parked cars and white
the sidewalk and parked cars? delineators create buffer from roadway. Wide sidewalk,
Usually it’s on the roadway tree boxes create additional landscape buffer for
side of parked cars. pedestrians
Why isn’t this design used
more often?
How many pedestrian and Community #2—lack of sidewalks, no shoulder or bike
bicyclist fatalities have lanes, telephone pole right next to road, houses very
happened on this road? close to the road, but the hydrant is set back
Summary: Community #1’s road design shows that its transportation
vision prioritizes walking and biking. Community #2’s road
design shows that it prioritizes moving cars from Point A
to Point B in the least amount of time. It has a car-
centered vision.
Source: Ta (2019).

Figure 41: Cornell notes for observational activity in “Local Road Safety”

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Create a script for a short skit that demonstrates effective reactions to a negative
workplace situation. At least one day in advance, ask one or two participants to prepare
to act out the skit with you. Before presenting the skit, explain the purpose of the activity
and provide the participants in the audience with a note-taking sheet with questions like,
◼ “What triggered the interaction?”
◼ “How was it different than what you have observed in the past?”
◼ “What physical behaviors did you observe?”
◼ “What phrases or words seemed to be most effective?”

“What questions do you have about the situation, the behaviors, or the reactions?”
Debrief the activity by asking for volunteers to share their observations and questions.
Web Conference Training
If the task or skill is being performed by others at the same workplace, assign
participants an on-the-job observational activity to be completed between web
conferences. Set a time limit for the observation. Provide a list of questions to answer
and behaviors to observe, and ask them to generate their own questions about what
they see. During the next web conference, break the class into groups. Ask participants
to type their observations (redacting names of observed employees) into their small
group chat pod. Encourage participants to share their observations and questions.
Then, reconvene the group and ask for volunteers to share salient observations and
unanswered questions.
Return to Reflectors
Return to Oral Presentations
Return to Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

Oral Presentations
An oral presentation is a short talk on a topic given to class or group. In an oral
presentation one or more participants present their views on a topic based on their
reading or research. A discussion generally follows, prompted by questions from the
instructor and class. Oral presentations tend to be short, around 10–15 minutes.
Participants may need to prepare visual aids, such as PowerPoint slides or handouts, or
may mark impromptu sketches or notes on a white board or easel pad. Oral
presentations can be held in person or via web or video conferences.
A good oral presentation will have the following components:

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◼ Introduction—The participant should state the topic and the focus of the
presentation and outline its main points.
◼ Body—The participant should develop the main points. The presentation can
be organized chronologically, by theme, or order of importance. The participant
should provide clear links between main points, explanations, and examples.
◼ Conclusion—The participant should clearly restate the premise and
summarize the main points.

Oral presentations are good for both mid-course and final assessments. They can
reveal participants’ abilities to find relevant information and combine it into a logical and
coherent package. Instructors can use probing follow-on questions to assess
participants’ deeper comprehension. Another advantage to oral presentations is that
they don’t take long to grade. An assessment checklist or rubric can be used as a
scoring tool. For more information on how to structure and describe assessment criteria,
refer to Assessment Checklists and Rubrics. Whatever the assessment tool, it must be
shared in advance with students so they know exactly what they need to do to achieve
the highest scores.
There are a few downsides to oral presentations. Good public speakers have an
advantage with oral presentations. However, it may be difficult for non-native speakers
or participants who find public speaking intimidating to fully demonstrate their learning. It
also takes time, often outside of class, for participants to prepare their presentations
and it takes in-class time to present them.
Return to Assessing Learning
Return to Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
Return to Observational Activities
Return to Rubrics

Problem Solving/Problem-Based Learning

In a problem-based learning (PBL) classroom, participants learn about a subject by
working in groups to come up solutions to complex real-world problems. Unlike in
traditional courses, with PBL, participants are self-directed in their learning. The
instructor’s role is more of a facilitator and coach. The instructor starts a PBL activity
with a problem that participants are likely to encounter in their jobs. Participants work
together in groups to solve it with the information they already have. They next identify
what else they think they need to know and independently review information resources.
They regroup and apply what they have learned to try to resolve the problem. At the end
of the activity, participants constructively assess their own learning as well as their
peers’.
Some of the benefits of PBL are that participants take ownership for their own learning.

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They are engaged in the information gathering and evaluation process and reflect on
their effectiveness as a learner at the end. PBL promotes knowledge retention and
transfer to the workplace. PBL also supports interpersonal and group problem-solving
skills. Some of the downsides to a PBL activity are the amount of time required for
participants to complete the assignment and the time involved in monitoring and grading
of participants’ performances. For more information on facilitating and monitoring group
work on projects, refer to Projects.
Instructions
1. Identify the learning outcomes for participants to achieve.
2. Determine how participants will demonstrate their learning.
3. Develop assessment tools to measure participant mastery (rubric, learning
reflection/self-assessment, etc.)
4. Design the scenario or scenarios based on a real-life problem.
5. Introduce the PBL, the assignment expectations, rubrics, and timelines and lets
the groups read through the scenario(s).
6. Facilitate a brainstorming activity to activate participants’ background
knowledge and identify what other information they need, along with available
information sources.
7. Ask groups to create a hypothesis to test as they research their solution.
8. Groups self-assign roles and research responsibilities.
9. Groups synthesize their research and create a presentation on their solution(s).
10. Evaluate the groups’ products and performances.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Ask participants in a multi-week advanced course to brainstorm a list of industry and/or
workplace problems. Ask them to identify the items on the list that fit within the scope of
the course. Then, allow the participants to form groups, based on their interest in a
particular problem, to develop a solution. Introduce the problem-solving project rubric
and delivery schedule. Over the following weeks, the instructor(s) serves as a facilitator,
guiding problem-solving actions, prompting discussions, and modeling strategies for
thinking and learning. The groups collaborate inside and outside of class to research,
write, and develop their final presentations. During class time, the instructor(s) meets
with each group to provide guidance and monitor group work. Provide a template for
group meeting minutes and require groups to submit the minutes after each facilitation
period. At the end of the course, groups present their solutions and a brief summary of
their research. Peers ask questions and provide oral or written feedback on the
presentations.
Web Conference Training
Provide a complex, open-ended problem and divide the class into groups to work

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together to find a solution. Use a rotating team of four instructors/assistants to meet with
each group during web conferences to provide the needed facilitation/monitoring time.
Provide a template for group meeting minutes and require groups to submit them after
each facilitation period. Post recorded mini-lectures by guest speakers related to the
course content so participants can access instruction at times that are convenient to
them. At the end of the course, each group uploads a recorded presentation of its
solution and research. Peers post questions and feedback on the presentations.
Return to Activists
Return to Pragmatists

Projects
A project requires participants, either working on their own or as part of a team, to
develop a unique product that demonstrates their learning. To complete their projects,
participants need to synthesize and apply their new learning to solve a problem. The
assignment also may require participants to practice their communication skills if it
includes a final presentation. Working through projects, participants practice their critical
thinking, problem-solving, interpersonal, and time management skills.
Because participants work to solve authentic problems, projects enhance
comprehension and improve retention and transfer of knowledge and skills to the
workplace. Collaborative projects also allow participants to share their experiences and
hear different viewpoints. The working relationships created in a project group can
continue outside of the classroom and can expand participants’ professional networks.
Participants take ownership of their projects and become fully engaged as they direct
their own learning. As a result, the instructor becomes more of a guide during the
project.
Depending on the time available and the learning outcomes, projects can be simple or
complex. More involved projects can feature interim deadlines to allow participants to
get feedback from instructors and/or peers. Rubrics or assessment checklists are often
used to clarify the project’s requirements and grading scale. For more information on
assessment tools, refer to Assessment Checklists and Rubrics. Because participants
are more focused on applying knowledge than memorizing details, often they do not
perform well on multiple-choice and short-answer question tests. It is recommended that
a course not include both written tests and projects.
While less time is spent on direct instruction, instructors still need to monitor and assess
participants’ work. The instructor will need to explain the project, its deadlines, and how
to interpret the grading tool. If a project has interim deadlines, the instructor will need to
review and provide feedback to all learners on each deliverable as well as on the final
product(s). Sometimes the instructor may be asked to counsel personality conflicts or
adjust grades based on individual contributions to group projects.

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However, the biggest drawback for using projects in training is that it takes time for
participants to complete the work and deliver their presentations. This work often needs
to occur outside of the classroom. As class time is limited, projects are more appropriate
for blended learning or web-conference courses where independent and online
collaboration are already part of the course structure. For instructor-led courses,
projects are most appropriate for advanced level courses that meet several times over
the course of a year.
Instructions:
How to create a project:
1. Determine the essential question. It should tie directly to the course content.
The best essential questions are open ended and have more than one possible
solution or answer.
2. Create a plan for the project. What are learners expected to be able to do by
the end of the course? What will participants need to research, create, and/or
communicate to achieve those outcomes? What resources do they need? Will
they create the project in stages? How will all the project components come
together? What will the final product look like? How will it be shared with the
class?
3. Create an assessment tool. What is required to complete the project? What are
the most important project components or elements? What are the less
important ones? What will be the grading scheme? How would you describe
good (excellent and unacceptable) work? What will be the passing and failing
scores?
4. Develop a schedule. How much time do you have for the entire project
(including presentations)? How much time should each component take to
complete? How much time will be needed for reviews and revisions? Will they
work on the project in class or work online with their teammates?
5. Prepare to monitor progress. Schedule check-ins to observe participant
progress, assess interim components, and answer questions. How do you want
participants to share their work with you or their peers? What feedback will they
need to guide their project development? Refer to the assessment tool you
created. Can you suggest any additional resources?

Return to Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

Return to Problem Solving/Problem-Based Learning

Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets

A quick write is a fast and easy way to get participants to collect their ideas and put
them into writing. During a quick write, give participants 2 to 10 minutes to write a
response to an open-ended prompt or question. Participants can jot their thoughts on a

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piece of paper or large notecard. Quick writes can be used before a module or lesson
(called an entrance ticket), during a module or lesson, or after a module or lesson
(called an exit ticket) to encourage participants to think about what they already know
about a concept or to reflect on their learning.
If you use a quick write as part of an introduction, you can get a quick measure of
participant’s past experiences with the topic so you can better tailor your message to
their level of understanding. You can also use a quick write as a quick knowledge check
to help you and participants monitor their comprehension. Because time is limited and
the focus is on content, it is important to stress to participants that grammar and spelling
are not graded in a quick write activity.
Writing is a challenge for some participants and adding a time limit can increase the
stress they feel to produce something of value. This activity may also be challenging for
non-native English writers. Depending on the size of the group, you may find it hard to
find enough time to review dozens of quick writes. Also, it is often difficult to read other
people’s handwriting, especially when it was hastily written.
Instructions
How to use a quick write as an entrance ticket:
1. Write an open-ended question or prompt.
2. Print the prompt and instructions for the activity on a half sheet of paper.
3. Distribute the entrance ticket to participants as they enter the classroom.
4. Explain the activity and set a timer.
5. Collect the unsigned writing sheets and review them on your next break.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Instead of collecting the quick writes/entrance tickets, you can ask participants to share
their writing with a partner or table group. Then, ask table group representatives to
summarize the ideas shared at their tables. You can also put a digital twist on the quick
write and ask participants to compose a response in the form of a Twitter message
using a hashtag unique to your class or a text message to you. To avoid sharing
personal information, you can install a free app to set up an alternative phone number
that connects to your smart phone or other device.
Web-Based Training
Instead of setting a time limit, you can set a word limit (e.g., Twitter’s 240-word limit).
You can ask participants to post their quick write/entrance ticket to the course
discussion board at the start of a lesson or module.
Web Conference Training
You can use either the public or private chat function on the web conference platform to

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collect participants’ quick writes/entrance tickets. Some platforms allow you to save and
print out chat threads so you can review and analyze them later.
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies
Return to Summarizing
Return to Think-Pair-Share
Return to What do participants already know?

Real-World Problems
Real-world problems are authentic issues that affect people outside of the classroom
environment. Participants learn best when a topic is of immediate value to them. You
can instill a sense of purpose if you introduce a real-world problem at the start of the
course. During the course, ask participants to consider or investigate potential solutions
to the problem.

Example 1
To begin his NHI “Instructor Development Course” presentation on “Local Road
Safety,” Marvin Ta cited this statistic and considered its impact on a family:

◼ “In 2014, there were 511 passenger car deaths. But think of how many
devasted family and friends. What if this was your child? Your world’s gone just
like that? Witnessing a mother lose a child. Attending your child’s funeral is
something you hope to never experience.”
◼ “Is it preventable? Certainly.”
◼ “On March 28, 2014, I lost a good friend, Adiv Lift, in a car crash.”

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Figure 42 displays the slide Ta showed during his presentation to personalize the
problem.

Source: Ta (2019).

Figure 42: Real-world problem slide from “Local Road Safety”

Example 2
To being his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation on “Drilled
Shaft Volume,” Don Dwyer displayed a photo of exposed reinforcement bars to
illustrate the negative impact of miscalculating the volume of a drilled shaft. Figure
43 displays the slide that graphically demonstrates the impact of poor monitoring
during concrete pours.

Source: Dwyer (2018)

Figure 43: Real-world problem slide from “Drilled Shaft Volume”

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Go beyond industry statistics and display the headline and photos from an accident,
incident, or scandal. Ask participants if something similar has happened or could
happen in their community. Participants can share their responses in a small group
discussion or chat before discussing as a whole group what could be done to prevent it.
Web Conference Training
As a pre-course assignment, ask participants to share an example of a real-world
experience or problem that relates to the course content. Create an interactive list of
topics using a collaborative document platform. When getting ready to introduce a topic,
ask participants who selected that topic to briefly share their story or issue.
Return to Setting the Hook
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”

Role Playing
In role playing scenarios, a participant assumes the role of an employee to practice job
skills or behaviors in simulated work conditions. Role playing allows participants to
interact with other people in managed situations so they can try different strategies and
gain experience in a supportive environment. Role play activities are best for practicing
listening skills and quick decision making. While they role play, participants demonstrate
their current level of skill and can use instructor and peer feedback to improve their
performance. Group discussions can produce additional responses or solutions,
expanding the options available on the job. It is important to note that role play is not for
everyone. Some participants may be uncomfortable acting in front of others, while
others may find it too theatrical and may not take the exercise seriously. Also, there
might not be enough time for all participants to take part in the activity, so the role play
becomes a demonstration exercise for them.
Instructions
To conduct role playing activities:
1. Identify the learning outcomes for the lesson.
2. Craft or choose a scenario around this content.
3. Explain the role play activity and your expectations.
4. Introduce the problem and allow a 3–5 minutes for participants to discuss the
relevant issues.
5. Describe the workplace scenario, adding details to make it realistic.

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Example
For his NHI “Instructor Development Course” training presentation, the “Influence
of Context on Traffic Signal Operational Objectives,” Eddie Curtis developed a role
play activity with two scenarios to illustrate how people in the community respond
to poor signal timing. The purpose of the activity was to help participants articulate
the operations objectives for equitable distribution of green time and smooth flow
at the intersection and network level in under-saturated conditions. Below are his
instructor notes and the slides that support the activity.

◼ Activity #1 introduction (figure 44)

◼ Activity #1 role descriptions (figure 45)
◼ Activity #1 intersection photo (figure 46)

Role Play #1 Set-up: Break the class in to pairs. One person is the driver, and the
other person is the agency official that you meet at a dinner party, have the two
roles introduce themselves. The agency person describes who they are and that
they’ve just completed a signal retiming on the main street corridor that connects
the driver’s neighborhood local road to Main Street. The instructor will provide a
picture of an intersection with a red light. The driver will explain to the agency
official why they are dissatisfied with the operation.
Based on the outcome of the discussion, using the flip chart, articulate the
objective of equitable distribution of green time.

Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 44: Context slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”

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Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 45: Character slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic
Signal Operational Objectives”

Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 46: Intersection photo for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic
Signal Operational Objectives”

◼ Activity #2 introduction (figure 47)

◼ Activity #2 role descriptions (figure 48)
◼ Activity #2 intersection photos (figures 49–51)

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Role Play #2 Set-up: Break the class into pairs. One person is the driver the other
person is the agency official that meet at a dinner party. Have the two roles
introduce themselves, the agency person describes who they are and that they’ve
just completed a signal retiming on the main street corridor that provides regional
connectivity along the arterial. The instructor will provide three photos of
consecutive intersections where the driver experiences red lights. The driver will
explain to the agency official why they are dissatisfied with the operation.
Based on the outcome of the discussion, using the flip chart, articulate the
objective of smooth flow.

Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 47: Context slide for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on Traffic Signal
Operational Objectives”

Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 48: Character slide for role playing activity #1 in “Influence of Context on Traffic
Signal Operational Objectives”

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Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 49: Intersection photo #1 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on
Traffic Signal Operational Objectives”

Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 50: Intersection photo #2 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on
Traffic Signal Operational Objectives”

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Source: Curtis (2019)

Figure 51: Intersection photo #3 for role playing activity #2 in “Influence of Context on
Traffic Signal Operational Objectives”

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Depending on the size of the group or the classroom layout, either conduct one role
play activity for the whole group to observe or conduct several role play activities
concurrently. To run more than one role play at a time, you can assign acting and
observing roles to small groups of participants. Set a time limit for the first round, then
ask the observers to provide feedback before the groups switch the acting and
observing roles. After all participants have had a chance to participate, you can facilitate
a whole group discussion on what they learned.
Web Conference Training
Depending on the web conference platform features, you can assign participants to
breakout rooms. They can either use the platform’s video chat feature or a standalone
app to record their performance as they assume their roles and act out the scenario.
The groups can share their videos on the web conference platform for review and
comment. You can hold a group discussion on the lessons learned and suggested
solutions to the identified problem.
Return to Activists
Return to Supporting Participants
Return to Step 4: Select the Learning Strategies

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Rubrics
A rubric is an assessment matrix used to score or provide feedback on a participant’s
performance. Rubrics can be used for a variety of work: papers, projects, oral
presentations, group projects, demonstrations, etc. A rubric may be appropriate when a
multiple-choice test would not provide an accurate measure of participant learning.
A rubric lists the major components or elements of a performance and establishes a
scale for quality. Explicit descriptions of the work expected at the different levels of a
quality scale are provided for each element so that each element can be scored
separately. Higher quality work receives more points than lower quality work. Additional
weight can be assigned to more important elements, and the final score is based on the
total points.
Rubrics are beneficial to both instructors and participants. The explicit descriptions in a
rubric give participants a clear understanding of what is expected from them. They also
can get a better idea of their strengths and weaknesses and can use that information to
direct their learning. Rubrics also help instructors grade more consistently by requiring
them to rely on the rubric descriptions instead of assigning their own values to
participant performances. While rubrics do have their advantages, they are also time
consuming to create, explain, and use. Writing multiple performance descriptions for
each element takes time. Explaining the rubric to learners takes time. Reviewing a
report or performance and rating the quality of each of its elements takes time. If more
than one person will be using the rubric to grade, it also take time to train each person
to make sure they are consistent in their scoring.

Example
Instructors for the NHI “Instructor Development Course” use a rubric to assess
participants when they give their final training presentation. The rubric is based on
behaviors demonstrated by competent instructors. Table 6 displays the rubric
grading scheme and definitions for the different levels of mastery. Figure 52 shows
an excerpt from the classroom management portion of the NHI instructor rubric.
Table 6: “Instructor Development Course” Grading Scheme

Score Performance Metric Definitions

3 Excellent – Performance exceed the expectations and demonstrates
complete mastery
2 Acceptable — Performance meets the expectations and demonstrates
competency
1 Marginal — Elements of competency were exhibited but performance does
not demonstrate master

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Score Performance Metric Definitions

0 Unacceptable—Performance was expected but not demonstrate
Passing Trainer must achieve at least one “Excellent” in each section and receive
requirements no less than “acceptable” for each competency skill.
Source: NHI (2018).

NHI Instructor Rubric—Classroom Management

Skill 3—Excellent 2—Acceptable 1—Marginal 0—Unacceptable
Use of room Moves around the Moves around the Limited Instructors from the
room to engage and room to encourage movement front of the room:
encourage participant and around the room. behind the lectern or
participant without engages Directs dialog to stands in front of the
being a distraction. participants. one section of the screen.
Directs dialog and room or single
focuses on all participant.
participants in the
room. Allows for
participants to see
instructor at all
times.
Manages Instructor manages Instructor manages Instructor does Instructor does not
disruptions disruptions disruptions not constantly attempt to manage
effectively that could effectively that manage any disruptions that
interfere with could interfere with disruptions that interfere with
learning (e.g., side- learning (e.g., side- interfere with learning (e.g., side-
bar conversations, bar conversations, learning (e.g., bar conversations,
disruptions). disruptions). side-bar disruptions).
Instructor has the conversations,
ability to reengage disruptions).
participants to
maintain class order
and schedule.

Section
Total
Source: NHI (2018).

Figure 52: Excerpt from classroom management section of NHI Instructor Rubric

Return to Assessing Learning

Return to Journaling
Return to Oral Presentations
Return to Projects
Return to Test Questions

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Self-Questioning
The self-questioning strategy asks learners to generate, contemplate, and answer high-
level questions about a text or lecture. The activity increases participants’ curiosity and
they engage more deeply with the content. Self-questioning helps to focus participants’
attention, asks them to mentally organize the information, and helps them integrate new
information with their existing knowledge. Some participant workbooks provide space
for participant questions and answers. If they don’t, participants can write their
questions and answers on index cards or sticky notes. One disadvantage of this
strategy is that it takes more time to explain the activity and for participants to compose
their questions and responses than conducting a simple question and answer session.
More time is required for one or two volunteers to share their questions and answers.
Also, the self-questioning strategy demands a higher mental load. For participants who
have difficulty juggling multiple mental tasks at one time, the strategy may overload their
ability to process information effectively.

Example
Some questions participants may ask themselves before a lecture or reading
assignment may include:
◼ Why am I reading/listening to this?
◼ How can I use this information?
◼ What will I learn in this lesson?
Questions participants might seek answers to while listening to the lecture or
during their reading may include:
◼ What is the main idea of _____?
◼ How does this relate to what I already know/have learned?
◼ What is different or what conflicts with my personal experience or knowledge?
At the end of the lesson or reading passage, participants can ask themselves
questions like these:
◼ How has my knowledge changed?
◼ What other questions do I have about the topic?
◼ How will I apply this information on the job?

Instructions:
To conduct a self-answering question activity:
1. Decide whether participants will generate and answer their questions before,
during, or after the lesson.
2. Create a list of example questions for participant consideration.
3. If space is not provided in the participant workbook, distribute index cards or

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sticky notes.
4. Explain the purpose of the self-questioning activity.
5. Share the example questions and encourage participants to use one or more of
the examples or generate their own questions and write them on the note card,
sticky note, or space provided in the participant workbook.
6. For “before” questions, allow time before the lesson for participants to write their
predictions.
7. For “during” or “after” questions, allow time after the completion of the lesson for
participants to write their answers.
8. Circulate around the room to observe participants’ questions and responses.
9. Call on one or two participants to share their questions and answers.

Course format recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Distribute index cards as participants enter the class in the morning or after lunch.
Explain that, to exit the class, they will need to answer one or two higher-level questions
of their choice based on the upcoming lesson. Collect the “exit tickets” at the end of the
day (or before lunch), and summarize the responses when participants return again to
the room.
Web Conference Training
Set up small groups in breakout rooms. Ask the group members to post their questions
to the chat pod and discuss their answers. Afterwards, briefly join the breakout groups
and listen to the discussions.
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Skimming and Scanning

Skimming is a rapid reading technique used to get a general overview of a document.
You can ask participants to skim through their participant workbook, a handout, or other
document as a preview before doing more detailed reading. Scanning is a similar
technique. When you scan, you read rapidly to find specific facts. You can skim to get a
general idea about a document. You would scan to locate a particular fact. It is
important to note skimming and scanning provide an incomplete understanding, and
participants may overlook nuances and key details if they don’t go back and read more
thoroughly.
When skimming, readers should pay attention to:
◼ Text features, like headings, boldface and italic type
◼ Indented text
◼ Bulleted and numbered lists
◼ Key words and phrases

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◼ Names of people and places

◼ Important dates

Instructions
You can guide participants through a skimming and scanning activity. Ask them to
complete one or more of the following steps:
1. Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn how the information is
organized.
2. Quickly scan main headings and subheadings.
3. Read the sentences that contain bolded or italicized key words.
4. Read the introductory paragraph or abstract.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
When introducing the participant workbook at the start of a course, encourage
participants to just read through the table of contents, main headings, and subheadings
in the different lessons. Ask participants to make predictions about the content based on
their quick preview and then to skim read to check if their predictions were correct.
Web Conference Training
To get participants engaged with assigned articles, websites, or other reading materials,
ask them to scan to identify key words and phrases. Ask for volunteers to share items
that caught their eye or spurred a question they were interested in answering.
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge
Return to Games

Soliciting Participants’ Expectations

Sometimes participants are unsure of what they will encounter in a course. At other
times, they come to class with expectations that are too narrow or beyond the scope of
the course content. It is important to get a sense of participants’ expectations at the start
of the course so you can respond to any concerns and deal respectfully with any
misconceptions. This strategy will help you establish credibility with the participants and
creates positive expectations for the course. To help participants self-assess their
learning and place a value on the course, you can review participant expectations at the
end of the course and ask if they believe they have been met.
Some of the questions you can ask are:
◼ What are your expectations for this course?
◼ What do you want to learn in this course?

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◼ How do you envision applying your learning from this course at your job?
◼ What questions do you hope to get answered in this course?
◼ What would you like to accomplish this year? How do you see this course
helping you to achieve that goal?

Instructions

How to solicit participants expectations:

1. Ask participants for their expectations for learning for the course.
2. Record their responses on chart paper.
3. Write participants’ initials next to their comments.
4. Post the chart paper in a visible place in the room.
5. At the end of each day, review participants’ expectations and ask if they believe
they were met. If necessary, supply examples from the course to jog the
memory of those who disagree.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
A digital alternative to recording participants’ learning expectations on easel paper is to
ask them to respond to a digital survey. You can use free software or apps to create an
interactive form or online survey. One option is to email the survey or link in advance as
part of a pre-course assignment. Or make it available on the first day of the course.
Web-Based Training
You can post your question to the course discussion board or create an online survey
using the essay question feature on the learning management system (LMS). Both will
display text fields where participants can enter their expectations for learning.
Web Conference Training
Some web conference platforms have a question and answer feature. You can post
your question about participant expectations to the Q&A pod or window. You may be
able to keep the window open throughout the course or reopen it at the end of the
course for review and reflection.
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”

Statistics
Statistics are a collection of quantitative data. They are produced by analyzing large
quantities of numerical data. Statistics are often used to estimate what proportion a
sample of data represents in the whole set of data. There are pros and cons for using
statistics. Statistics and data can help us better understand the world. They help us to

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make predictions and evaluate the quality of products or processes. You can use
statistics to increase your credibility or create an emotional impact on participants. But
be careful in your choice of statistics. It is important to use trusted sources for data and
statistics. Government statistics are generally high quality because they are based on
very large samples. However, the information sometimes is collected for a political
purpose. Data collection or calculation may be manipulated to fit that bias. Make sure
that the statistics you choose supports the message or argument. When choosing a
statistic, think about what data the participants will find interesting. Showing how the
statistic has changed over time can increase the power of the message. Be sure to
connect the statistic to the participants’ lives or jobs. Sometimes you will need to help
participants understand statistical terminology, like mean, median, standard deviation,
and statistical significance, so they can interpret statistical data. You can help put
statistics into context for the participants by creating graphs or other visual aids.
Instructions
To present statistics for maximum impact:
1. Identify the appropriate statistic.
2. Create a slide to display the statistic. Highlight it in a chart or graph or use a
photograph to make an emotional connection.
3. When instructing, speak slower than your normal rate to signal the importance
of the statistic.
4. Pause immediately before the statistic, to create suspense.
5. Use body language, like spreading your arms, to demonstrate the magnitude of
the statistic.
6. Pause immediately after the statistic, to allow participants to process the
meaning.
7. Use facial expressions to convey the appropriate reaction.

For more information on using statistics to provide background information, refer to

Background Information.
Return to Setting the Hook
Return to Theorists

For More Information

For more information about transportation statistics, refer to the United States
Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics website,
https://www.bts.dot.gov/

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Structured Notes
Many participants use their workbook’s margins and blank spaces to take free-form
notes during a course. But a more effective retention method is to ask them to answer
questions or jot down key details in structured notes sections in their participant
workbooks. Structured notes prompt participants to recall and process information at
key points during a lesson. They help keep participants engaged and create a sense of
ownership in the learning process. Structured notes also provide a great take away from
the training that participants can refer to later. However, participants will grow bored if
note taking becomes predictable. It is best to provide a variety of formats and match
them to the participants’ information processing needs. If structured notes are not part
of the course’s participant workbook, create them as handouts for participants to slip
into their books at the appropriate spot. Table 7 displays some structured notes formats
available in course participant workbooks.
Table 7: Example Structured Notes Formats
Structured Notes Format Example
Questions with lines—Participants will
find a box or a dedicated area that
displays a question and provides space
for precise answers or steps.
Sometimes the lines are numbered to
help participants recall all the details or
a sequence. These are effective for
answering critical or complex questions
or recalling multi-step processes or
workflows.

Source: Murphy (2019).

Copies of screenshots with blanks—

Anytime you display a complicated
image with labels or a slide with a lot of
textual information, these fill-in-the-
blank replicas can provide spaces for
participants to record the key details as
you point them out.

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Structured Notes Format Example

Source: NHI (2017).

Blank or partially-completed
diagrams or graphic organizers—
These are useful because they help
participants identify discrete features or
visualize how information, systems, or
processes are organized. More
examples of common graphic
organizers, refer to Graphic Organizers.

Source: San Anselmo (2018).

Group notes—These are large, open

spaces to record the results of group
brainstorming sessions or other small
group activities. Often these spaces are
preceded by the directions for the
activity and/or the essential questions
to be answered.

Source: Mehlo (2019).

Instructions
◼ If you choose to write answers on a whiteboard or easel pad, you will need to
write down exactly what is shown on the structured note-taking section in
advance. Use different colored markers to record participants’ ideas as you fill it
out together.
◼ If you choose to create a slide for displaying answers, use animation and a
remote to display first the prompt and then the answer(s). Make sure you walk
around and monitor participants’ progress, because it takes them more time to
write than for you to click.

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Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
To provide more structure to a small group discussion, create a handout with the
discussion question, any other information about the assignment, and space for the
groups to record their ideas.
Web Conference Training
Create an interactive document (like a course outline or replica of slides) that displays
only part of the information. Participants can type in key details as they are covered
during the end-of-lesson or end-of-course review.
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Summarizing
A summary is a brief statement of the main points of something. When participants are
asked to summarize, they must determine the most important ideas, ignore any
irrelevant information, and integrate the central ideas in a meaningful way. The mental
effort involved in producing a summary supports long-term retention. Studies have
shown that participants asked to summarize recalled more information than those who
engaged in self-question and note-taking activities. But summarizing has its limitations.
Because learners focus on main ideas and major details, they often can’t recall smaller
details.
There are five different ways to summarize:
◼ Generalization followed by an example
◼ General statement followed by a more particular statement
◼ General preview followed by a discussion of detail
◼ Compatibility review where different situations are compared and contrasted
◼ Situation evaluation:
• If the situation is satisfactory, then the summary outlines the positive
evaluation.
• If the situation is unsatisfactory, then the summary outlines the problem and
the attempts to find a solution.

Summarizing can be incorporated in many different engagement activities including

Quick Writes, Brainstorming, K-W-L Charts, Anticipation Guides, Think-Pair-Share, and
Think-Pair-Write, see Think-Pair-Share.

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Course format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
Before moving onto the next lesson, pose a thought-provoking question like:
◼ So what?
◼ What do you want to remember?
◼ What do you want to share with someone else?

Provide an index card or sticky note for participants to write their answers or ask them
to share their responses with a partner. Call on one or two participants to share with the
group.
Web Conference Training
The 3-2-1 summary activity adapts well to web conference training. At the end of a
lesson or day, ask participants to list three main points, two controversial ideas (or
things they disagree with), and one question related to the key concept or learning.
Participants can post their summaries to the chat pod on the web conference platform.
Return to Guiding Review
Return to Maximizing Participant Workbook Elements

Surveys/Interactive Polls
A quick survey at the start of a course, lesson, or module can engage the participants
and provide them with a glimpse of the important concepts they are going to encounter.
You can use a survey to get a rough measure of the participants’ background
knowledge so you can adjust your delivery to better meet their needs.
To get the answers you need, ask the right questions. Use the learning outcomes as a
guide when choosing question topics. Depending on the information needed, you can
write questions that require factual answers or questions that solicit participants’
opinions.
Survey questions can include:
◼ What is your experience with the topic?
◼ What other courses related to this topic have you taken?
◼ What is your job title (or job responsibilities)?
◼ What are the “pain points” in your job?
◼ What are you interested in learning from this course?
◼ How do you see yourself applying what you will learn from this course?

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Example
Module 5 of the NHI “Bridge Inspector Refresher Training” course includes the
following survey question about structure inventory and appraisal and structure
type codes. The module is designed to gauge participants’ experiences in
appraising bridge structural components and entering codes into the National
Bridge Inventory database. Figure 53 displays the survey question slide from the
Superstructure Type Identification module.

Source: NHI

Figure 53: Survey question slide from “Bridge Inspector Refresher Training”

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
You can create a PowerPoint slide to display the poll question. Collect survey
responses on note cards, by a show of hands, or using “clicker” polling devices. Another
option is to create and share a survey using free online form-building software or an
online survey app that participants can access via their laptops or smart phones. The
benefits of online or clicker devices are that they can be anonymous, and they allow
results to be displayed to the class in real time. Be aware: while clicker devices are
popular with participants, they can malfunction or run out of battery power. So, this may
require you to carry more equipment to the course site.
Web-Based Training
Some learning management systems (LMS) include polling features. Others require you
to embed a link to poll hosted on an online polling site or to a form you created with
form-building software on the course page. Another option is for you to embed a poll on
a content page that participants can access using a free mobile app.

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Web Conference Training

Your web conference platform is likely to support multiple choice or true/false poll
questions. You can keep the results of the poll private or share the graphed results of
the poll with participants.
Return to Activating Participants’ Prior Knowledge
Return to Lectures and Interactive Lectures
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”
Return to Step 5: Plan for Knowledge Checks
Return to Web or Video Conference Meeting Rooms
Return to What do participants already know?

Test Questions
Test questions are used to assess participants’ familiarity with course content and to
check for misconceptions. They can be written to assess a wide range of learning
objectives in all content areas. Test questions are either objective or subjective.
◼ Objective questions have one correct answer. Participants either select the
answer from a list of options or complete a sentence by providing a missing
word or phrase. Objective tests are appropriate when large groups need to be
tested. They are also useful if the test will be reused. Objective tests are used
when impartiality and fairness are a high priority and there can be no scoring
bias. Well-designed and tested objective questions also can produce highly
reliable scores that support statistical analysis.
◼ On the other hand, subjective questions require participants to provide an
original answer. For some subjective questions, responses can be as short as
a single word or as long as multiple paragraphs. Subjective test questions are
good when testing a small group and the test won’t be reused. They are also
good if you want to support written communication and/or analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation skills. Because participants’ responses are not always uniform,
grader bias is a real concern. Essay questions may require a rubric or
assessment checklist to standardize grading. For more information on creating
assessment tools to measure mastery of learning outcomes, refer to Rubrics
and Assessment Checklists.

Within the objective and subjective categories, there are several different types of test
questions, each of which have advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of their type,
test questions can be written to test comprehension and application of knowledge, as
well as critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. Choosing a type or type(s) of
questions to use will be based on the course’s learning outcomes, time available for

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testing and scoring, and the testing requirements or restrictions. Table 8 describes
different types of objective test question. For more information on linking assessments
and learning outcomes, refer to Using the Outcome Verb to Make Instructional
Decisions.
Table 8: Objective Test Questions
Question Type Description
Multiple choice Most often multiple choice questions have a question stem
and multiple answer choices. Typically there is one correct
answer and the others are distractors. One of the drawbacks
to this type of question is that writing several plausible
distractors for each multiple-choice test item is time
consuming. Multiple-choice questions are popular because
participants can answer them quickly. Machine-readable
response sheets and templates can make grading a fast and
accurate process.
True/False True/false questions feature a statement and two possible
answers: True or False. Like multiple-choice questions,
True/False questions are useful for assessing familiarity with
content and checking for common misconceptions. They are
also easy to grade. However, since participants have a 50%
chance of choosing the correct answer, guessing may create
a misleading picture of participant learning. To follow
International Association for Continuing Education and
Training’s (IACET) guidelines, assessments should have no
more than 10 percent true/false questions.
Matching Matching questions feature sets of stems and a list of options
(e.g., match key terms to their correct definitions). Matching
questions are good when participants are expected to
recognize and recall detailed information. They are easy to
create but often take participants more time to complete than
multiple-choice or True/False questions.
Here are some best practices to follow when writing objective test questions and
response options:
◼ It is best to avoid:
• Long or complex sentences
• Trivial statements (focus on the essence of the learning outcome)
• Negative and double negatives (e.g., no, not, etc.)
• Restrictions (e.g., except, all except, etc.)
• Clues to which items are the wrong answer
• Distractors too close to the correct answer
• Distractors that are shorter than the others

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• Completely implausible distractors

• “All of the above” and “none of the above”
• Dependent responses (e.g., “If ‘B’ is true, then ‘A’ is true.”)
◼ It is best to use:
• One clearly described problem (when appropriate)
• At least three response options
• Plausible distractors
• Statements that address common participant misconceptions
• Options that are true but do not answer the question
• Options that are all about the same length
• Logically or numerically ordered options
• Random distribution of correction options (e.g., evenly distributed across A,
B, C, etc.)

Table 9 describes types of subjective test question.

Table 9: Subjective Test Questions

Question Type Description

Short answer Short-answer questions provide a brief prompt that
requires participants to write a word, short phrase, or a
few sentences to answer. Depending on the desired
answer, this type of question can also be written as a
multiple-choice question. One advantage of short-
answer questions is that they can be written to test
higher-order thinking skills. Another advantage is that
they are easy to develop and take less time than
multiple-choice questions. Also, it is much more difficult
for participants to guess when responding to short-
answer questions.
Extended Extended response essay questions provide a complex
response essay prompt that requires written responses that can be as
short as a couple of paragraphs to many pages in
length. Extended response essays are not commonly
used in NHI courses.

Here are some best practices to follow when writing subjective test questions:
◼ It is best to avoid:
• Trivia
• Long, complex sentences
• Complex or ambiguous wording

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• Questions that are too broad to address in the time allotted

◼ It is best to use:
• Specific problems
• Direct questions
• Instructions like “compare and contrast” at the beginning of an essay prompt
• A rubric to grade essay responses

Return to Assessing Learning

Return to Rubrics

Theories
Theories are a set of statements that describe and predict behavior. They are important
because they guide and give meaning to what we see. It is important to remember that
theories are influenced by the cultural values and belief systems of their times. Valid
theories are supported by research and can be used to guide decision making.
Theoretical knowledge, on its own, provides a valuable foundation for participants’
learning. But, because real life is often more complex than theories, participants tend to
separate theory from practice. You must provide the link between theory and the real
world. Case studies give participants the opportunity to apply theoretical concepts in
realistic settings. This practice will support the long-term retention of theoretical
information and transfer of knowledge to the workplace.
For more ideas on using case studies to support the application of theories in the
workplace, refer to Case Studies.
Return to Theorists
Return to Pragmatists

Think-Pair-Share
In a Think-Pair-Share (TPS) activity, participants consider their response to a question,
then take turns sharing their ideas with a partner. (If you have an odd number of
participants you can create a trio for the activity.) Depending on the prompt, the partner
teams either come to a consensus or discuss their different perspectives. You can walk
around listening in on the discussions, and at the end of the activity can call on
representative partners to share their thoughts with the class.
TPS is a fast way to get all participants engaged with the content. You can plan to use
the activity to break up a lecture or insert it into the lesson plan on the fly if you find that
the same participants are responding to whole group questions. For most participants,
talking with a familiar table mate is less anxiety producing than addressing the whole

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class. And even the least motivated participant is likely to respond when they have a
partner waiting expectantly for their answer.
TPS is flexible. It works with all kinds and levels of questions. Allow more time for
discussion on more thought-provoking questions and less time for recall questions.
Instructions
How to incorporate a Think-Pair-Share activity:
1. Identify the learning outcome or difficult concept you want to address.
2. Write a question to elicit the information from participants. For application
outcomes, use an open-ended question to stimulate a discussion. For recall
outcomes, use a closed-ended question to elicit facts.
3. Explain the steps to the activity (listen, think, take turns sharing ideas, and
prepare a joint response in the case you team is called on for a report).
4. Identify the partner groups and their roles: Partner A and Partner B.
5. State the time limits for thinking and sharing.
6. Share the prompt verbally and/or on screen.
7. At the midpoint in the sharing part of the activity, announce that it is Partner B’s
turn.
8. Circulate around the room to listen in to the discussions.
9. At the end of the sharing part, ask selected teams to share their report.

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
If you add a short writing component, the activity is called Think-Write-Pair-Share.
Provide participants with note cards or large sticky notes to jot down their ideas before
they share their writing with their partners. For more information on short writing
activities, refer to Quick Writes/Entrance Tickets.
Web Conference Training
Think-Pair-Share can also be done in a web conference course using partners in small
groups and/or breakout rooms.
Return to How can I adapt a discussion or practice activity?
Return to Lectures and Interactive Lectures
Return to Reflectors
Return to Summarizing

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Visual Aids
Visual aids are items speakers use to enhance their message. The most commonly
used visual aid is a PowerPoint presentation. In addition to or in place of a slide show,
some instructors will incorporate photos, videos, posters, charts, diagrams, or other
visual items into their presentations. Real-life objects or models that participants can
see and touch can also be used as visual aids.
Visual aids are valuable for many reasons:
◼ Clarification—Visual aids can make complicated information more digestible.
The adage, “a picture is worth a thousand words,” is true. Visual aids can
convey meaning and essence more effectively that words alone. For example,
it would be hard for an instructor to adequately describe the different levels of
bridge and pier deterioration without photographs.
◼ Recall—When they both listen and view (or touch), participants use more than
one sensory channel to process the information. Then, they connect the new
information to their existing memories in multiple ways. As a result, they retain
the new information better and longer than if they had just heard words alone.
◼ Focus—Visual aids can focus participants’ attention on essential information.
Bulleted phrases on a PowerPoint slide or easel pad can highlight and reinforce
key points from a lesson. Maps, diagrams, photos, or other media can
emphasize important details and put new information into an understandable
context.
◼ Variety—Visual aids also add variety to a training presentation. Video clips and
images provide an interesting visual and/or audio break from a lecture or text-
heavy slides. But it is important not to add novelty or decorative images or
animation to a presentation. They actually can backfire and distract learners
from the message.

While visual aids are a valuable support for an instructor, they should not replace the
instructor. A good rule of thumb is if the instructor can’t present the training without the
visual aids, then the instructor is relying on them too much. Human error and
technological glitches can and do happen. A competent instructor should be able to
adapt and deliver the training without the support of visual aids. For more information on
dealing with challenging issues, refer to Difficulties with Technology.
It is also important to make sure that all participants can see the visual aids clearly.
When setting up the training room, take a moment to sit in chairs in all four corners of
the room. Check to make sure that participants in those locations would have a clear
sight line to the projection screen, easel pads, whiteboard, etc. If they would not, move
the chair or shift the visual aid to improve visibility. For more information on effective
classroom layouts, refer to Creating Classroom and Virtual Learning Spaces.

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Also, consider how a participant with visual, hearing, or motor difficulties will be able to
access the information in the visual aid. Section 508 of the Americans with Disabilities
Act of 2007 guidelines include print, audio, and video media and websites. For more
information on how to ensure a visual aid complies with the law, refer to the following
sources:
◼ Create Accessible Digital ProductsCreate Accessible Digital Products, available
at https://section508.gov/create
◼ NHI Web-Based Training Standards Guide, available at
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/NHI_Web_Based_Standards_Gui
de_20201013_v2.pdf
◼ NHI Instructor-led Training Standards Guide, available at
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/ilt_standards_guide_072018_01.p
df
◼ NHI Web-conference Training Standards Guide, available at
https://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/docs/wct_standards_guide_May2017.p
df

To use visual aids effectively, it is necessary to understand how to maximize their

advantages and work around their disadvantages.
PowerPoint Slides
PowerPoint is popular because it makes it easy to create and modify professional-
looking presentations. PowerPoint slides can be simple or elaborate. Colorful templates
are available and users can personalize slides with colors and font styles. Slide layouts
allow you to insert photos, videos, quizzes, hyperlinks, or other interactions. Also,
PowerPoint files are easily transportable. You can store the files on a flash drive or
share via email, and there are several handout options available in the PowerPoint print
menu.
Sunshine and projection lighting sometimes create glare that obscures the presentation.
It may be necessary to dim the lights which can make it hard for some participants to
take notes or stay awake. If the instructor doesn’t incorporate question and answer
sessions or activities, participants will be unable to engage with the content and will
become passive learners. PowerPoints are especially vulnerable to technical difficulties
that can disrupt a presentation such as burnt out projection bulbs, inoperable slide
advancers, sound issues, broken hyperlinks, etc. For information on creating a backup
plan, refer to Difficulties with Technology. Images may be clear when viewed on a
laptop but are not readable when they are projected. Consider creating handouts for
diagrams or other images when participants need to see the details.
Easel Pads/Chart Paper
Easel pads and chart paper may be low tech, but their simplicity and flexibility make
them extremely useful in the training classroom. The blank pages and a few colored

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magic markers create nearly unlimited opportunities for expression. They can be used
to highlight key points, capture participant ideas, and create expressive diagrams on the
fly; or they can be prepared in advance and revealed at appropriate times in the lesson.
One tip is to write the information in pencil and trace over it later with a marker. Another
tip is to fold the corner of a page you want to turn to later or attach a small sticky note at
the bottom of each pre-made sheet to help you flip to the correct page.
Participants can engage with easel pads and chart paper as well. Instructors can hand a
marker to one or more participants to record key ideas at the front of the room. If there
are enough easels and pads, one can be positioned by each table for a small group
activity. If there aren’t enough, sheets can be torn off and distributed so the groups can
record their ideas. If the information is going to be referred to in the future, the sheets
can be tacked or taped to the wall.
Savvy instructors will verify that the training site host will provide enough chart paper or
easel pads. Prepared instructors also travel with a set of fresh markers to avoid being
stopped mid-sentence if the ink runs out. Paper and markers are expensive and the
easel pads’ size and shape makes them awkward to transport. Attaching several binder
clips to the bottom and sides of an easel pad will keep the pages from separating or
from flapping in the wind. In the classroom, they present another disadvantage:
participants in the back may not be able to see the full easel pad. For participants to be
able to view the entire message, it’s a good idea to avoid writing on the bottom of the
pad and continue on a new sheet, if necessary. Remember to attach sheets as high on
the wall as you can to provide the greatest visibility. Even participants in the front of the
room may struggle to read writing that is too small or too close together. For greatest
clarity, use wide-tip markers and make letters at least 2 inches high. Leave another 2
inches of space between each line.
Videos
Videos increase participants’ interest because they add motion, images, and audio into
the classroom. They also introduce variety with a new “instructor” voice. Videos
enhance learning because they can transport participants outside the classroom or
provide complex demonstrations. No matter who the instructor is, participants will
always get a consistent message from a training video.
Technology is making it easier and less expensive to create videos, but it is not always
easy to find one that fits with the learning outcomes in a lesson. Some videos may be
available, but are out of date. If a suitable video exists, don’t waste participants’ time by
showing the whole thing. Just show a pertinent clip. Clips should be a maximum of 2
minutes long. Be sure any video you show for a federal government course or
presentation is Section 508 compliant. Keep in mind that viewing a video is a passive
experience. To increase participant engagement, explain the purpose of the video, how
long it will last, and set a clear task for them to accomplish as they watch and listen.
Follow the video with a discussion or other engagement activity. And remember, too

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much of anything is not good for you. Participants will become bored if videos are
overused as an instructional tool.
Handouts
Handouts are extremely versatile. They can provide review information to support
struggling learners. They can provide full-sized versions of charts, tables, and other
images that are too small to be read on a slide. They can offer articles or documents
related to the content, provide additional resources, and provide a structured space for
participants to take notes. Handouts can support skill transfer because participants can
use them as job aids or references when they return to their jobs.
Handouts can sometimes present document management challenges. If handouts are
distributed too early, they may get lost or may be reviewed out of order, and time will be
wasted as participants search for the right page. Participants may become confused if
there aren’t clear document titles or page numbers. Some participants may become
distracted by handouts because they will focus on what is coming up next and not on
the current lesson. It is sometimes best to take the just-in-time approach and distribute
handouts only when they are needed.
Whiteboards
Whiteboards are often available in training rooms. Web and video conference platforms
also offer interactive, online versions. Like easel pads and chart paper, they are colorful,
easy to use, and readily available. They are ideal for reinforcing key information,
creating diagrams, explaining key words and phrases, or showing how the material is
organized. Like with easel pads and chart paper, whiteboards can be used to capture
and share participant input. Important information, like Wi-Fi passwords, key
vocabulary, or ground rules can be retained, and participants can refer to them again
when needed. Less important information is easily erased.
Because whiteboards are often attached to the wall and can’t be repositioned, some
participants may not have a clear view of them. It also may be difficult to read
something written on a whiteboard from the back of the room. Like easel pads and chart
paper, it is necessary to form large, legible letters and leave space between lines of text
so participants can read the message. Even on large whiteboards, space is limited and
it may be necessary to erase frequently to record new information. Check with
participants to make sure they have finished copying information before you erase.
Fresh dry-erase markers, erasers, and cleaners are essential, and instructors often
need to bring their own supply.
Return to Creating Classroom and Virtual Learning Spaces
Return to Supporting Participants
Return to Difficulties with Technology

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Word Clouds/Interactive Polls

Word clouds are a visually interesting way to highlight key words or phrases that appear
in a selected text. The more frequent the words or phrases appear in the text, the larger
they are displayed in the word cloud. You can use a word cloud to spark a discussion
about participants’ prior experiences with the topic or concept or ask participants to
predict what they are going to learn in the module or lesson.
Another twist is to use an online word cloud generator. Participants submit their
responses using their smartphones or other mobile devices to produce an interactive
word cloud on screen. As more words and phrases are submitted, their size and
location on screen changes to reflect their frequency.
Instructions
How to use a word cloud generator:
1. Copy and paste selected text (or upload a complete document, if that feature is
available) in the word cloud generating software. Some word cloud generators
allow you to block repetitive non-content words.
2. Capture the resulting word cloud as an image using the computer’s Print
Screen command or screen-capturing software.
3. If necessary, crop the image.
4. Upload or copy and paste the word cloud image onto a PowerPoint slide.

How to use an interactive word cloud app:

1. Smart phone apps generally require a fee or subscription. Follow the
instructions provided for the selected app.
2. Create word cloud poll and embed it into the presentation.
3. Present the poll during the presentation.
4. Participants submit words online or via texts on their smart phones.
5. The words appear on the screen. Frequently shared words grow larger as
others grow smaller.

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Example
A word cloud generated from text selected from the Soils and Foundations
Reference Manual is shown below (figure 54).

Figure 54: Word cloud from Soils and Foundations Reference Manual

Course Format Recommendations

Instructor-Led Training
You can create a slide that asks participants to predict what topics or concepts they
think should appear in the course. Then embed a link to an online interactive poll on the
slide. During the course, share the website address and the identifying code with
participants. When you open the poll, participants can submit their responses. As
participants respond, the word cloud grows and changes.
Web-Based Training
Post a word cloud that you generated using the text from an assigned course reading,
blog, or website. Ask participants to write several questions they hope they will find
answers to during the module and post them to the course discussion board.
Web Conference Training
You can get an idea of participants’ background knowledge by using an interactive word
cloud during a brainstorming activity. Ask participants to think of what they already know
about the topic or the experiences they have had with it. Share the link to the word
cloud website and watch the results of the survey appear. Take a screenshot to save
the image for later analysis.
Return to Sharing the “What’s in it for me?”

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Learners First: Creating Engaging and Interactive Learning Experiences Appendix: Tools and Techniques

Return to Web or Video Conference Meeting Rooms

Worked Examples
Worked examples, or worked problems, are sometimes provided to support participants
who have little or no experience and must learn how to complete a multi-step task or
problem. A worked example presents the thought process or interim calculation for each
step of the task or problem, as well as the final result. As the instructor explains each
step of the required sequence, participants can focus on mastering the individual steps.
Instructors can check participant understanding at each step and answer any questions.
If you introduce a worked example with an error, you can ask participants to find flaws in
the logic or calculations. Participants can also refer to worked examples when doing
independent practice. The downside to worked examples is, if participants are provided
with only one example, they may not be able to solve a related problem that varies in
any way from the example. This challenge can be overcome by creating a series of
worked examples with minor variations in the different steps so that participants can
experience thinking through small changes to the task or problem.
Instructions
To effectively use worked examples:
1. Show the problem with the solution steps obscured.
2. Ask participants to think about how they would approach the problem.
3. Reveal the entire worked solution and give participants time to read through each
step.
4. Ask participants to discuss the steps to solve the example worked problem with a
partner.
5. Call on participants to have them discuss how to solve the problem.
6. Provide a worked example with a common flaw in the calculation or routine.
7. Ask participants to discuss the flawed example with a partner.
8. Call on one or more participants to explain the error and how to correct it.
9. Provide related practice problems with small changes for participants to try to
solve on their own.
10. To check participants’ conceptual understanding, call on participants to explain
how they solved the practice problem. If errors are discovered, ask for help from
other participants to reinforce correct thinking.

Return to Hands-on Practice Activities

Return to Supporting Participants

148
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