Unit 1 – Introduction…………………..

4 Hrs

Table of Contents:
Computer Organization & Architecture
Review of Evolution of Computers
Basic Structure of Computer
Example of Computer families
Future trends of Computers
Review of Instruction set, Addressing modes & Instruction formats
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.1. Computer Organization & Architecture

What is computer?
Computer is an electronic & electro-mechanical device capable of storing, managing and processing lots
of data at rapid rate.

What is computer organization?

Computer organization is concerned with how the different part of computer system are interconnected
together and how they inter-operate to realize the architectural specifications.

What is computer architecture?

Computer architecture is the branch of study that deals with computer system overview along with the
conceptual design of computers
OR.
Computer Architecture is a blueprint for design and implementation of a computer system. It provides the
functional details and behaviour of a computer system and comes before computer organization.
Computer architecture deals with 'What to do?
Block diagram of computer organization and Architecture.

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Memory organization

Level-1:
 At level-1, Cache Memory is present.
 It stores the segments of program that are frequently accessed by the processor.
 It is expensive and therefore smaller in size (in MB).
 Cache memory is implemented using static RAM.

Level-2:
 At level-2, main memory is present.
 It can communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices through an I/O
processor.
 It is less expensive than cache memory and therefore larger in size (in few GB).
 Main memory is implemented using dynamic RAM.

Level-3:
 At level-3, secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present.
 They are used as back up storage.
 They are cheaper than main memory and therefore much larger in size (in few TB).

Level-4:
 At level-4, tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present.
 They are used to store removable files.
 They are cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).

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Instruction cycle
The necessary step that CPU carry out to fetch an instruction and necessary data from memory and to
execute is constitute an instruction cycle.

I.C
F.C E.C

Time

Fig: Instruction Cycle.

Type of instruction cycle:

1. Fetch cycle
2. Execute cycle

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Bus structure

System bus:
Wire connection between memory, input /output and micro processor.
Type of system bus:

Address bus (16 bit)

 Unidirectional
 Identifying peripheral or memory location

Data bus (8 bit)

 Bidirectional
 Transferred data

Control bus (8 bit)

 Synchronization signal
 Timing signal
 Control signal

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ADDRESSING MODE OF 8085

1. Direct addressing mode

In this mode of addressing, the address of the operand (data) is given in the instruction itself.

E.g. STA 2400H, IN02H etc.

In this mode, effective address of operand is present in instruction itself.

 Single memory reference to access data.

 No additional calculations to find the effective address of the operand.

2. Implicit addressing mode

There are certain instruction which operate on the accumulator such instruction does not require the
address of operand.

CMA (complement of the content of accumulator)

RAR (Rotate the content of accumulator to right)
RAL (Rotate the content of accumulator to left)
HLT (Stop)
NOP (No operation)

3. Register indirect addressing mode

The address of the operand (data) is specified by the register pair as pointer for operand.

In this mode, the instruction specifies the register whose contents give us the address of operand which is
in memory. Thus, the register contains the address of operand rather than the operand itself. Example -
MOV A, M

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4. Immediate addressing mode

When the operand is specified within the instructions itself, we say that the immediate addressing mode
has been used. E.g. MVI, LXI, ADI etc.

5. Register addressing mode

When the operands for any operations are in a general purpose registers, only the register needs to specify
the address of the operand.

In this mode the operand is stored in the register and this register is present in CPU. The instruction has
the address of the Register where the operand is stored.

Example – MOV A, B , MOV C,A

Instruction format

An 8085 program instruction format may be one, two or three length.

1) 1-byte instruction (8 bit)

1 byte instruction include operand and opcode in the same byte

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
E.G. OPCODE OPERAND
MOV A, B
ADD B
CMA

2) 2- BYTE INSTRUCTION (16 BIT)

In a 2-byte instruction, the first byte specifies the operation and second byte specifies opcode.

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 OPCODE
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 DATA OR ADDRESS

E.g Opcode Operan

MVI A, 45H
MVI B, F2H

3) 3-byte instruction

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In 3 byte instruction the first byte specifies the opcode and following two byte specifies the 16 bit
address.

D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
E.g. Opcode Operand Hex code
LDA 2050H 3A
50
20

Differences between Computer Architecture and Computer Organization.

Sr. Key Computer Architecture Computer Organization

No.

Purpose Computer architecture explains what a Computer organization explains how a

1
computer should do. computer works.

Target Computer architecture provides Computer organization provides structural

2 functional behavior of computer relationships between parts of computer
system. system.

Design Computer architecture deals with high Computer organization deals with low level
3
level design. design.

Actors Actors in Computer architecture are Actor in computer organizaton is performance.

4
hardware parts.

Order Computer architecture is designed Computer organization is started after finalizing

5
first. computer architecture.

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1.2. Review of Evolution of Computers

History of Computers

Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first computer. It is
said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by the
abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some
countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617) of
Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to
multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use
the decimal point.

HTML Tutorial

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Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642 and
1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical
and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition and
subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one
revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read
the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He

improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was
called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine

In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern Computer".
It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven calculating
machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

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Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical computer
that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing
information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator
based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This machine was
used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which
later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

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Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog device
invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform
calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned to
develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer
was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.

1.3. Basic Structure of Computer

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Structure of CPU

Structure of Control unit

1.4. Example of Computer families

According to the generations or according to the size of the microprocessor:

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

 The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation.
 It was named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.
 It was a processor on a single chip.
 It could perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean
OR and Boolean AND.
Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)
 The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel.
 It was a first 8 - bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit
words. It was Intel 8008.
 Another improved version was Intel 8088.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

 The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086.

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  Zilog Z800 and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is the Intel
80386.
Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single
system to achieve multiprocessing.

Type of Computer families/Classifications

The computer families mean to their produced and functions, at the same time, every computer
classifications have given different names for their models and functions. All the classifications of
computers have given with its descriptions below:

Personal Computers (PC)

A personal computer is any general-purpose; computer whose size, capabilities, and original sales price
make it useful for individuals, and which is intended to be operated directly by an end-user with no
intervening computer operator. E.g.: - Desktop and Tower Top etc.

Mainframe Computers
With large Hard Drives, lots of Memory (RAM), multiple CPU’s running together, does lots of
computing depending upon the speed of processors used and memory used.

Super Computer
A computer is with lots of processors, ALUs (Arithmetic logic unit), Memory (RAM), etc. Usually in
scientific research work. Capability of 14,000 microcomputers.

Laptop/Notebook
A laptop, often called a notebook or "notebook computer", is a small, portable personal computer with a
"clamshell" form factor, an alphanumeric keyboard on the lower part of the "clamshell" and a thin LCD
or LED computer screen on the upper part, which is opened up to use the computer. Compact and
portable version of a PC, Usually in a notebook shape.

Micro Computer
A very small computer, usually used in cameras. A microcomputer (sometimes shortened to micro) is a
computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. Another general characteristic of these

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computers is that they occupy physically small amounts of space when compared to mainframe and
minicomputers.

Analog, Digital & Hybrid Computers

Analog
Analog computer is that computer, which is use to process continuously varying data. Everything we see
and hear is change continuously.Examples of analog computer are temperature, pressure, telephone lines,
Speedometer, resistance of capacitor, frequency of signal and voltage etc.

Digital
Digital computers are computers that process the data in binary form ie.0’s and 1’s.
The main benefit of digital computers is that they are quick and re-programmable.
Some of the examples are laptops, smartphones, and calculators.

Hybrid.
Hybrid computers are a special purpose computer that has a combination of both Analog and digital
computers.
They are digital computer which accepts Analog signals and converts them to digital form.
These are generally used for scientific applications, airplanes, and hospitals.
Some of the examples include electrocardiogram machine, ultrasound machine, monitoring machine.

Generation of Computer

1st Generation of Computer:

 Vacuum tubes and diode valves were used as the main electronic component in the first
generation computers.
 Punch cards, paper tape utilized for input and output operations.
 Magnetic drums used for storage.
 Huge in size and weight with a lot of power consumption.
 Very expensive in price also not reliable.
 Computers were programmed with low-level machine language also has low operating speed.
Examples

Examples of the first generation of computers are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) EDSEC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator), EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), (Electronic delay storage
automatic calculator), IBM -701 and IBM 650.

2nd Generation of Computer:

 Computers based on transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

 Magnetic Tape was used to store data.
 Relatively small in size and reduced weight with low energy consumption than 1st gen
computers.
 Faster, reliable, and less expensive than the first generation.
 Use of storage devices, printers, and operating systems, etc.
 Higher-level languages like COBOL, ALGOL, SNOBOL, and FORTRAN were developed and
used.

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Examples of the second generation of computers include IBM 1620, CDC 1604, IBM 7094, UNIVAC
1108, IBM 620, CDC 3600, IBM 4044, Honeywell 400, IBM 1401 Mainframe, and PDP-1 minicomputer.
IBM was actively working, producing transistor versions of its computers.

3rd Generation of Computer:

 In this generation, computers based on Integrated Circuit was more powerful than the transistor.
 The size of the computers was likewise little because the size of the IC being more modest than
the circuit size of the transistors.
 More reliable, inexpensive, faster, energy-efficient, as well as very light in weight than 2nd gen
computers.
 The first Computer Mouse and Keyboard were appeared and used in the 3rd generation of
computers
 Use of new versions of high-level languages like BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, and
ALGOL
 Available for a mass audience and made it possible for general purpose usage.
Examples Some of the most popular models of the 3rd generation of computers were the ICL 2903, ICL
1900, TDC-B16, IBM 360 and 370, Honeywell 6000, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-8, and PDP-11, which were
ideal in their handling multiprocessing capabilities, reliability, and flexibility than previous generations.

4th Generation of Computer:

 Computers based on microprocessors and VLSI technology.

 The computers of 4th gen were small in size, lightweight, and almost portable computers.
 The processing speed of this computer generation was much faster and reliable than the previous
three generations.
 The size and cost of power supply units has reduced.
 Use of languages like C, C ++, .Net, Java, PHP, Python, Visual Basic.
 Use of GUI Based OS with more memory capacity.
 Accessible to the Internet.
 Due to the low cost of these computers, they were available to every common man.
Examples Desktops, Laptops, Workstations, Tablets, and Smartphones, are examples of the fourth
generation of computers.

5th Generation of Computer:

 The main focus on AI-based computers.

 Computers made of microprocessors based on ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology.
 The processing speed is quite high can perform billions of calculations in a second.
 Computers are portable, cheap, reliable, fast, and available in various forms and sizes like a
Desktop, Laptop, Smartphone, Smartwatches, etc.
 Invention of the operating system such as Windows, Macintosh and ChromeOS of Chromebooks.
 Multimedia has evolved in this generation by combining Sound, Graphics, or Picture and Text.
 Development of Internet of Things.
Examples Computers of the fifth generation are being made to think like us. For which continuous
advancement of technologies like Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Robotics, etc. Although the
examples of AI computing software such as Chatbots, Windows Cortana, Google Assistant, Apple Siri,
Speech recognition, that are being used today.

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Classification of the computer by generations

Computer Computing
Generation Examples Advantages
Technology Disadvantages
and
Features.

ENIAC, EDSAC
EDVAC, Huge, slow,
1st Computers based
Used vacuum expensive, limited
Generation on vacuum tube UNIVAC, IBM701 and
tubes for circuitry. memory and generates
(1940-1956) technology. IBM 650. lot of heat.

IBM-7000, CDC 3000 Slightly smaller,

series, IBM 4044, cheaper, faster,
2nd
Computers based Honeywell 400, IBM and more reliable Still costly and needed
Generation
on transistors. 1401 Mainframe, MARK than first air conditioning.
(1956-1964)
III, and PDP-1 generation
minicomputer. systems.

Components like The manual inter

Computers based IBM 360 and 370, motherboard, connection of capacitors,
3rd
on integrated Honeywell 6000, keyboard, monitor and rectifiers in
Generation
circuits UNIVAC 1108, PDP-8, were introduced to semiconductors was
(1964-1971)
technology. and PDP-11. use. tedious and not totally
reliable.

Much smaller and

fitted on a
4th Computers based Desktops, Laptops,
desktops, laps and Thousands of transistors
Generation on microprocessor Workstations, Tablets, and
palms. The Interne were contained in CPU.
(1972-2010) chip. Smartphones.
and mouse
introduced.

Computers Much faster and

based on ULSI Chatbots, Cortana, Google relaible than all
5th
technology Assistant, Apple Siri, the previous In under development.
Generation
integrating Speech recognition, and generation as well
(At Present)
Artificial Alexa. as a time saver.
intelligence.

1.5. Future trends of Computers

Here is the list of the technology trends:

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning

2. Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

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 3. Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality
4. Internet of Things (IoT)
5. 5G
6. Cyber Security
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning

Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer
systems. Specific applications of AI include expert systems, natural language processing, speech
recognition and machine vision.

How does AI work?

AI programming focuses on three cognitive skills: learning, reasoning and self-correction.
 Learning processes. This aspect of AI programming focuses on acquiring data and creating rules
for how to turn the data into actionable information. The rules, which are called algorithms,
provide computing devices with step-by-step instructions for how to complete a specific task.
 Reasoning processes. This aspect of AI programming focuses on choosing the right algorithm to
reach a desired outcome.
 Self-correction processes. This aspect of AI programming is designed to continually fine-tune
algorithms and ensure they provide the most accurate results possible.

Advantages
 Good at detail-oriented jobs;
 Reduced time for data-heavy tasks;
 Delivers consistent results; and
 AI-powered virtual agents are always available.
Disadvantages
 Expensive;
 Requires deep technical expertise;
 Limited supply of qualified workers to build AI tools;
 Only knows what it's been shown; and
 Lack of ability to generalize from one task to another.

Strong AI vs. weak AI

AI can be categorized as either weak or strong.

 Weak AI, also known as narrow AI, is an AI system that is designed and trained to complete a
specific task. Industrial robots and virtual personal assistants, such as Apple's Siri, use weak AI.
 Strong AI, also known as artificial general intelligence (AGI), describes programming that can
replicate the cognitive abilities of the human brain. When presented with an unfamiliar task, a
strong AI system can use fuzzy logic to apply knowledge from one domain to another and find a
solution autonomously. In theory, a strong AI program should be able to pass both a Turing
Test and the Chinese room test.

Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

A robot is a machine that mimics the human user in performing various tasks, such as clicks,
navigations, typing, etc. Sequence of meaningful activities that may involve multiple systems or

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applications make up a process. Automation is the sequence of steps which are performed without any
human interference (once configured).

Robotic Process Automation

Robotic process automation (RPA) allows using software robots instead of people to drive the business.
It is used to automate regular tasks so the user can concentrate on accomplishing complex tasks rather
than routine work manually. This would in turn reduce the human errors.

RPA Benefits

The following are the advantages of RPA −

 Building a unified view of the customer
 Increased customer satisfaction
 Increased employee productivity
 More accuracy and quality
 Cost effective
 Up to 80% reduction in AHT (Average Handle Time)
 Up to 90% reduction in ART (Average Resolution Time)
 Increased ROI (Return on Investment) within 3 months on an average.

Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality

What Is AR?
Almost any person with a smartphone can get access to augmented reality, making it more efficient than
VR as a branding and gaming tool. AR morphs the mundane, physical world into a colorful, visual one by

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projecting virtual pictures and characters through a phone's camera or video viewer. Augmented reality is
merely adding to the user's real-life experience.

What Is VR?
Virtual reality takes these same components to another level by producing an entirely computer-generated
simulation of an alternate world. These immersive simulations can create almost any visual or place
imaginable for the player using special equipment such as computers, sensors, headsets, and gloves.

What's the Difference Between the Two?

The distinctions between VR and AR come down to the devices they require and the experience itself:
 AR uses a real-world setting while VR is completely virtual
 AR users can control their presence in the real world; VR users are controlled by the system
 VR requires a headset device, but AR can be accessed with a smartphone
 AR enhances both the virtual and real world while VR only enhances a fictional reality

Internet of Things
IoT systems allow users to achieve deeper automation, analysis, and integration within a system. They
improve the reach of these areas and their accuracy. IoT utilizes existing and emerging technology for
sensing, networking, and robotics.
IoT exploits recent advances in software, falling hardware prices, and modern attitudes towards
technology. Its new and advanced elements bring major changes in the delivery of products, goods, and
services; and the social, economic, and political impact of those changes.

IoT − Key Features

The most important features of IoT include artificial intelligence, connectivity, sensors, active
engagement, and small device use. A brief review of these features is given below −
 AI − IoT essentially makes virtually anything “smart”, meaning it enhances every aspect of life
with the power of data collection, artificial intelligence algorithms, and networks. This can mean
something as simple as enhancing your refrigerator and cabinets to detect when milk and your
favorite cereal run low, and to then place an order with your preferred grocer.
 Connectivity − New enabling technologies for networking, and specifically IoT networking,
mean networks are no longer exclusively tied to major providers. Networks can exist on a much
smaller and cheaper scale while still being practical. IoT creates these small networks between
its system devices.
 Sensors − IoT loses its distinction without sensors. They act as defining instruments which
transform IoT from a standard passive network of devices into an active system capable of real-
world integration.
 Active Engagement − Much of today's interaction with connected technology happens through
passive engagement. IoT introduces a new paradigm for active content, product, or service
engagement.
 Small Devices − Devices, as predicted, have become smaller, cheaper, and more powerful over
time. IoT exploits purpose-built small devices to deliver its precision, scalability, and versatility.

IoT − Advantages

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The advantages of IoT span across every area of lifestyle and business. Here is a list of some of the
advantages that IoT has to offer −
 Improved Customer Engagement − Current analytics suffer from blind-spots and significant
flaws in accuracy; and as noted, engagement remains passive. IoT completely transforms this to
achieve richer and more effective engagement with audiences.
 Technology Optimization − The same technologies and data which improve the customer
experience also improve device use, and aid in more potent improvements to technology. IoT
unlocks a world of critical functional and field data.
 Reduced Waste − IoT makes areas of improvement clear. Current analytics give us superficial
insight, but IoT provides real-world information leading to more effective management of
resources.
 Enhanced Data Collection − Modern data collection suffers from its limitations and its design
for passive use. IoT breaks it out of those spaces, and places it exactly where humans really want
to go to analyze our world. It allows an accurate picture of everything.

IoT − Disadvantages

Though IoT delivers an impressive set of benefits, it also presents a significant set of challenges. Here is
a list of some its major issues −
 Security − IoT creates an ecosystem of constantly connected devices communicating over
networks. The system offers little control despite any security measures. This leaves users
exposed to various kinds of attackers.
 Privacy − The sophistication of IoT provides substantial personal data in extreme detail without
the user's active participation.
 Complexity − Some find IoT systems complicated in terms of design, deployment, and
maintenance given their use of multiple technologies and a large set of new enabling
technologies.
 Flexibility − Many are concerned about the flexibility of an IoT system to integrate easily with
another. They worry about finding themselves with several conflicting or locked systems.
 Compliance − IoT, like any other technology in the realm of business, must comply with
regulations. Its complexity makes the issue of compliance seem incredibly challenging when
many consider standard software compliance a battle.
5G Technology

What is 5G Technology?

The 5G technology is expected to provide a new (much wider than the previous one) frequency bands
along with the wider spectral bandwidth per frequency channel. As of now, the predecessors
(generations) mobile technologies have evidenced substantial increase in peak bitrate. Then — how is
5G different from the previous one (especially 4G)? The answer is — it is not only the increase in bitrate
made 5G distinct from the 4G, but rather 5G is also advanced in terms of −

 High increased peak bit rate

 Larger data volume per unit area (i.e. high system spectral efficiency)

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  High capacity to allow more devices connectivity concurrently and instantaneously
 Lower battery consumption
 Better connectivity irrespective of the geographic region, in which you are
 Larger number of supporting devices
 Lower cost of infrastructural development
 Higher reliability of the communications

Salient Features of 5G

5th Generation Mobile Network or simply 5G is the forthcoming revolution of mobile technology. The
features and its usability are much beyond the expectation of a normal human being. With its ultra-high
speed, it is potential enough to change the meaning of a cell phone usability.

Cyber Security

"Cyber Security is the body of technologies, processes, and practices designed to protect networks,
devices, programs, and data from attack, theft, damage, modification or unauthorized access."

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"Cyber Security is the set of principles and practices designed to protect our computing resources
and online information against threats."

Types of Cyber Security

 Network Security: It involves implementing the hardware and software to secure a computer
network from unauthorized access, intruders, attacks, disruption, and misuse. This security
helps an organization to protect its assets against external and internal threats.
 Application Security: It involves protecting the software and devices from unwanted threats.
This protection can be done by constantly updating the apps to ensure they are secure from
attacks. Successful security begins in the design stage, writing source code, validation, threat
modeling, etc., before a program or device is deployed.
 Information or Data Security: It involves implementing a strong data storage mechanism to
maintain the integrity and privacy of data, both in storage and in transit.
 Mobile Security: It involves securing the organizational and personal data stored on mobile
devices such as cell phones, computers, tablets, and other similar devices against various
malicious threats. These threats are unauthorized access, device loss or theft, malware, etc.
 Cloud Security: It involves in protecting the information stored in the digital environment or
cloud architectures for the organization. It uses various cloud service providers such as AWS,
Azure, Google, etc., to ensure security against multiple threats.

Cyber Security Goals

We can break the CIA model into three parts: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. It is actually a
security model that helps people to think about various parts of IT security.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is equivalent to privacy that avoids unauthorized access of information. It involves

ensuring the data is accessible by those who are allowed to use it and blocking access to others. It
prevents essential information from reaching the wrong people. Data encryption is an excellent example
of ensuring confidentiality.

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Integrity

This principle ensures that the data is authentic, accurate, and safeguarded from unauthorized
modification by threat actors or accidental user modification. If any modifications occur, certain measures
should be taken to protect the sensitive data from corruption or loss and speedily recover from such an
event. In addition, it indicates to make the source of information genuine.

Availability

This principle makes the information to be available and useful for its authorized people always. It
ensures that these accesses are not hindered by system malfunction or cyber-attacks.

1.6. Review of Instruction set, Addressing modes & Instruction formats

Categories of instruction set

1. Data transfer instruction

This instruction copies data from one location to another location. There are various types of data
transfers.
a) Between register.
E.g. MOV A, B; MOV C, B etc.
b) Specify the data byte to register or memory location.
E.g. MVI B, 23H; LDA 2500H etc.
c) Between memory location and register.
E.g. LXI 2050H
d) Between input and output.
E.g. IN 02H; OUT PORT1 etc.
2. Arithmetic instruction
This instruction performs arithmetic operation such as addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement.
E.g. ADD B, ADI 25H, SUB C, SUI 23H, SUB M, INR B, DCR A etc.

3. Logical instruction
This instruction performs logical operation like AND, OR, COMPARE, ROTATED.
CMP- compare
RAL- rotation left
RAR- rotation right
ANA- AND
ORA- OR
These instructions perform logic operations on the contents of the accumulator. – ANA, ANI, ORA, ORI,
XRA and XRI

4. Branch instruction-
Two types:
1. Unconditional branch.
a. Go to a new location no matter what.
2. Conditional branch.
b. Go to a new location if the condition is true.
Unconditional Branch

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– JMP Address • Jump to the address specified (Go to).
– CALL Address • Jump to the address specified but treat it as a subroutine.
– RET • Return from a subroutine.
– The addresses supplied to all branch operations must be 16-bits.

Conditional Branch
– Go to new location if a specified condition is met.
 JZ Address (Jump on Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is set.
 JNZ Address (Jump on NOT Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is
not set.
 JC Address (Jump on Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is set.
 JNC Address (Jump on No Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag
is not set.
 JP Address (Jump on Plus) – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is not set
 JM Address (Jump on Minus) – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is set.
5. Machine Control
– HLT
 Stop executing the program. – NOP
 No operation
 Exactly as it says, do nothing.
 Usually used for delay or to replace instructions during debugging.
These instruction control machines function such as HLT, NOP, and EI etc.

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