MODULE III- MOTIVATION

1. Concept of Motivation
Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the
goals. In the work goal context, the psychological factors stimulating the people’s behaviour can
be -
• desire for money
• success
• recognition
• job-satisfaction
• team work, etc
One of the most important functions of management is to create willingness amongst the
employees to perform in the best of their abilities. Therefore, the role of a leader is to arouse
interest in performance of employees in their jobs.
Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to
the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their unfulfilled
needs.
Motivation is the result of the interaction between an individual and situation. Motivation is the
process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of efforts towards
attaining a goal.

2. Key Elements of Motivation:

Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when
we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favourable job-
performance outcomes unless the effort is channelled in a direction that benefits the organisation.
Therefore, we have to consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity. Effort that is directed
towards and consistent with the organisation’s goal is the kind of effort that we should be seeking.
Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This is a measure of how long a person can
maintain efforts. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

3. Types of Motivation:
1. Achievement Motivation:
It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to
achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success.
Here, accomplishment is important for its own sake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It
is similar to ‘Kaizen’ approach of Japanese Management. This motivation is more important for
professionals.

2. Affiliation Motivation:
It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work
better when they are complimented for their favourable attitudes and co-operation. This
motivation is of greater use where money cannot be used to motivate, especially minimum-wage
employees and contingent professionals.

3. Competence Motivation:
It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high quality work.
Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and using their problem-
solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from their
experience. Specialists, like heart surgeons would feel motivated if they get chances to operate
upon unique cases.

4. Power Motivation:
It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people create an impact
on their organization and are willing to take risk to do so. Ms Mayawati, the then Chief Minister
of UP, is power motivated.

5. Attitude Motivation:
Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self- confidence, their belief in
themselves, and their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the
past.

6. Incentive Motivation:
It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “you do this and you get that”,
attitude. It is the type of rewards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder. Most of the
unorganized job workers get motivated when they are offered more money.

7. Fear Motivation:
Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the job done
quickly. It is helpful in the short run. Managers following Theory x come into this category. In
Indian army, this kind of motivation is very popular.

4. Theories of Motivation:
I. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory of Motivation:

Abraham Maslow in his book “Motivation and Personality” (1954) propounded that humans have
a hierarchy of five needs, which begins with the basic need of physiological well-being and goes
up to realization of one’s potential. These needs are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-
actualization. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a hierarchy ascending from the lowest to
the highest and he concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be
a motivator.

1. Physiological needs:
a. These needs are the basic human needs of an individual for survival, such as food, cloth, shelter
and sleep.
b. These needs have the highest strength and intensity. Intensity of these needs keeps changing
with time.
c. However, they have to be repeatedly satisfied within relatively short time.

2. Safety Needs:
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual’s safety needs take precedence and
dominate behaviour. These needs are second in hierarchy. Safety needs manifest themselves in
things such as preference for job security, grievance procedures and job safety.
Safety and security needs include the following:
a. Personal security
b. Financial security
c. Health and well-being
d. Safety net against accidents/ illness

3. Belongingness & Love/ Social Needs:

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social and it
involves feelings of belongingness. Social needs add meaning to work life. Social needs are
primarily satisfied through family picnics, get together, cultural and sports activities. They form
the basis for team spirit in an organization.
This aspect of Maslow’s hierarchy involves emotionally based relationships, in general, such as
the following:
a. Friendship
b. Intimacy
c. Family

4. Esteem Needs:
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem and self- respect. Esteem presents the
normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. Most people have a need for a stable
self-respect and self-esteem.
Fulfilment of these needs provides a feeling of self-confidence, achievement, self-respect, and
usefulness, and their non-fulfilment produces feelings such as inferiority and unhelpfulness. Ego
and esteem needs are catered by the organization through promotion policies, providing better
status and appreciation.

5. Self-Actualization Needs:
This level of need pertains to what a person’s full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow
describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything
that one is capable of becoming. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but
when applied to individuals the need is specific. Very few people have such needs.
An individual may have the strong desire for a challenging job and for higher promotion. For
example, Sunil Gavaskar entered into modelling (Dinish Suiting). Organizations can provide
employees the challenge and the opportunity to reach their full career potential.

However, Maslow’s theory has the following limitations:

1. Needs are dynamic and keep changing with circumstances. The hierarchy of needs is not a rigid
structure; an individual may want to fulfil the higher-level needs even before the lower-level
needs are satisfied. For example, some cultures appear to place social needs before any others.

2. There is little evidence to suggest that people are motivated to satisfy only one need level at a
time, except in situations where there is a conflict between needs.

3. The model of Maslow is based on oversimplification of human needs.

4. Finally, behaviour is not influenced by needs alone. Factors such as expectations experiences
and perceptions also have a great impact on behaviour.

II. Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation/ Two Factor Theory:

Frederick Herzberg developed the two-factor theory popularly known as Motivational Hygiene
Theory.
He found that there are Two Sets of Needs viz:

(a) Hygiene or environmental factors:

These factors (extrinsic) such as interpersonal relations with supervisors, salary, security, working
conditions, status, do not motivate although they result in job satisfaction.
Thus, the absence of extrinsic factors causes dissatisfaction among the employees. They are called
Extrinsic factors because they are considered outside the work being performed. Traditionally, the
management used to perceive these factors as motivators.

(b) Motivational Factors:

These factors (also called satisfiers) are intrinsic factors because they are real indicators of job
satisfaction and primarily exist where the work is being carried out. These factors include
recognition, opportunity for growth, increased responsibility, challenging work, potential for
personal growth.

In brief Herzberg’s theory lays down that:

(a) The absence of first set of factors leads to dissatisfaction although they are not motivational
factors. These are referred as extrinsic as they come from the external environment of the person.
(b) The second set of factors is important as they provide satisfaction to employees and are termed
as motivational factors or intrinsic factors.
(c) Herzberg’s approach to motivation is based upon the fact that the country is rich and affluent.
(d) According to this theory, money is not a motivational factor as it has been included in the
Hygiene factors. This theory cannot be applied to poor or developing countries where money is
still regarded a greatest motivator.
III. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y of Motivation:

Douglas McGregor introduced these two theories i.e., Theory X and Theory Y, based on two
distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes two pairs of assumptions about
human beings which he thought were implied by the actions of the managers. Theory X deals with
one extreme, based on one set of assumptions and Theory Y, deals with another extreme based on
another set of assumptions. These theories are not based on any research, but according to
McGregor, these are intuitive deductions.

Theory X:
This theory is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour.
The assumptions generally, held by the managers in this theory are:
1. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever possible.
2. As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment to
achieve goals, to which they are indifferent.
3. Average employees will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever
possible, because they have relatively little ambition.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work. These assumptions
about human nature are negative in their approach. Managers who advocate these views feel that
extreme control is most appropriate for dealing with irresponsible and immature employees. This
is an autocratic style of leadership based on the traditional theory of what workers are like and
what management must do to motivate them. Workers have to be persuaded and pushed into
performance.

Theory Y:
This approach assumes that management by direction and control is a questionable method for
motivating such people whose physiological and social needs have been satisfied and whose
social esteem and self-actualization needs are becoming more important. For such people, Theory
Y seems to be applicable, which is the contrast of Theory X.

This theory makes the following assumptions about people:

1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural or
enjoyable as rest or play.
2. Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control in the attainment of the objectives to
which they are committed.
3. Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek
responsibility.
4. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement.
5. All the people are capable of making innovative & creative decisions and the decision making
is not the sole province of the people in management positions.

This theory has assumed a new approach in management. It emphasizes on co-operation between
management and employees. The individual and organisational goals do not conflict in this
approach. This theory places greater emphasis on satisfaction of high-level needs of the
employees. McGregor himself holds that the assumptions of theory Y are more valid than Theory
X. Thus, delegation of authority, job enlargement, management by objectives and participative
management techniques are great motivators for the employee.

5. Concept of Leadership:
Leadership is the ability to build up confidence and zeal among people and to create an urge in
them to be led. It is the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or set of
goals. To be a successful leader, a manager must possess the qualities of foresight, drive,
initiative, self-confidence and personal integrity. Different situations may demand different types
of leadership.

Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity to
influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future visions,
and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.

6. Leadership Styles:
1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership
An autocratic leader centralizes power and decision-making in himself. He gives orders, assigns
tasks and duties without consulting the employees. The leader takes full authority and assumes
full responsibility.
Autocratic leadership is negative, based on threats and punishment. Subordinates act as he directs.
He neither cares for their opinions nor permits them to influence the decision. Autocratic
leadership is based upon close supervision, clear-cut direction and commanding order of the
superior.

2. Democratic or Participative Leadership

Participative or democratic leaders decentralise authority. It is characterised by consultation with
the subordinates and their participation in the formulation of plans and policies. He encourages
participation in decision-making.
He leads the subordinates mainly through persuasion and example rather than fear and force.
Sometimes the leader serves as a moderator of the ideas and suggestions from his group. This will
foster enthusiasm in them. The employees feel that management is interested in them as well as in
their ideas and suggestions. They will, therefore, place their suggestions for improvement.

3. The Laissez-faire or Free-rein Leadership

Free-rein leaders avoid power and responsibility. The laissez-faire or non-interfering type of
leader passes on the responsibility for decision-making to his subordinates and takes a minimum
of initiative in administration. He gives no direction and allows the group to establish its own
goals and work out its own problems.
The leader plays only a minor role. His idea is that each member of the group when left to himself
will put forth his best effort and the maximum results can be achieved in this way. The leader acts
as an umpire. But as no direction or control is exercised over the people, the organisation is likely
to flounder.

4. Paternalistic Leadership
Under this management style the leader assumes that his function is fatherly or paternal.
Paternalism means papa knows best. The relationship between the leader and his group is the
same as the relationship between the head of the family and the members of the family. The leader
guides and protects his subordinates as members of his family.
As the head of the family, he provides his subordinates with good working conditions and fringe
benefits. It is assumed that workers will work harder out of gratitude.
This leadership style has still been widely prevalent in small firms in India.

5. Strategic Leadership
Strategic leaders sit at the intersection between a company's main operations and its growth
opportunities. He or she accepts the burden of executive interests while ensuring that current
working conditions remain stable for everyone else.
This is a desirable leadership style in many companies because strategic thinking supports
multiple types of employees at once. However, leaders who operate this way can set a dangerous
precedent with respect to how many people they can support at once, and what the best direction
for the company really is if everyone is getting their way at all times.

6. Charismatic/ Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is always "transforming" and improving upon the company's
conventions. Employees might have a basic set of tasks and goals that they complete every week
or month, but the leader is constantly pushing them outside of their comfort zone.
When starting a job with this type of leader, all employees might get a list of goals to reach, as
well as deadlines for reaching them. While the goals might seem simple at first, this manager
might pick up the pace of deadlines or give you more and more challenging goals as you grow
with the company.
This is a highly encouraged form of leadership among growth-minded companies because it
motivates employees to see what they're capable of.

7. Transactional Leadership
Transactional leaders are fairly common today. These managers reward their employees for
precisely the work they do. A marketing team that receives a scheduled bonus for helping
generate a certain number of leads by the end of the quarter is a common example of transactional
leadership.
For example, if you work in marketing, you might receive a bonus for sending 10 marketing
emails. On the other hand, a transformational leader might only offer you a bonus if your work
results in a large amount of newsletter subscriptions.
This leadership style can use incentive programs to motivate employees, but they should be
consistent with the company's goals and used in addition to unscheduled gestures of appreciation.

8. Bureaucratic Leadership
This style of leadership might listen and consider the input of employees -- unlike autocratic
leadership -- but the leader tends to reject an employee's input if it conflicts with company policy
or past practices.
You may run into a bureaucratic leader at a larger, older, or traditional company. At these
companies, when a colleague or employee proposes a strong strategy that seems new or non-
traditional, bureaucratic leaders may reject it.
Employees under this leadership style might not feel as controlled as they would under autocratic
leadership, but there is still a lack of freedom in how much people are able to do in their roles.

7. Theories of Leadership:

I. Trait Theory of Leadership:

The trait theory of leadership states that there are certain identifiable qualities or characteristics
that are unique to leaders and those good leaders possess such qualities to some extent. Leadership
qualities may be inborn or they may be acquired through training and practice. These traits are as
follows:

1. Good Physique:
Good health, vitality, energetic, enthusiast, endurance, forcefulness, masculinity.
2. Creativity and Intelligence:
Problem solving talents, sound judgment, teaching ability, rational attitude, scientific outlook,
self-understanding, decision making prowess, better education, risk taking, hard work.
3. Social Traits:
Fearless, ability to inspire, knowledge of human psychology, ability to influence people, social
interaction, self-confidence, ability to pursue, initiative, tactfulness.

4. Moral Traits:
Moral power, will power, sense of integrity, fairness, tolerance. All above qualities can be
developed in a leader. These are not the inborn qualities hence leaders can be made through
training, development and education. They are not born as leaders. Successful leaders must be
able to motivate, work hard and should be capable of taking risk. The theory explains the notion
that what should the leader be like. Theory also tries to distinguish between the leader and the
follower.

It suffers from the following weaknesses:

1. Personality traits of successful leaders are too many. There is no final list of those traits. Every
researcher has added new traits to the long list. Some of the traits are also possessed by those who
are not leaders.
2. There is no solid method to measure these traits. Psychological traits are still more difficult to
measure.
3. Leaders cannot be distinctly different from the followers. Leader cannot necessarily be more
intelligent than the followers. In certain cases, followers are more intelligent than their leaders.
4. Effectiveness of leadership cannot be solely determined by traits alone. Situation is also
responsible for it.
5. Leadership is a changing process. It changes from situation to situation.
6. Many traits can be acquired through learning, training and education. Traits are not in born.
7. The theory does not make distinction between the traits of leadership and those for sustaining it.
In spite of these limitations the theory is still relevant and we cannot ignore it completely.

II. Path-Goal Theory of Leadership:

The term ‘path-goal’ denotes that a leader must illuminate the path to the goal and explain how to
make the journey successfully to the followers.
Path-goal theory of leadership indicates that a leader is in charge of clarifying the subordinates
about the actions and behaviour; which if followed, will lead to goal attainment.

This theory suggests that the various styles which can be and are used by the same leader in
different situations;
 Directive Leadership
A directive leader lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance and direction,
and schedules work according to the expectation.
  Supportive Leadership
A supportive leader is friendly and approachable. He is concerned for the subordinate welfare and
treating members as equals.
 Participative Leadership
A participative leader always consults with subordinates, asks suggestions, and allows
participation in decision making.
 Achievement Oriented Leadership
An Achievement oriented leader sets challenging goals and expects subordinates to perform at
high levels. Encouraging subordinates and showing confidence in subordinates’ abilities is
necessary for him. Leaders can change their style or behaviour for meeting the demand of
situations. What style should a leader select depends on a complex analysis of the situation;

What style should the leader choose depends on two of the situational variables identified by the
theory; Subordinates’ characteristics and Environmental characteristics.

Path-Goal Theory: Environmental characteristics of the workplace.

1. Subordinates’ Characteristics:
Important personal characteristics include the subordinates’ perception of their abilities and their
locus of control. If people think that they lack ability; directive leadership is the preferable method
to lead them. If a person has the focus of control, then the participative leadership is
preferable. Managers may not be able to change the personal characteristics or the personnel but
can shape his approach of leading and managing by understanding them.

2. Environmental Characteristics:
Task structure and workgroup are the two environmental factors. When the structure is high,
directive leadership is less effective than when the structure is low. The nature of the work group
also affects leadership behaviour. The leader must provide support in the workgroup is not
capable of supporting itself.
Using one of the styles contingents upon situational factors, the leader attempts to influence
subordinates’ perceptions and to motivate them, which in turn leads to subordinates’ role clarity,
goal expectancy, satisfaction, and performance.
Research on this theory supported the hypothesis that higher the task structure of the subordinates’
job, higher the relationship between supportive leaders’ style and subordinates’ satisfaction.
With respect to the second hypothesis—higher the task structure of the subordinates’ job, the
lower the correlation between directive leadership style and subordinates’ satisfaction—received
mixed support.

III. Blake Mouton-Managerial Grid Theory of Leadership:

Blake and Mouton of the University of Texas developed a two-dimensional concept of leadership
style called ‘Managerial Grid’—built on the work of the Ohio State and Michigan Studies—to
explain leadership behaviour.
They pointed out that leadership style is a blend wherein task-oriented and relation-oriented
behaviour are mixed in different degrees.
The two-dimensional model and five different types of leadership styles are shown in Fig. 6.4. In
the grid, the X-axis represents the ‘concern for production’ while the Y-axis represents the
‘concern for people’. Concern for production means the managerial attitudes about the volume of
output, procedures and efficiency of work, etc.
And, concern for people refers to the degree of personal commitment, responsibility based on trust
and satisfying inter-personal relations, self-esteem of the workers, etc. A manager is concerned
with both the task and the people as he has to get things done through people.
The managerial grid identifies five combinations of these two factors. The five leadership styles
are explained below:
1. Impoverished (1-1) Management Style:
In this style, the manager shows less concern for both production and people. It implies the
manager’s less interest in the position. In this situation minimum effort is needed for getting the
work done and sustaining organisation membership. The leader acts as an observer, avoiding
controversy and confrontation.

2. Country Club (1-9) Management Style:

Under this style the manager is highly concerned with the people. He tries to establish close
personal relationship. Adequate attention to the needs of people leads to a comfortable
organisation environment and work culture. The leader has maximum concern for people and
minimum concern for production.
3. Middle of the Road (5-5) Management Style:
In this case, the manager gives emphasis on both production and relationship with the people.
Proper organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity of getting work done
through maintaining morale of the people at a satisfactory level. The leader balances tasks with
concern for people through compromise.

4. Task (9-1) Management Style:

In this situation, the manager is mainly concerned with production and has little concern for
people. He gives emphasis on getting the tasks done to increase production. The task is well-
planned and the authority is well-defined. This is the task-oriented or autocratic style of
leadership. The leader leads the people with instructions and discipline.

5. Team (9-9) Management Style:

In this case, the manager has maximum concern for both production and people. This is the team
leadership style in which the leader consults with his team and harmonies organisational goals.
Work performed by committed people and inter-dependence through common organisational
goals leads to the relationships of trust and respect. This style is considered to be the best
leadership style.
This approach is very popular among the managers. But it is highly controversial among the
theorists who consider it to be only a tool, not a theory of leadership—because it lacks empirical
evidence. According to their opinion, it is an attitudinal and conceptual description of leadership.
It does not point out the reason for failure of a manager in one part of the grid or the other.