Cryptography

and Network
Security
Sixth Edition
by William Stallings
Chapter 1
Overview
“The combination of space, time, and strength that must be
considered as the basic elements of this theory of defense makes
this a fairly complicated matter. Consequently, it is not easy to find
a fixed point of departure.”
— On War,
Carl Von Clausewitz
Cryptographic algorithms and protocols can
be grouped into four main areas:
Symmetric encryption

• Used to conceal the contents of blocks or streams of data of any size, including
messages, files, encryption keys, and passwords

Asymmetric encryption

• Used to conceal small blocks of data, such as encryption keys and hash function
values, which are used in digital signatures

Data integrity algorithms

• Used to protect blocks of data, such as messages, from alteration

Authentication protocols

• Schemes based on the use of cryptographic algorithms designed to authenticate the

identity of entities
The field of network and
Internet security consists of:

measures to deter,
prevent, detect, and
correct security violations
that involve the
transmission of
information
Computer Security

• The NIST Computer Security Handbook defines the term

computer security as:
“the protection afforded to an automated information system in order
to attain the applicable objectives of preserving the integrity,
availability and confidentiality of information system resources”
(includes hardware, software, firmware, information/data, and
telecommunications)”
Computer Security Objectives

Confidentiality
• Data confidentiality
• Assures that private or confidential information is not made available or disclosed to
unauthorized individuals
• Privacy
• Assures that individuals control or influence what information related to them may be
collected and stored and by whom and to whom that information may be disclosed

Integrity
• Data integrity
• Assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and
authorized manner
• System integrity
• Assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired manner, free
from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system

Availability
• Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorized
users
CIA Triad
Possible additional concepts:

Authenticity Accountability
• Verifying that users are • The security goal that
who they say they are generates the
and that each input requirement for
arriving at the system actions of an entity to
came from a trusted be traced uniquely to
source that entity
Breach of Security
Levels of Impact

• The loss could be expected to have a severe or

High catastrophic adverse effect on organizational
operations, organizational assets, or individuals

• The loss could be expected to have a

Moderate serious adverse effect on

organizational operations,
organizational assets, or individuals

• The loss could be expected

to have a limited adverse

Low effect on organizational

operations, organizational
assets, or individuals
Computer Security Challenges

• Security is not simple • Security mechanisms typically

• Potential attacks on the security involve more than a particular
features need to be considered algorithm or protocol
• Procedures used to provide • Security is essentially a battle of
particular services are often wits between a perpetrator and
counter-intuitive the designer
• It is necessary to decide where • Little benefit from security
to use the various security investment is perceived until a
mechanisms security failure occurs
• Requires constant monitoring • Strong security is often viewed
as an impediment to efficient
• Is too often an afterthought and user-friendly operation
OSI Security Architecture

• Security attack
• Any action that compromises the security of information owned by an
organization
• Security mechanism
• A process (or a device incorporating such a process) that is designed to
detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack
• Security service
• A processing or communication service that enhances the security of the
data processing systems and the information transfers of an organization
• Intended to counter security attacks, and they make use of one or more
security mechanisms to provide the service
Table 1.1
Threats and Attacks (RFC 4949)
Security Attacks

•A means of classifying security

attacks, used both in X.800 and
RFC 4949, is in terms of passive
attacks and active attacks
•A passive attack attempts to
learn or make use of information
from the system but does not
affect system resources
•An active attack attempts to
alter system resources or affect
their operation
Passive Attacks

• Are in the nature of

eavesdropping on, or
monitoring of, transmissions
• Goal of the opponent is to
obtain information that is
being transmitted
• Two types of passive
attacks are:
• The release of message
contents
• Traffic analysis
 Active Attacks
• Involve some modification of the
data stream or the creation of a • Takes place when one entity pretends
false stream to be a different entity
Masquerade • Usually includes one of the other
• Difficult to prevent because of the forms of active attack
wide variety of potential physical,
software, and network
vulnerabilities • Involves the passive capture of a data
unit and its subsequent
• Goal is to detect attacks and to Replay retransmission to produce an
recover from any disruption or unauthorized effect
delays caused by them
• Some portion of a legitimate message
Modification is altered, or messages are delayed or
of messages reordered to produce an
unauthorized effect

Denial of • Prevents or inhibits the normal use or

management of communications
service facilities
Authentication

• Concerned with assuring that a communication is authentic

• In the case of a single message, assures the recipient that the message is
from the source that it claims to be from
• In the case of ongoing interaction, assures the two entities are authentic and
that the connection is not interfered with in such a way that a third party can
masquerade as one of the two legitimate parties
Access Control

• The ability to limit and control the access to host systems and
applications via communications links
• To achieve this, each entity trying to gain access must first be
indentified, or authenticated, so that access rights can be tailored to
the individual
Data Confidentiality

• The protection of transmitted data from passive attacks

• Broadest service protects all user data transmitted between two users over a
period of time
• Narrower forms of service includes the protection of a single message or
even specific fields within a message
• The protection of traffic flow from analysis
• This requires that an attacker not be able to observe the source and
destination, frequency, length, or other characteristics of the traffic on a
communications facility
Data Integrity

Can apply to a stream of messages, a single message,

or selected fields within a message

Connection-oriented integrity service, one that deals

with a stream of messages, assures that messages are
received as sent with no duplication, insertion,
modification, reordering, or replays
A connectionless integrity service, one that deals with
individual messages without regard to any larger
context, generally provides protection against
message modification only
Nonrepudiation

• Prevents either sender or receiver from denying a transmitted

message
• When a message is sent, the receiver can prove that the alleged
sender in fact sent the message
• When a message is received, the sender can prove that the alleged
receiver in fact received the message
Table 1.2

Security
Services
(X.800)
Security Mechanisms (X.800)

Specific Security Mechanisms

• Encipherment
• Digital signatures
• Access controls
• Data integrity
Pervasive Security Mechanisms
• Authentication exchange
• Traffic padding • Trusted functionality
• Routing control • Security labels
• Notarization • Event detection
• Security audit trails
• Security recovery
 Table 1.3

Security
Mechanisms
(X.800)
Model for Network Security
Network Access Security Model
Unwanted Access

• Placement in a computer system of logic that exploits vulnerabilities

in the system and that can affect application programs as well as
utility programs such as editors and compilers
• Programs can present two kinds of threats:
• Information access threats
• Intercept or modify data on behalf of users who should not have access to that data
• Service threats
• Exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users
Summary

• Computer security concepts • Security services

• Definition • Authentication
• Examples • Access control
• Challenges • Data confidentiality
• The OSI security architecture • Data integrity
• Nonrepudiation
• Security attacks • Availability service
• Passive attacks
• Active attacks • Security mechanisms