A GSM network comprises of many functional units.

These functions and interfaces are

explained in this chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −
 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

GSM - The Mobile Station

The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and
digital signal processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in
GSM networks. As such, other services are also provided, which include −
 Voice teleservices
 Data bearer services
 The features' supplementary services

The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle
between the voice and data use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice
messaging systems. The MS also provides access to the various data services
available in a GSM network. These data services include −
  X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up
connection to the PAD at speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
 General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based data
transfer method at the speed up to 115 Kbps.
 High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.
We will discuss more about GMS services in GSM - User Services.

What is SIM?

The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed
services irrespective of both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific
terminal. You need to insert the SIM card into another GSM cellular phone to receive
calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other subscribed services.

GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The BSS is composed of two parts −
 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling
operations between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio
components of a BSS may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one
or more base stations. The BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the
BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the
Mobile MSC.
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link
protocols with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be
deployed.

The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the
network. A BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines
the size of a cell. Each BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the
density of users in the cell. Each BTS serves as a single cell. It also includes the
following functions −
  Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to
the antenna
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
 Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
 Random access detection
 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements

The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel
setup, frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the
mobile and the MSC. The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over
the radio link to the standard 64 Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSDN) or ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles
intercell handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area.
The function of the BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and
the MSC. It is a switching device that handles the radio resources.
The additional functions include−
 Control of frequency hopping
 Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
 Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
 Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
 Time and frequency synchronization
 Power management
 Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS

GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or
mobile network users, as well as the management of mobile services such as
authentication.
The switching system includes the following functional elements −

Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about
subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM, then all the
information about this subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.

Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the
switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well
as the management of mobile services such as registration, authentication, location
updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such
functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
Every MSC is identified by a unique ID.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is
needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always
integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR
connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later,
if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call
setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

Authentication Center (AUC)

The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key
stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of
the radio channel. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud
found in today's cellular world.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid
mobile equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI) identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or
is not type approved.

GSM - The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation
and support system (OSS).
Here are some of the OMC functions−
 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging,
and statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the
Telecommunication Management Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T
series M.30.
Following is the figure, which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.

The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls
the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for
centralized, regional, and local operational and maintenance activities that are required
for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and
support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance
organizations.
A simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture is given below −

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and

messaging systems functions −
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements −
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching
(NSS) center across the A interface.

GSM network areas

In a GSM network, the following areas are defined −
 Cell − Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given
a Cell Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
 Location Area − A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that
is paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a
Location Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
 MSC/VLR Service Area − The area covered by one MSC is called the
MSC/VLR service area.
 PLMN − The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land
Mobile Network (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.
Evolution of wireless technologies 1G to 5G in mobile communication
Mobile wireless communication system has gone through several evolution stages in the past
few decades after the introduction of the first generation mobile network in early 1980s. Due to
huge demand for more connections worldwide, mobile communication standards advanced
rapidly to support more users. Let’s take a look on the evolution stages of wireless technologies
for mobile communication.

History of wireless technology

Marconi, an Italian inventor, transmitted Morse code signals using radio waves wirelessly to a
distance of 3.2 KMs in 1895. It was the first wireless transmission in the history of science.
Since then, engineers and scientists were working on an efficient way to communicate using RF
waves.

Telephone became popular during the mid of 19th century. Due to wired connection and
restricted mobility, engineers started developing a device which doesn’t requires wired
connection and transmit voice using radio waves.

Invention of first mobile phone – The evolution begins

Martin Cooper, an engineer at Motorola during 1970s working on a handheld device capable of
two way communication wirelessly, invented the first generation mobile phone. It was initially
developed to use in a car, the first prototype was tested in 1974. This invention is considered as
a turning point in wireless communication which led to an evolution of many technologies and
standards in future.

1G – First generation mobile communication system

The first generation of mobile network was deployed in Japan by Nippon Telephone and
Telegraph company (NTT) in Tokyo during 1979. In the beginning of 1980s, it gained
popularity in the US, Finland, UK and Europe. This system used analogue signals and it had
many disadvantages due to technology limitations.

Most popular 1G system during 1980s

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
Nordic Mobile Phone System (NMTS)
Total Access Communication System (TACS)
European Total Access Communication System (ETACS)
Key features (technology) of 1G system

Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz

Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels with bandwidth of 30 KHz)
Technology: Analogue switching
Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)
Mode of service: voice only
Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Disadvantages of 1G system

Poor voice quality due to interference

Poor battery life
Large sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)
Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)
Limited number of users and cell coverage
Roaming was not possible between similar systems

2G – Second generation communication system GSM

Second generation of mobile communication system introduced a new digital technology for
wireless transmission also known as Global System for Mobile communication (GSM). GSM
technology became the base standard for further development in wireless standards later. This
standard was capable of supporting up to 14.4 to 64kbps (maximum) data rate which is
sufficient for SMS and email services.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system developed by Qualcomm also introduced and
implemented in the mid 1990s. CDMA has more features than GSM in terms of spectral
efficiency, number of users and data rate.

Key features of 2G system

Digital system (switching)
SMS services is possible
Roaming is possible
Enhanced security
Encrypted voice transmission
First internet at lower data rate

Disadvantages of 2G system

Low data rate

Limited mobility
Less features on mobile devices
Limited number of users and hardware capability
2.5G and 2.75G system

In order to support higher data rate, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was introduced and
successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rate up to 171kbps (maximum).

EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution also developed to improve data rate for GSM
networks. EDGE was capable to support up to 473.6kbps (maximum).

Another popular technology CDMA2000 was also introduced to support higher data rate for
CDMA networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps data rate
(maximum).

3G – Third generation communication system

Third generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS – Universal
Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication Systems. UMTS has the data rate of 384kbps and it
support video calling for the first time on mobile devices.

After the introduction of 3G mobile communication system, smart phones became popular
across the globe. Specific applications were developed for smartphones which handles
multimedia chat, email, video calling, games, social media and healthcare.

Key features of 3G system

Higher data rate

Video calling
Enhanced security, more number of users and coverage
Mobile app support
Multimedia message support
Location tracking and maps
Better web browsing
TV streaming
High quality 3D games

3.5G to 3.75 Systems

In order to enhance data rate in existing 3G networks, another two technology improvements
are introduced to network. HSDPA – High Speed Downlink Packet access and HSUPA – High
Speed Uplink Packet Access, developed and deployed to the 3G networks. 3.5G network can
support up to 2mbps data rate.

3.75 system is an improved version of 3G network with HSPA+ High Speed Packet Access
plus. Later this system will evolve into more powerful 3.9G system known as LTE (Long Term
Evolution).
Disadvantages of 3G systems
Expensive spectrum licenses
Costly infrastructure, equipments and implementation
Higher bandwidth requirements to support higher data rate
Costly mobile devices
Compatibility with older generation 2G system and frequency bands

4G – Fourth generation communication system

4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE, offers higher data rate
and capable to handle more advanced multimedia services. LTE and LTE advanced wireless
technology used in 4th generation systems. Furthermore, it has compatibility with previous
version thus easier deployment and upgrade of LTE and LTE advanced networks are possible.

Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible with LTE system which significantly
improve data rate. All services including voice services can be transmitted over IP packets.
Complex modulation schemes and carrier aggregation is used to multiply uplink / downlink
capacity.

Wireless transmission technologies like WiMax are introduced in 4G system to enhance data
rate and network performance.

Key features of 4G system

Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps
Enhanced security and mobility
Reduced latency for mission critical applications
High definition video streaming and gaming
Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

Disadvantages of 4G system

Expensive hardware and infrastructure

Costly spectrum (most countries, frequency bands are is too expensive)
High end mobile devices compatible with 4G technology required, which is costly
Wide deployment and upgrade is time consuming

5G – Fifth generation communication system

5G will be using advanced technologies to deliver ultra fast internet and multimedia experience
for customers. Current LTE advanced networks will transform into supercharged 5G networks
in future. In order to achieve higher data rate, 5G technology will use millimeter waves and
unlicensed spectrum for data transmission.
Complex modulation technique has been developed to support massive data rate for
Internet ofThings.

Find more about what is 5G NR (New Radio) and how 5G NR works

Cloud based network architecture will extend the functionalities and analytical
capabilities forindustries, autonomous driving, healthcare and security applications.

Key features of 5G technology

Ultra fast mobile internet up to 10Gbps
Low latency in milliseconds (significant for mission critical
applications)Total cost deduction for data
Higher security and reliable network
Uses technologies like small cells, beam forming to improve
efficiencyForward compatibility network offers further
enhancements in future
Cloud based infrastructure offers power efficiency, easy maintenance and upgrade of
hardware