INTRODUCTION TO

STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define Statistics and some basic terms.

2. Distinguish the branches of Statistics.
3. Identify the different types of variables.
4. Distinguish the different types of data.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Think about it!
•What is statistics?

•Why should I study statistics?

•How can studying statistics help me in
my profession?

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Consider the following:
• Twenty-eight percent or 17.3 million Filipino adults age 15 years and older
are current tobacco smokers, according to the results of the 2009 Global
Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS).
• Based on the 2020 Annual Poverty Indicators Survey (APIS), 7.0 percent of
the total family members reported that they got ill/sick or injured in the
past month preceding the survey; that is, from 01 to 30 June 2020.
• Unemployment rate in the country slightly picked up in December 2021 at
6.6 percent from the 6.5 percent reported in November 2021.
• Registered deaths attributed to transport accidents decreased by -32.0
percent, from 12.80 thousand (2.1% share) in 2019 to 8.70 thousand (1.4%
share) in 2020, pushing its rank from 11th to 17th.
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 What is data?
• Data consist of information
coming from observations,
counts, measurements, or
responses.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Statistics
• the word statistics is derived from the Latin word
status, meaning “state.”
• Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,
analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make
decisions.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Definition:
• A population is the collection of all outcomes,
responses, measurements, or counts that are of
interest.
• A sample is a subset, or part, of a population.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Identifying Data sets
• 1. In a recent survey, 1500 adults in the United States
were asked if they thought there was solid evidence of
global warming. Eight hundred fifty-five of the adults
said yes. Identify the population and the sample.
Describe the sample data set. (Adapted from Pew
Research Center)

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Identifying Data sets
• The population consists of the
responses of all adults in the United
States.
• The sample consists of the responses
of the 1500 adults in the United
States in the survey. The sample is a
subset of the responses of all adults
in the United States. The sample data
set consists of 855 yes’s and 645 no’s.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Identifying Data sets
2. The US Department of Energy conducts weekly surveys of
approximately 900 gasoline stations to determine the average
price per gallon of regular gasoline. On January 11, 2010, the
average price was $2.75 per gallon. Identify the population
and the sample. Describe the sample data set. (Source: Energy
Information Administration)

a. Identify the population and the sample.

b. What does the sample data set consist of?

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Identifying Data sets
a. The population consists of the prices per gallon of regular
gasoline at all gasoline stations in the United States.
The sample consists of the prices per gallon of regular
gasoline at the 900 surveyed stations.

b. The data set consists of the 900 prices.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Identify the population and sample.

1. A survey of 496 students at a college found that 10% planned on traveling

out of the country during spring break.
2. A magazine mails questionnaires to each company in Fortune magazine’s
top 100 best companies to work for and receives responses from 85 of them.
3. A survey of 791 vacationers from the United States found that they
planned on spending at least $2000 for their next vacation.
4. A survey of 800 registered voters found that 50% think economic stimulus
is the most important issue to consider when voting for Congress.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Definition
• A parameter is a numerical description of a
population characteristic.
• A statistic is a numerical description of a sample
characteristic.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Parameter or Statistic
Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter or a
sample statistic. Explain your reasoning.

1. A recent survey of 200 college career centers reported that the average
starting salary for petroleum engineering majors is Php 83,121.
2. The 2182 students who accepted admission offers to Northwestern
University in 2009 have an average SAT score of 1442.
3. In a random check of a sample of retail stores, the Food and Drug
Administration found that 34% of the stores were not storing fish at the
proper temperature.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Parameter or Statistic
Solution:
1.Because the average of Php 83,121 is based on a subset of
the population, it is a sample statistic.
2.Because the SAT score of 1442 is based on all the students
who accepted admission offers in 2009, it is a population
parameter.
3.Because the percent of 34% is based on a subset of the
population, it is a sample statistic.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Decide whether the numerical value describes a population parameter or a sample
statistic. Explain your reasoning.

1. In 2009, Major League Baseball teams spent a total of Php 2,655,395,194 on

players’ salaries. Population parameter
2. In a survey of a sample of high school students, 43% said that their mothers had
taught them the most about managing money. Sample Statistic
3. Sixty-two of the 97 passengers aboard the Hindenburg airship survived its
explosion. Population parameter
4. In January 2010, 52% of the governors of the 50 states in the United States
were Democrats. Population parameter
5. In a recent survey of 2000 people, 44% said China is the world’s leading
economic power. Sample Statistic

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Branches of Statistics
• Descriptive statistics is the branch of statistics that
involves the organization, summarization, and display
of data.
• Inferential statistics is the branch of statistics that
involves using a sample to draw conclusions about a
population. A basic tool in the study of inferential
statistics is probability.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Descriptive and Inferential
Decide which part of the study represents the descriptive branch of
statistics. What conclusions might be drawn from the study using
inferential statistics?

1. A large sample of men, aged 48, was studied for 18 years. For
unmarried men, approximately 70% were alive at age 65. For married
men, 90% were alive at age 65. (Source: The Journal of Family Issues)

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Descriptive and Inferential
Solution:

1. Descriptive statistics involves statements such as “For unmarried

men, approximately 70% were alive at age 65” and “For married men,
90% were alive at 65.” A possible inference drawn from the study is that
being married is associated with a longer life for men.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Descriptive and Inferential
Decide which part of the study represents the descriptive branch of
statistics. What conclusions might be drawn from the study using
inferential statistics?

2. In a sample of Wall Street analysts, the percentage who incorrectly

forecasted high-tech earnings in a recent year was 44%. (Source:
Bloomberg News)

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Descriptive and Inferential
Solution:

2. The part of this study that represents the descriptive branch of

statistics involves the statement “the percentage [of Wall Street
analysts] who incorrectly forecasted high-tech earnings in a recent year
was 44%.” A possible inference drawn from the study is that the stock
market is difficult to forecast, even for professionals.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Decide which part of the study represents the descriptive branch of statistics. What
conclusions might be drawn from the study using inferential statistics?

1. A survey conducted among 1017 men and women by Opinion Research

Corporation International found that 76% of women and 60% of men had a
physical examination within the previous year. (Source: Men’s Health)
a. Identify the descriptive aspect of the survey.
b. What inferences could be drawn from this survey?

2. A study shows that senior citizens who live in Tacloban City have better
memories than senior citizens who do not live in Tacloban City.
a. Make an inference based on the results of this study.
b. What is wrong with this type of reasoning?

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Solution:
1.
a. Descriptive statistics involve the statement “76% of women and 60% of
men had a physical examination within the previous year.”
b. An inference drawn from the study is that a higher percentage of women
had a physical examination within the previous year.

2.
a. An inference drawn from the sample is that senior citizens who live in
Tacloban City have better memories than senior citizens who do not live in
Tacloban City.
b. This inference may incorrectly imply that if you live in Tacloban City you
will have a better memory.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Classification of Variable
• Qualitative variables are variables that can be placed into distinct
categories, according to some characteristic or attribute. For example,
if subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), then
the variable gender is qualitative. Other examples of qualitative
variables are religious preference and geographic locations.

• Quantitative variables are numerical and can be ordered or ranked.

For example, the variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked
in order according to the value of their ages. Other examples of
quantitative variables are heights, weights, and body temperatures.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Classify each variable as qualitative or quantitative.

1. Marital status of nurses in a hospital. Qualitative

2. Time it takes to run a marathon. Quantitative
3. Weights of lobsters in a tank in a restaurant. Quantitative
4. Colors of automobiles in a shopping center parking lot. Qualitative
5. Ounces of ice cream in a large milkshake. Quantitative
6. Capacity of the football stadium. Quantitative
7. Ages of people living in a personal care home.Quantitative

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Classification of Quantitative Variable
• Discrete variables assume values that can be counted. Examples of
discrete variables are the number of children in a family, the number
of students in a classroom, and the number of calls received by a
switchboard operator each day for a month.

• Continuous variables can assume an infinite number of values

between any two specific values. They are obtained by measuring.
They often include fractions and decimals. . Temperature, for
example, is a continuous variable, since the variable can assume an
infinite number of values between any two given temperatures.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Classify each variable as discrete or continuous.

1. Number of pizzas sold by Pizza Express each day. Discrete

2. Relative humidity levels in operating rooms at local hospitals. Continuous
3. Number of bananas in a bunch at several local supermarkets. Discrete
4. Lifetime of 15 iPod batteries. Continuous
5. Weights of the backpacks of first graders on a school bus. Continuous
6. Number of students each day who make appointments with a math tutor
at a local college. Discrete
7. Blood pressures of runners in a marathon. Continuous

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Level of Measurement
• Nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive
(nonoverlapping) categories in which no order or ranking can be
imposed on the data. Examples: basketball player number, sex,
marital status, religious affiliation.

• Ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can

be ranked; however, precise differences between the ranks do not
exist. Examples: Socio-economic status, difficulty level, perceptions in
Likert scale, etc.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Level of Measurement
• Interval level of measurement ranks data, and precise differences
between units of measure do exist; however, there is no meaningful
zero. Examples: IQ level, Temperature, etc.

• Ratio level of measurement possesses all the characteristics of

interval measurement, and there exists a true zero. In addition, true
ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different
members of the population. Examples: height, weight, time, age,
salary, etc.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Try This!
Classify each as nominal-level, ordinal-level, interval level, or ratio-level measurement.
1. Number of pages in the 25 best-selling mystery novels. Ratio
2. Rankings of golfers in a tournament. Ordinal
3. Temperatures inside 10 pizza ovens. Interval
4. Weights of selected cell phones. Ratio
5. Salaries of the coaches in the NFL. Ratio
6. Times required to complete a chess game. Ratio
7. Ratings of textbooks (poor, fair, good, excellent). Ordinal
8. Number of amps delivered by battery chargers. Ratio
9. Ages of children in a day care center. Ratio
10. Categories of magazines in a physician’s office (sports, women’s, health, men’s, news).
Nominal
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Types of Studies
• Observational study - the researcher merely observes what is
happening or what has happened in the past and tries to draw
conclusions based on these observations.

For example, data from the Motorcycle Industry Council stated that
“Motorcycle owners are getting older and richer.” Data were collected
on the ages and incomes of motorcycle owners for the years 1980 and
1998 and then compared. The findings showed considerable
differences in the ages and incomes of motorcycle owners for the two
years. In this study, the researcher merely observed what had
happened to the motorcycle owners over a period of time. There was
no type of research intervention.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Types of Studies
• Experimental study - the researcher manipulates one of the variables and
tries to determine how the manipulation influences other variables.
For example, a study conducted at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
presented in Psychology Today divided female undergraduate students into
two groups and had the students perform as many sit-ups as possible in 90
sec. The first group was told only to “Do your best,” while the second group
was told to try to increase the actual number of sit-ups done each day by
10%.
After four days, the subjects in the group who were given the vague
instructions to “Do your best” averaged 43 sit-ups, while the group that was
given the more specific instructions to increase the number of sit-ups by 10%
averaged 56 sit-ups by the last day’s session. The conclusion then was that
athletes who were given specific goals performed better than those who
were not given specific goals.
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Types of Studies
Statistical studies usually include one or more independent variables
and one dependent variable.
• The independent variable in an experimental study is the one that is
being manipulated by the researcher. The independent variable is also
called the explanatory variable. The resultant variable is called the
dependent variable or the outcome variable.
For example, in the sit-up study, the researchers gave the groups two
different types of instructions, general and specific. Hence, the
independent variable is the type of instruction. The dependent variable,
then, is the resultant variable, that is, the number of sit-ups each group
was able to perform after four days of exercise.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Types of Studies
In the sit-up study, there were two groups. The group that received the
special instruction is called the treatment group while the other is
called the control group. The treatment group receives a specific
treatment (in this case, instructions for improvement) while the control
group does not.

Hawthorne effect - this effect was discovered in 1924 in a study of

workers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company. In
this study, researchers found that the subjects who knew they were
participating in an experiment actually changed their behavior in ways
that affected the results of the study.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Types of Studies
A confounding variable is one that influences the dependent or
outcome variable but was not separated from the independent
variable.

For example, subjects who are put on an exercise program might also
improve their diet unknown to the researcher and perhaps improve
their health in other ways not due to exercise alone. Then diet
becomes a confounding variable.

Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Uses and Misuses of Statistics
Ways that statistics can be misrepresented.
1. Suspect Samples - the first thing to consider is the sample that was used in
the research study. Sometimes researchers use very small samples to obtain
information.
2. Ambiguous Averages - select the one measure of average that lends the
most evidence to support a position.
3. Changing the subject - another type of statistical distortion can occur
when different values are used to represent the same data.
For example, one political candidate who is running for reelection might say,
“During my administration, expenditures increased a mere 3%.” His
opponent, who is trying to unseat him, might say, “During my opponent’s
administration, expenditures have increased a whopping 600,000,000,000.”
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Uses and Misuses of Statistics
Ways that statistics can be misrepresented.

4. Detached Statistics - A claim that uses a detached statistic is one in

which no comparison is made.
For example, you may hear a claim such as “Our brand of crackers has
one-third fewer calories.”
5. Implied Connections - Many claims attempt to imply connections
between variables that may not actually exist.
For example, consider the following statement:
“Eating fish may help to reduce your cholesterol.” Notice the words
may help. There is no guarantee that eating fish will definitely help you
reduce your cholesterol.
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Uses and Misuses of Statistics
Ways that statistics can be misrepresented.
6. Misleading Graphs - Statistical graphs give a visual representation of data
that enables viewers to analyze and interpret data more easily than by
simply looking at numbers. However, if graphs are drawn inappropriately,
they can misrepresent the data and lead the reader to draw false
conclusions.
7. Faulty Survey Questions - When analyzing the results of a survey using
questionnaires, you should be sure that the questions are properly written
since the way questions are phrased can often influence the way people
answer them.
For example, the responses to a question such as “Do you feel that the
North Huntingdon School District should build a new football stadium?”
might be answered differently than a question such as “Do you favor
increasing school taxes so that the North Huntingdon School District can
build a new football stadium?” Each question asks something a little
different, and the responses could be radically different.
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application
 Thank you for Listening!
Prepared by: Roy I. Branzuela STATSAP: Statistical Analysis with Software Application