Einstein's Field Equations

Derivation of the Schwarzschild metric

Since the Schwarzschild solution describes the geometry of the empty spacetime region surrounding a spherically
symmetric body, it is natural to use a system of spherical coordinates centred on the middle of that spherically
symmetric body. In addition we shall assume the following.
1. The spacetime far from the spherically symmetric body is flat. This is described by saying that the metric is
asymptotically flat and is consistent with the idea that gravitational effects become weaker as the distance from their
source increases.
2. The metric coefficients do not depend on time. This is described by saying that the metric is stationary and is
consistent with the idea that nothing is moving from place to place.
3. The line element is unchanged if t is replaced by −t. This is described by saying that the metric is static and is
consistent with the idea that nothing is rotating.
We shall say more about these assumptions and about the definition and meaning of the Schwarzschild coordinates
later. For the moment we shall simply use them. The most general spacetime line element that meets all of the listed
requirements may be written as

where A and B are functions of the radial coordinate r alone. You may wonder why we choose to include exponential
functions of the form e2A and e2B rather than simply using functions such as f(r) and g(r). The reason is that the use
of exponentials ensures that the signs of the metric components will be preserved in the desired (+,−,−,−) pattern. The
absence of terms proportional to dxi dt (where i = 1,2 or 3) reflects the static property of the spacetime, while the
absence of dxi dxj terms reflects the spherical symmetry.

Using a prime to for differentiation with respect to r; I.e, the nine independent
non-zero Christoffel symbols can be written as

These connection coefficients can be used to determine the non-zero components of the Riemann curvature tensor

Contraction of the Riemann tensor gives the Ricci tensor reveals (after a lot of algebra) the Ricci components

And further contraction leads to the curvature scalar

Combining the results for the curvature scalar and the components of the Ricci tensor, we can determine the Einstein
tensor components

The ones that are not null are

Now, the vacuum field equations demand that even these Einstein tensor components should each be zero in the space
outside the spherically symmetric body. One consequence of this is that , but this implies

Which, in turn, implies A' + B' = 0. This can be integrated to give A(r) + B(r) = C, where C is a constant that can be set
to zero without loss of generality (a different value would just scale the r- coordinate, which is still arbitrary). Hence,
we set A(r) = - B(r) and by substituting into G00 = 0, we have

This can be integrated to yield where Rs is a constant of integration, that we will call the
Schwarzschild radius. Now, since A(r) = - B(r), then

This shows that the line element of the Schwarzschild solution can be written as

What is the value of this Schwarzschild radius? To obtain this, let's recall the Newtonian limit, where

Comparing with the metric, we have Hence, we can write the metric as

Some properties:
- Spherically symmetric. If we fix t and a certain radius, then dt=0, dr=0 and we obtain

Which is the geometry of a sphere

- Asymptotic flatness. For large radii, r>>1 and 2GM/r <<1, so the Schwarzschild line element becomes

Which is the geometry of a flat spacetime in spherical coordinates.

- Time independency

- Singularity: The Schwarzschild radius is a singularity. However, via a change of coordinates, we can find that this is
a fiducial singularity, just due to the specific coordinates we used here, and not a real one. Also, we note that, for
normal objects, the Rs singularity is inside the object itself, so outside the boundaries of the problem. However, at r=0
there is a real singularity. For example, the radius of the Sun is approximately 700000 km, while its Schwarzschild
radius is only 3 km.

- For R < Rs the Schwarzschild radial coordinate r becomes timelike and the time coordinate t becomes spacelike. A
curve at constant r is no longer a possible world line of a particle or observer, not even if a force is exerted to try to
keep it there; this occurs because spacetime has been curved so much that the direction of cause and effect (the
particle's future light cone) points into the singularity[citation needed]. The surface r = Rs demarcates what is called
the event horizon of the black hole. It represents the point past which light can no longer escape the gravitational field.
Gravitational Dilation and redshift

We may consider how the proper time for a particle τ relates to the coordinate time t as a function of distance from the
mass at the origin. In the rest frame of the particle,

So the proper time interval at radius r is

Applying this for r towards infinity, we have . So for light that escapes to infinity, the time to emit the light
in the rest frame of the atom at radius r is shorter than the time seen at infinity.

This shows that the proper time between the observation of the two light signals at infinity, dτ_∞, is greater than the
proper time between their emission as measured at the site of the emission, dτ_em. This effect, the slowing of the rate
of ticking of a clock in a gravitational field, as seen by a distant observer, is sometimes referred to as gravitational
time dilation. Note, however, that there is a significant difference between this effect and the time dilation in special
relativity. There, different reference frames were considered, whereas in the general relativistic case there is no relative
motion; both the clock and the distant observer are at rest, and we are very deliberately considering the proper time
between the arrival of light signals at that distant observer’s location.
Another effect arising from this is as follows: Suppose that the two ‘emission’ events represent the emission of
successive peaks of an electromagnetic wave (a light wave). Since the reciprocal of the period represents the
frequency, we will have a gravitational redshift given by

Proper Distance

Consider two events that happen in Schwarzschild spacetime at the same coordinate time but at infinitesimally
separated positions, so that their spacetime separation is given by the negative quantity

The proper distance between these two events will be given by

For each value of r, the proper distance can be considered as a set of nested spheres surrounding the spherically
symmetric body. The proper distance between neighbouring points on the sphere of coordinate radius r is given by
2

Nothing special about it, usual spherical surfaces. However,

when we look at differences in the coordinate r, things become
a bit different. Consider two events that occur at the same
coordinate time and with the same angular coordinates θ and φ
but at different radial coordinates r and r + dr. The proper
distance between those events will be

This equation shows that dσ is generally greater than dr,

provided that r is greater than the Schwarzschild radius. The
differences will be particularly large close to the Schwarzschild
radius. This result may be integrated to determine the proper
radial distance between any two events on the same radial
coordinate line.
Motion in Schwarzschild Spacetime

We know that since photons are massless, ds2=0. Consider a photon moving outward radially. We can compute the
radial velocity in the Schwarzschild coordinates.

The velocity is smaller than the speed of light until the photon gets far away from the mass. More surprisingly, for
r=r_s, the velocity is zero and the photon does not come out. This is consistent with our redshift result which says the
frequency will be red shifted to zero for a photon emitted from exactly the Schwarzschild radius.
This solution in the normal spherical coordinates has a singularity. It is unclear what happens for r<r_s. When
analyzed in coordinates without this singularity, we find that photons will be pulled to r=0 if they start out with r<r_s.
This is of course the phenomenon of the Black Hole. No light can come out.

Now, for a massive particle,

where the tangent vector components dxμ/dλ become dxμ/dτ and are seen to be the components of the particle’s four-
velocity [Uμ]. We can use our explicit knowledge of the Schwarzschild metric coefficients gμν to write

In the specific context of a freely falling body of non-zero mass m, moving along a time-like geodesic in
Schwarzschild spacetime, the conserved quantity that plays the role of total energy (actually the energy per unit mass
energy) is

We can obtain two other constants of motion (exercise!) by considering

If we substitute and rearrange, we obtain

Which is the analogous equation of Newton's conservation of energy and angular momentum. Note that these
equations are only valid for the Schwarzschild metric!

Additional insight can be seen if we rewrite it as

Or

Where

We can compare with the Newtonian case, where we have

The difference between the Newtonian and Schwarzschild

effective potentials comes from the extra terrm in the Schwarzschild
case. One of its effects is to cause the orbits of particles to rotate in
the θ = π/2 plane. This effect is negligible at large values of r but
significant for small values, preventing elliptical orbits from closing
and causing them to follow the kind of rosette pattern. This is the
origin of the precession of the perihelium of Mercury, which was
correctly predicted by relativity.
Falling into a Black Hole

If we come back to our famous equation

In the case of purely radial motion φ is constant, so dφ/dτ = 0, so Equation for J/m shows that J = 0. therefore, the last
equation reduces to

On this occasion we shall suppose that the fall starts from rest at some large value of r which we shall denote r0, so
dr/dτ = 0 when r = r0 and

Hence, we can write

Taking the negative square root to describe inward motion (r decreasing as τ increases),

Integrating with respect to r, from the starting point r0 to some general point r', gives the proper duration of the fall as

For the case we are interested in, when r0 >> r', expanding the functions on the right in power series leads to

A body released from rest at

a large distance from a non-
* rotating black hole requires
only a finite proper time to
reach the central singularity.
* Nothing unusual happens at
the Schwarzschild radius.

On the other hand, what happens if we try to observe a free falling object from far away? For an observer far away, we
only have to consider photons that travel radially from the falling body to the distant observer. For events along the
path of such a photon, dθ = dφ = 0. We already know that the spacetime separation (ds)2 of events on a photon’s
world-line is zero, so it follows from the Schwarzschild metric that for two events on the world-line of a photon
travelling radially outwards,

where the − sign applies to photons travelling radially inwards (dr deceasing) while the + sign applies to the outward-
moving photons that interest us. This relation holds true for neighbouring events all along the world-line of the photon,
so for a photon emitted from the falling body at t1 and r1 that is observed by the distant observer at t 2 and r2, the total
journey time is given by

First, the coordinate time interval is not simply (r2 − r1)/c. Second, the journey time is always greater than (r2 − r1)/c
due to the additional logarithmic term. As the point of emission, r 1, gets closer and closer to the Schwarzschild radius,
this logarithmic term becomes larger and larger. Indeed, as r 1 →RS so t2 − t1 →∞. So, as seen by the distant observer,
the falling body will never quite reach the event horizon.

Hence, an object falling into a black hole will pass the event horizon and continue its infall to the singularity in a finite
time. However, from an observer far away, the object will slow down near the Schwarzschild radius and need an
infinite time to actually reach it. When a star collapses onto a black hole, we will see the material reddening and losing
energy as it approaches the Schwarszhild radius, never reaching it.
Deflection of Light near a non-rotating black hole
The image shows the trajectories of photons moving in a plane
that also contains the central singularity of a non-rotating black
hole of Schwarzschild radius Rs.
The trajectories are initially parallel but each can be identified
by its impact parameter, that is, the perpendicular distance b
from the singularity to the initial direction of motion of the
photon. Values of the impact parameter are shown on the
vertical axis, expressed as multiples of Schwarzschild radius.
photons with b = 3Rs or b = 4Rs are strongly deflected, though
they are not drawn into the black hole. Light with b = 2.6Rs
can be captured into a circular orbit of radius r = 1.5Rs.
This shows that any great circle on the sphere of coordinate
radius 1.5Rs represents a possible unstable circular orbit for a
photon. This spherical surface is called the photon sphere of
the black hole.

Kerr Solution of a Rotating Black Hole

We cannot expect the Schwarzschild solution to describe a rotating black hole because the black hole’s angular
momentum will pick out some particular direction in space and that will destroy the spherical symmetry. We might,
though, expect there to be some sort of analogue of the Schwarzschild solution with the properties of being stationary,
axially symmetric (i.e. having the invariance of a cylinder), asymptotically flat and singular.

The Kerr metric depends on just two parameters, RS = 2GM/c 2 and a = J/(Mc), which in turn depend on the mass M
and angular momentum magnitude J.
The coordinates used to describe the metric, ct, r, θ, φ, are called Boyer–Lindquist coordinates. φ is a standard
spherical coordinate, but θ and r are not. They are related to standard Cartesian coordinates x and y by

r is still a kind of radial coordinate, but increasing values of r do not correspond to spheres of increasing proper
circumference, nor does r = 0 identify a unique point. At a fixed value of t, a surface of constant r is an ellipsoid.
Two functions, Δ and ρ, are introduced to simplify the line element, but they are just useful combinations of the
coordinates and parameters — they do not introduce anything new. These two functions are defined by

The metric coefficients gμν do not depend on the coordinate φ. This property ensures the axial symmetry of the
solution. As r→∞ it can be seen that ρ2 → r2 and Δ → r, with the consequence that this property ensures the asymptotic
flatness of the solution. The metric is singular when ρ = 0 and when Δ = 0. The first of these is a physical singularity;
the second turns out to be a coordinate singularity. Due to the particular character of the Boyer–Lindquist coordinates,
the physical singularity corresponding to ρ = 0 takes the form of a ring of coordinate radius a in the equatorial plane.
The coordinate singularity corresponding to Δ = 0 is represented by two closed surfaces,

These surfaces both behave as event horizons. In the case of an extreme Kerr black hole, the two surfaces coincide at
r+ = r− = Rs/2, but in non-extreme cases the surface corresponding to r− is enclosed within the surface corresponding
to r+, giving the Kerr black hole a complicated internal structure.
As seen by a distant stationary observer, there is a surface of infinite redshift at

This ellipsoidal surface (s+) encloses the outer event horizon (r+) except at the poles, where the two surfaces meet. The
surface s+ is called the static limit, and the region between the static limit and the outer event horizon (r +) is called the
ergosphere.
In the limit that a → 0, as the angular momentum goes to zero, the ring singularity shrinks to become a central point-
like singularity. The inner event horizon at r− shrinks to coincide with that central singularity, while the outer event
horizon grows to become a sphere of coordinate radius Rs that coincides with the surface of infinite gravitational
redshift (s+) at all points. In short, in the limit a → 0 the Kerr solution approaches the Schwarzschild solution.
The cross-term proportional to dtdφ in the Kerr line element describes a dragging of the exterior spacetime along with
the rotating body, so that time and space are effectively ‘skewed’ in the φ-direction. This effect is know as frame
dragging.
Now imagine placing a light source. Light emitted from that source can travel in directions that take it closer to or
further from the origin; it can also travel in directions that take it more-or-less in the direction of rotation of the black
hole. What it cannot do is travel in any direction that opposes the direction of rotation of the black hole. At and within
the static limit, the skewing of spacetime in the direction of rotation is so strong that motion in the direction of rotation
cannot be resisted.

Light itself is dragged in that direction, and so, by implication, is anything that travels slower than light. Photons or
other massless particles traveling in the equatorial plane of a rotating black hole will not only be deflected towards the
black hole but will also be skewed around the black hole

The Penrose effect: An interesting effect happens if an unstable particle disintegrates within he ergosphere and one of
the resulting particles falls to the horizon whilst the other escapes the static limit. In some cases, the particle that
escapes can carry some energy and effectively extract rotational energy from the black hole. This is the basics for the
Blandford-Znajek jet creation that produces the relativistic jets in AGN

How to understand the image of the black hole shadow:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUyH3XhpLTo
Hawking Radiation

Hawking radiation is required by the Unruh effect and the equivalence principle applied to black hole horizons. The
Unruh effect is the prediction that an accelerating observer will observe blackbody radiation where an inertial observer
would observe none. In other words, the background appears to be warm from an accelerating reference frame.
This process is difficult to understand and invokes quantum mechanics operators and the notion of vacuum (which, in
QM, is not the same as empty space). In some cases, the vacuum of one observer is not even in the space of quantum
states of the other. This is because two mutually accelerating observers may not be able to find a globally defined
coordinate transformation relating their coordinate choices. In QM, we define the particle numbers in terms of the
creation and annihilation operators, which can be different in both coordinates.
The derivation of this temperature involves thermodynamics of QFT, and path integrals for the Hamiltonians, but the
result can be expressed as the simple relation

Where ħ is the reduced Planck constant, a is the local acceleration, c is the speed of light, and kB is the Boltzmann
constant.
Now, considering the equivalence principle and the metric describing the black hole, we have

How do we understand this in terms of the creation and annihilation operators w.r.t the black hole? Under normal
laboratory circumstances, the effects of the fluctuating quantum vacuum can be measured, but the particles responsible
are not directly observed. In the extreme conditions close to the event horizon of a black hole, particularly a low-mass
black hole where the tidal effect would be very strong and particle–antiparticle pairs might quickly separate, the
situation is different. A particle–antiparticle pair might be created just outside the event horizon of a black hole within
the limits allowed by quantum uncertainty. One particle might enter the horizon whereas the other particle outside the
horizon might follow a geodesic that would eventually lead to a distant observer. In this way normally short-lived
quantum fluctuations might create long-lived observable particles. The black hole would emit particles of all kinds and
would gradually lose mass as it did so.
In classical physics an ideal thermal source of electromagnetic radiation (a black body) of surface area A and
temperature T emits energy at a rate proportional to AT 4.

To a distant observer, the emission of energy ΔE is compensated by a decrease of −ΔM = ΔE/c 2 in the BH mass. Thus

The solution of the corresponding differential equation implies that a black hole of current mass M has a remaining
lifetime proportional to M3. In fact, the approximate total lifetime of an isolated black hole is estimated to be

Note that this process is very different from the one discussed before leading to extraction of rotational energy from
the black hole ergosphere. Hawking radiation can happen in any kind of black hole, related to its horizon, and the
process is very slow, whereas the Penrose effect is linked with the ergosphere of a rotating Kerr black hole, and can
lead to emission of the order of 1043-48 ergs/second.

From the black hole temperature, it is straightforward to calculate the black hole entropy. The change in entropy when
a quantity of heat dQ is added is:
(in natural units)
The heat energy that enters serves to increase the total mass, so:

The radius of a black hole is twice its mass in natural units, so the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface
area:

Assuming that a small black hole has zero entropy, the integration constant is zero. Forming a black hole is the most
efficient way to compress mass into a region, and this entropy is also a bound on the information content of any sphere
in space time. The form of the result strongly suggests that the physical description of a gravitating theory can be
somehow encoded onto a bounding surface.
Tests of General Relativity

1. Precession of the Perihelion of Mercury

We have already seen in the section “Motion under Schwarzschild Spacetime” that, when we consider orbits, there is
an additional non-Newtonian term causing the change over time of the perihelion. It can be shown that for each orbit,
the perihelion advances by an angle Δφ given by

where M is the total mass of the system (in this case dominated by that of the Sun), a is the semi-major axis, and e is
the eccentricity. (A circular orbit has e = 0.) Clearly, Δφ becomes larger as a becomes smaller and as e approaches 1.
Mercury has an orbit with high eccentricity and a small semi-major axis so it is a good candidate for measuring the
advance of the perihelion.

Newtonian Mechanics General Relativity Predicted & observed rate of perihelion advance

2. Deflection of Light by the Sun

Using the null geodesics of the Schwarzschild metric to represent the world-lines
of light rays that pass close to a spherically symmetric body of mass M, general
relativity predicts that the angle of deflection Δθ is given (in radians) by

where b is the impact parameter (i.e. the perpendicular distance from the initial
path of the light ray to the deflecting body).
The first problem in trying to verify this prediction is that it’s not easy to see any
stars at all when the Sun is above the horizon, and it is particularly difficult to see
stars that appear just beyond the edge of the Sun’s disc. Observing such stars
during a total eclipse of the Sun eliminates most of the unwanted sunlight. it was the
expeditions planned by Sir Arthur Eddington that gave general relativity its most
publicized initial triumph and made Einstein a world-famous figure.
However, the use of optical telescopes provides very little accuracy. Measurements are currently done using radio
interferometry. With the VLBI technique, observations are done with two or more observatories, often separated by
thousands of kilometers, emulating one giant telescope. With this, the predicted gravitational deflection has
been verified to better than 0.04%.

3. Gravitational Lensing

Very similar effect can be seen when we consider a massive body (such as a galaxy or a cluster of galaxies), located
between an observer and a distant source of electromagnetic radiation, which causes the observer to see distorted or
multiple images of the source.
In 1979, Dennis Walsh (1933–2005) and his colleagues pointed out that two narrowly separated quasars, Q0957+561
A and B (which we shall simply refer to as A and B), have identical optical and radio spectra. They are evidently at the
same distance since their spectra are redshifted by the same amount. The most likely interpretation seemed to be that A
and B are actually two images of a single quasar and that the light from that quasar is reaching the Earth by two
different paths due to gravitational lensing
Tests of General Relativity (cont.)

4. Gravitational Time Dilation

We have already seen that . In 1976, in an experiment known as Gravity Probe A, a

hydrogen maser (a stable source of radiation with a very precise frequency) was briefly sent to a height of 10 km
above the Earth, while its emissions were monitored from the ground. This experiment confirmed the predictions of
gravitational time dilation to about 70 parts per million.
An interesting application of gravitational time dilation is provided by the Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS
uses between 24 and 32 satellites that transmit precise microwave signals, enabling GPS receivers on or near the
Earth’s surface to determine their location, speed, direction and time. Each satellite contains an atomic clock and orbits
at about 20 200 km above the Earth’s surface. Since a satellite clock is in a weaker gravitational field than a ground-
based one, it will tick more rapidly. Because the functioning of the GPS is based on accurate timing, the effect of
general relativity is significant, and if appropriate corrections were not made, errors in the positions of GPS receivers
would accumulate at the rate of tens of kilometres per day.

5. Black Holes

● Schwarzschild (1915):
Solution to Einstein's equations (just maths, not physical solution?)
● Oppenheimer (1939):
Stars can collapse, gravity overcoming Pauli's principle.
● Penrose (1965):
Any sufficiently dense object must form a singularity (= black hole)
● Wheeler (1967):
Coins the term “black hole” as a joke
Observation of any of these objects would obviously support the relativity theory. There is evidence for solar mass
black holes in X-rays binaries, Iron K-line, water masers, etc. There is evidence of super massive black holes in
extragalactic jets and , of course, direct evidence from the EHT image of the black hole (see picture on previous page).

The normally narrow iron

K-line is broadened by the
doppler shift (red shift or
blue shift) of the X ray
light emitted by matter
being affected by the
gravity of the black hole.
The results coincide with
predictions Einstein's
theory of general relativity
(Fabian et al 1989, 2000).

Left: Estimating the orbits of stars in the

galactic center, a non-luminous object with
mass around 10^6 solar masses within the
orbits is constrained. Such object can only
be a super massive black hole (Ghez et al).

Right: Assuming a Keplerian orbit,

measuring the centripetal acceleration and
velocity of water maser spots yields a
measurement of the mass of the central
object, which in this case is a supermassive
black hole (Miyoshi et al, 1995, Nature)
Tests of General Relativity (cont.)

6. Gravitational Waves

In regions of spacetime where the gravitational field is weak, the curvature will be small and the metric tensor can be
written as where [ημν] represents the Minkowski metric of flat spacetime, and [hμν]
describes the small departures from flat geometry.
Since each component hμν is small, we can make the simplification that we only retain terms linear in hμν. This means
that in the case of weak fields, the Einstein field equations can be represented by the linearized field equation

With

And

To simplify this equation, we will use a particular “gauge” (if you remember the electrodynamics discussion):

This represents an inhomogeneous wave equation with a source term. If we consider a region of empty space, we will
have the homogeneous wave equation , which represents gravitational waves with speed v=c

In a system with a couple of neutron stars, gravitational waves are

taking energy for the system, so the rotational speed decreases. If one
of the neutron stars is a pulsar, then we can measure the period and
check if it actually decreases. This was done in the binary pulsar
PSR B1913+16, and got the Nobel prize for Joseph Taylor and his
former graduate student Russell Hulse.

However, this is still an indirect measurement, and direct observations

of gravitational waves had to wait a bit longer. For this, it is better to
use a laser interferometer. In simple terms, if the arms are of constant
length, the system can be arranged so that interference between the
light beams returning to the beam splitter will direct all of the light
back towards the laser. However, if either arm changes its length, the
interference pattern will change and light reaches the photodetector,
where it can be recorded.
Black hole and neutron star mergers are the best candidates to
observe gravitational waves.
 Exercises

1. Prove that Einstein's Equations can also be written as ,

where . (Hint: multiply by and contract).

2. The Schwarzschild metric is given by

As a function of r, what is the coordinate velocity of light in this metric (a) in the radial direction? (b) in the transverse
direction? (c) What are the physical consequences of this result?

3. Consider a spacetime given by the Schwarzschild metric as in Exercise 2 above.

(a) A clock at fixed (r, θ, φ) measures an infinitesimal proper time interval, dT. Express dT (as a function of r) in
terms of the coordinate time interval dt.
(b) A stationary observer at fixed (t, θ, φ) measures an infinitesimal radial distance dR. Express dR (as a function of
r) in terms of the coordinate radial distance dr.

4. Prove that, in empty space, the curvature is null.

5. Andrea Ghez, one of the Physics Nobel prize laureates in 2020, spent more than a decade with her group to study
the orbits of stars around SgrA*, the black hole in the center of our galaxy. The period (P) of the star S2 is 15.559
years; the orbital eccentricity (e) is 0.88; and the parigalacticon distance d=a*(1-e) is 1.835x10 13 m, where a is the
semi-major axis. [Data are from Eisenhauer et al. (2003) and Schödel et al. (2002)]. a) Calculate the mass of SgrA*.
b) Discussing with her, she said that the next step will be to obtain the perihelion precession of S2 on its orbit around
SgrA*. Can you calculate what would be the expected value she will have to measure?

6. German astrophysicist Günther Hasinger has proposed that primordial black holes may be the seed of dark matter,
and possibly also the seeds for SMBH in the center of galaxies. These primordial black holes may have formed right
almost after the Big Bang, with very small masses, ranging from 10 -8 kg (Plank relics) to 1033 kg. Taking into account
Hawking radiation, consider the fate of these primordial black holes.