LECTURE NOTE

COURSE CODE - BIO 111 (BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CELL BIOLOGY)

LIVING THINGS

The term living things refers to any organism or a living form that possesses the characteristics
of life or being alive.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything in nature can be classified into two groups: living and non -living things.

The living things can be distinguished from their nonliving counterparts through the following
characteristics observable in all living things:
1. MOVEMENT: Animals can move from place to place on their own in search of food.
Higher plants move certain parts of their body in response to growth or external stimuli
2. RESPIRATION: In order to perform the numerous life processes, living things need
much energy. The energy can only be obtained when the organism respires. Therefore,
respiration is the oxidation of food substances in the presence of oxygen to produce
energy with carbon (iv) oxide and water released as by products.
3. NUTRITION: The act of feeding is called nutrition. All organisms need food to carry
out their biological activities. Green plants can manufacture their food. Hence, they are
autotrophs while animals are dependent on plants for their food, so they are heterotrophs.
4. IRRITABILITY: Is the ability of living things to respond to external and internal
stimuli in order to survive. External stimuli may be light, heat, water, sound or chemical
substances.
5. GROWTH: this is the tendency of organisms to increase irreversibly and rapidly in
length and size and in mass. The essence of growth is to enable organisms to repair or
replace damaged or old tissues in their bodies. The food eaten by an organism provides
the basis of growth.
6. EXCRETION: Toxic waste products of metabolism & other unwanted materials have to
be eliminated to ensure proper functioning of the bodies of organisms. Such wastes
include water, carbon (iv) oxide etc.
 7. REPRODUCTION: Is the ability of a living organism to give birth to young ones (off
springs). The essence is to ensure life continuity. Reproduction can be sexual (involving
two organisms) or asexual (involving one organism)
8. LIFE SPAN / DEATH: Every organism has a definite and limited period of existence.
Life, for all organism has five main stages, namely: origin (birth), growth, maturity,
decline and death.
9. COMPETITION: Living things tend to struggle for the basic things of life in order to
survive. Hence, they compete for food, water, light, mates and space.
10. ADAPTATION: To survive, every organism possesses ability to get used to change in
its environment.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
All living organisms can be generally classified as plants or animals. However, plants can be
distinguished from animals in the following ways:
PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Undergo passive movement. Undergo free or active movement with well-
developed organs of locomotion.
2. Gaseous exchange takes place Gaseous exchange is through special organs.
through the entire body.
3. Green plants photosynthesize i. e. Animals do not photosynthesize i. e. they are
they are autotrophs. heterotrophs.
4. They exhibit slow response to They exhibit fast response to stimuli.
stimuli.
5. Growth is apical and indefinite Growth is uniform and definite (limited).
(continuous).
6. No specialized sense organs. Possess specialized sense organs.
7. No specialized excretory systems. They have special and well-developed
excretory systems.
8. Cell has rigid non-living cellulose Have thin, flexible cell membrane.
cell wall which provides Mechanical support is provided by external
mechanical support. exoskeleton or internal endoskeleton.
9. They store food (carbohydrates) as They store carbohydrates as glycogen
starch except fungi which store
food as glycogen.

CELL BIOLOGY
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”
Cells are the structural, fundamental, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell
can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.
Cells are the basic, fundamental unit of life. So, if we were to break apart an organism to the
cellular level, the smallest independent component that we would find would be the cell.
Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also present
in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover,
cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell
Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many
cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of
all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the
food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are of
different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells
of different shapes and sizes.

Cells can exist in various forms which include

a. As a single cell (unicellular forms) e. g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Euglena

b. In colonial forms e. g. Volvox, Sponges, Pandorina
c. In filamentous forms e. g. Spirogyra, Oscillateria, Oedogonium
d. As a part of multicellular organisms. Higher plants and animals
A multicellular organism is made up of interdependent cells carrying out several special
functions.

Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called
the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They
are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to
sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).
Eukaryotic Cells
1. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.
2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.
CELL STRUCTURE
The study of a cell is called cytology. A cell consists of a living material called protoplasm,
which is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane. In plants, a cell wall (non-
living part) is also present surrounding the plasma membrane. The protoplasm is made up
of two major parts: a. cytoplasm b. Nucleus
The cytoplasm contains cell organelles or inclusions, which are cellular structures with specific
functions. The cells which contain a nucleus and organelles are called eukaryotic cells.
These show a high level of cellular organization. However, some cells lack definite
nucleus and organelles. In such cells (prokaryotic cells e.g. bacteria), materials containing
instructions for growth and development are found in a particular part of the cell and so
are not enclosed in any membrane.
Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle enclosed by a double-layered nuclear membrane with
many pores. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus which are rich in proteins and
nucleic acids.
The nucleus performs the following functions:
a. Exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores.
b. Storage of hereditary information by the chromosomes
c. Control centre of cellular activities
 CELL ORGANELLES

Cell organelles are specialized entities present inside a cell that performs a specific function.
Organelles are special and organized structures seen in living cells. Some of the membrane-
bound organelles are vacuoles, nucleus, chloroplasts, lysosomes etc. The nucleus is the largest
organelle in the cell.

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both membrane
and non-membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in their structures
and functions. They coordinate and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A
few of them function by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved in the
locomotion and reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within the cell and
are classified into three categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.

 Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-
membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic cell and the
eukaryotic cell.
  Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic
Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

 Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double

membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.

List of Cell Organelles and their Functions

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up
of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant
cells.

 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical
shocks and injuries.

Plasma Cell Membrane

 The plasma membrane is also termed as a Cell Membrane or Cytoplasmic Membrane. It
is a selectively permeable membrane of the cells, which is composed of a lipid bilayer
and proteins
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances
in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell
membrane is present in all the cells.

 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such
as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.

 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of

selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
  It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.

 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

 The plasma membrane is present both in plant and animal cells. It functions as the
selectively permeable membrane, by permitting the entry of selective materials in and out
of the cell according to the requirement. In an animal cell, the cell membrane functions
by providing shape and protects the inner contents of the cell. Based on the structure of
the plasma membrane, it is regarded as the fluid mosaic model. According to the fluid
mosaic model, the plasma membranes are subcellular structures, made of a lipid bilayer
in which the protein molecules are embedded.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane.

 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,

ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is present both in plant and animal cells. They are jelly-like substances, found
between the cell membrane and nucleus. They are mainly composed of water, organic and
inorganic compounds. The cytoplasm is one of the essential components of the cell, where all the
cell organelles are embedded. These cell organelles contain enzymes, mainly responsible for
controlling all metabolic activity taking place within the cell and are the site for most of the
chemical reactions within a cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest
organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of
the cell’s DNA.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.

 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from
the rest of the cell.
  The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.

By structure, the nucleus is dark, round, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. It is a porous

membrane (like cell membrane) and forms a wall between cytoplasm and nucleus. Within the
nucleus, there are tiny spherical bodies called nucleolus. It also carries an essential structure
called chromosomes.

Chromosomes are thin and thread-like structures which carry another important structure called
a gene. Genes are a hereditary unit in organisms i.e., it helps in the inheritance of traits from one
generation (parents) to another (offspring). Hence, the nucleus controls the characters and
functions of cells in our body. The primary function of the nucleus is to monitor cellular
activities including metabolism and growth by making use of DNA’s genetic information.
Nucleoli in the nucleus are responsible for the synthesis of protein and RNA.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They are the
transport system of the cell, involved in transporting materials throughout the cell.
There are two different types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are composed of cisternae, tubules, and vesicles, which
are found throughout the cell and are involved in protein manufacture.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – They are the storage organelle, associated with the production
of lipids, steroids, and responsible for detoxifying the cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce energy-rich molecules for
the cell. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally in several organisms. It is a double
membrane-bound, sausage-shaped organelle, found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

The double membranes divide its lumen into two distinct aqueous compartments. The inner
compartment is called a ‘matrix’ which is folded into cristae whereas the outer membrane forms
a continuous boundary with the cytoplasm. They usually vary in their size and are found either
round or oval. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in the cell, produces energy in the
form of ATP and helps in the transformation of the molecules.

For instance, glucose is converted into adenosine triphosphate – ATP. Mitochondria have their
own circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes (the 70s), and a few other molecules that help in
protein synthesis.
Plastids

Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of
pigments, plastids are of three types:

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts – Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles, which usually vary in their
shape – from a disc shape to spherical, discoid, oval and ribbon. They are present in mesophyll
cells of leaves, which store chloroplasts and other carotenoid pigments. These pigments are
responsible for trapping light energy for photosynthesis. The inner membrane encloses a space
called the stroma. Flattened disc-like chlorophyll-containing structures known as thylakoids are
arranged in a stacked manner like a pile of coins. Each pile is called a granum (plural: grana) and
the thylakoids of different grana are connected by flat membranous tubules known as stromal
lamella. Just like the mitochondrial matrix, the stroma of chloroplast also contains a double-
stranded circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and enzymes which are required for the synthesis of
carbohydrates and proteins.

Chromoplasts – The chromoplasts include fat-soluble, carotenoid pigments like xanthophylls,

carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color – yellow, orange, red, etc.

Leucoplasts – Leucoplasts are colorless plastids which store nutrients. Amyloplasts store
carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and elaioplasts store oils and
fats.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound and important cytoplasmic organelles found in close

association with the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are found in the form of tiny particles in
many cells and are mainly composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of protein. They are named as
the 70s (found in prokaryotes) or 80s (found in eukaryotes) The letter S refers to the density and
the size, known as Svedberg’s Unit. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
Ribosomes are either encompassed within the endoplasmic reticulum or are freely traced in the
cell’s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and Ribosomal proteins are the two components that together
constitute ribosomes. The primary function of the ribosomes includes protein synthesis in all
living cells that ensure the survival of the cell.
Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is

mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. This cell organelle is
primarily responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids to targeted
destinations. Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both plant
and animal cells.
Microbodies

Microbodies are membrane-bound, minute, vesicular organelles, found in both plant and animal
cells. They contain various enzymes and proteins and can be visualized only under the electron
microscope.

Cytoskeleton

It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures that run throughout the

cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. It is found in all living cells, notably in the
eukaryotes. The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins that can divide
rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement of the cells.

The primary functions include providing the shape and mechanical resistance to the cell against
deformation, the contractile nature of the filaments helps in motility during cytokinesis.

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like oars to
either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger and are responsible for
the cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its prokaryotic
counterpart. The core of the cilium and flagellum is called an axoneme, which contains nine
pairs of gradually arranged peripheral microtubules and a set of central microtubules running
parallel to the axis. The central tubules are interconnected by a bridge and are embedded by a
central sheath. One of the peripheral microtubular pairs is also interconnected to the central
sheath by a radial spoke. Hence there are a total of 9 radial spokes.

The cilia and flagella emerge from centriole-like structures called basal bodies.

Centrosome and Centrioles

The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular structures known as

centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein,
and the fibril is a set of interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is
proteinaceous. The hub connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke, which is made up of
proteins. The centrioles from the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres
during cell division.
Vacuoles

Vacuoles are mostly defined as storage bubbles of irregular shapes which are found in cells.
They are fluid-filled organelles enclosed by a membrane.

The vacuole stores the food or a variety of nutrients that a cell might need to survive. In addition
to this, it also stores waste products. The waste products are eventually thrown out by vacuoles.
Thus, the rest of the cell is protected from contamination. The animal and plant cells have
different size and number of vacuoles. Compared to the animals, plant cells have larger vacuoles.

A Brief Summary on Cell Organelles

Cell Organelles Structure

Functions
Provides shape, protects the inner
A double membrane composed of lipids and
Cell membrane organelles of the cell and acts as a
proteins. Present both in plant and animal cells.
selectively permeable membrane.

Composed of centrioles and found only in the It plays a major role in organizing the
Centrosomes
animal cells. microtubule and cell division.

Present only in plant cells and contains a green-

Chloroplasts Sites of photosynthesis.
coloured pigment known as chlorophyll.

A jelly-like substance, which consists of water,

Responsible for the cell’s metabolic
Cytoplasm dissolved nutrients and waste products of the
activities.
cell.

Endoplasmic A network of membranous tubules, present Forms the skeletal framework of the
 cell, involved in the detoxification,
Reticulum within the cytoplasm of a cell.
production of lipids and proteins.

Membrane-bound, sac-like organelles, present It is mainly involved in secretion and

Golgi apparatus
within the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells. intracellular transport.

Helps in the digestion and removes

A tiny, circular-shaped, single membrane-
wastes and digests dead and damaged
Lysosomes bound organelles, filled with digestive
cells. Therefore, it is also called as the
enzymes.
“suicidal bags”.

The main site of cellular respiration and

An oval-shaped, membrane-bound organelle,
Mitochondria also involved in storing energy in the
also called as the “Powerhouse of The Cell”.
form of ATP molecules.

The largest, double membrane-bound Controls the activity of the cell, helps in
Nucleus organelles, which contains all the cell’s genetic cell division and controls the hereditary
information. characters.

A membrane-bound cellular organelle present

Involved in the metabolism of lipids
Peroxisome in the cytoplasm, which contains the reducing
and catabolism of long-chain fatty acids.
enzyme.

Double membrane-bound organelles. There are

3 types of plastids:
Helps in the process of photosynthesis
Plastids 1. Leucoplast –Colourless plastids. and pollination, imparts colour to
2. Chromoplast–Blue, red, and yellow leaves, flowers, fruits and stores starch,
colour plastids. proteins and fats.
3. Chloroplast – Green coloured plastids.

Non-membrane organelles, found floating

Ribosomes freely in the cell’s cytoplasm or embedded Involved in the synthesis of proteins.
within the endoplasmic reticulum.

Provide shape and rigidity to the plant

A membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelle
Vacuoles cell and help in digestion, excretion, and
found within the cytoplasm.
storage of substances.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and
Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.

 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.

 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell

A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The
cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present
in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where
the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction

A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as
the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is
because they are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and perform several
functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes.

CELL DIVISION
Cell division is a biological process by which a parent cell duplicates its cell contents and divides
to give rise to two or more daughter cells. It is an irreplaceable biological process in all living
organisms; being the “means of growth, repair, and reproduction in multicellular organisms” and
“the sole source of reproduction in unicellular organisms”.

Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells.
Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. All cells reproduce by splitting into
two, where each parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells.

Cell division can be defined as a crucial biological process wherein a single parent cell divides
resulting in the formation of two or more daughter cells. This process is integral for various
biological functions like: Growth, Development, Tissue repair and Reproduction

A cell division is a process in which the parent cell divides, eventually giving rise to new
daughter cells. It is an essential biological process in many organisms. It is the means used by
multicellular organisms to grow, replenish (repair), and reproduce. In unicellular organisms, cell
division is equivalent to reproduction. There are two forms of cell division: (1) direct cell
division and (2) indirect cell division.
  Direct cell division is one in which the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the cell divide
directly into two parts. This form of cell division is also referred to as amitosis.

 In contrast, indirect cell division involves complicated changes within the cell, e.g.
formation of chromosomes, before the parent cell divides and produces daughter cells.
Mitosis is a cell division that involves an indirect method of producing daughter cells.

cell division is not exclusive to mitosis; it is also happening in meiosis, which, in comparison, is
a process giving rise to cells with non-identical genetic material. Thus, cell division is a
biological process involved in the growth and reproduction of various organisms. It is part of the
organism’s cell cycle.

Types of Cell Division

Cell division encompasses different types of division which are discussed under the heading:

1. Cell division Mitosis:

Mitosis is a unique type of cell division that can be observed in both somatic (non-reproductive
cells) as well as germinal cells (egg cells and sperms). It involves a series of tightly regulated and
organized steps that lead to the formation of two daughter cells. These genetically identical
daughter cells (genetically identical to the parent cell) contain an equal number of chromosomes.
Mitosis is known to aid several processes like tissue growth, maintenance, and asexual
reproduction.

2. Cell division Meiosis:

Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that occurs in only germinal cells (egg and sperm
cells) and not in somatic cells. This type of cell division is specifically designated for sexual
reproduction in reproductive cells. It consists of two successive divisions that eventually result in
the production of 4 daughter cells (or 4 gametes). These daughter cells are “genetically different”
from the parent cell. Also, gametes don’t contain an equal number of chromosomes as the parent
cell. Each daughter cell is composed of “half the number of chromosomes” when compared to
the parent cell.
Phases of the Cell Cycle

There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

1. Interphase: This phase was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent cell
divisions, but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.

2. M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs. There are two key steps
in this phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.

The interphase further comprises three phases:

1. G0 Phase (Resting Phase): The cell neither divides nor prepares itself for the division.

2. G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell is metabolically active and grows continuously during this phase.

3. S phase (Synthesis): The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during this stage.

4. G2 phase (Gap 2): Protein synthesis happens in this phase.

5. Quiescent Stage (G0): The cells that do not undergo further division exits the G1 phase and
enters an inactive stage. This stage is known as the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
Meiosis is primarily responsible for genetic variation through processes such as genetic
recombination.

3. Cell division Amitosis: Amitosis is a less common type of cell division that’s usually
observed in some specific single-celled organisms or specific cells within multicellular
organisms. It differs from mitosis and meiosis as it does not involve the characteristic formation
of a mitotic spindle apparatus or the precise separation of chromosomes. (Read more here: A
unique type of cell division called “Amitosis”)

 Prokaryotic Cell Division

Some important points to note about prokaryotic cell division are:

1. The process by which prokaryotes’ cell division occurs is very simple.

2. The cell division process for prokaryotes is usually a means of reproduction for them.

3. Since prokaryotes don’t have a very complex structure and are devoid of any cell organelles
(organellar structures), cells divide by simple type of binary fission or budding, both of which
are asexual methods of reproduction. They have got only 1 membrane as the structural
constituent. Therefore, when prokaryotic cell division begins, it manifests as a simple DNA
replication step followed by doubled DNA splitting into half (2 identical copies of the genetic
material).

4. Cell elongation: Following DNA replication, the prokaryotic cell elongates to accommodate
the duplicated genetic material.
5. Prokaryotic cell division also includes a step of septum formation wherein a septum (or a cell
wall) begins to form at the midsection of the elongated cell which aids the final dividing step.
The septum eventually grows inwards leading to the final separation of the 2 compartments and
the formation of 2 distinct daughter cells. This results in the physical separation of the parent cell
into 2 individual daughter cells.

6. The newly formed daughter cells are capable of independent functioning and carrying out their
cellular processes like metabolism, growth, and replication.

7. Speed: Talking about speed, prokaryotic cell division is quite rapid. Under optimal conditions,
prokaryotic cells can divide and generate multiple generations within a short span of time.

8. Genetic stability: Talking about the genetic stability of offspring, as the replicated DNA is
faithfully divided and distributed between the daughter cells, prokaryotic cell division ensures
substantial genetic stability.

9. Adaptability and evolution: Prokaryotic cell division plays an instrumental role in the
adaptation and evolution of prokaryotic organisms by facilitating genetic variation and the
accumulation of beneficial mutations.

10. Since prokaryotic cells also have plasmids, the plasmid DNA also gets duplicated during
binary fission.

11. There is the presence of a divisome; it is an atypical protein complex that aids prokaryotic
cell division in bacteria. It takes care of the cell division process by:

 Ensuring inner & outer membrane constriction during prokaryotic cell division process.

 Ensuring that correct peptidoglycan cell wall remodeling happens at the division site.

12. There is also the presence of FtsZ, i.e., a tubulin-like protein that has an integral role in the
contractile ring formation during prokaryotic cell division.

FtsZ and its accessory proteins are essential for prokaryotic cell division. Image Credit: Mingzhi
Wang
Eukaryotic Cell Division: Mitosis

Some important points to note about mitosis type of cell division in eukaryotes are as follows:

1. It is also called equational division.

2. The process by which the mitotic type of eukaryotic cell division (a smaller part of the

eukaryotic cell cycle) occurs is relatively more complex than the prokaryotic one.

3. Unlike prokaryotes, this type of eukaryotic cell division process is not just a means of

reproduction but also ensures growth, repair, and other metabolic functions.

4. Amongst the 2 types of cell divisions in eukaryotic organisms, mitosis is the first type.

5. Since eukaryotic organisms are replete with membrane-bound cell organelles, it’s not just the

DNA that has to replicate and divide but the cytoplasmic content (including cell organelles)

too must double. This increases the difficulty of the mitotic type of cell division relative to

prokaryotic cell division

6. In eukaryotes, mitotic cell division occurs after the interphase (G1, S, G2 phases).

7. Interphase is marked by the DNA synthesis and duplication of organelles and always precedes

cell division.

8. Mitosis comprises 4 main phases:

 Prophase (where chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope disintegrates)

 Metaphase (where the chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate)

 Anaphase (separation of sister chromatids)

 Telophase (formation of two daughter cells with distinct cytoplasmic and genetic
material)
9. Since many eukaryotic organisms are multicellular and reproduce by sexual means, they

require another means of division where they can combine their DNA (scope of
recombination)

with other organisms’ DNA. This need is not sufficed by the mitotic type of cell division.

Eukaryotic Cell Division: Meiosis

1. Also called reductional division.

2. The process by which the meiotic type of eukaryotic cell division occurs is relatively more

complex than both prokaryotic binary division/budding and eukaryotic mitotic type of cell
division.

3. Just prokaryotes, this type of eukaryotic cell division process is an essential means of
reproduction. It ensures that gamete formation occurs properly, and genetic diversity is
maintained in the species.

4. Amongst the 2 types of cell divisions in eukaryotic organisms, meiosis is the second type.

5. This type of cell division occurs in sexually reproducing organisms.

6. Just like mitosis, DNA, and organelles are replicated in the interphase before meiotic cell
division.

7. Meiosis comprises 2 sets of divisions:

Meiosis I (marked by the separation of homologous chromosomes)

Meiosis II (marked by separation of sister chromatids; this is similar to mitosis)

8. At the end of meiotic cell division, four daughter cells (gametes) are formed, unlike 2
daughter cells in mitotic cell division.

9. All daughter cells, i.e., gametes produced after meiosis have just 1 one copy of the genome,
making them haploid (four haploid daughter cells).
10. Only after one gamete fuses with the gamete of the opposite sex during fertilization, the
ploidy level is restored

Amitosis

A unique type of cell division called “Amitosis”. Amitosis is a type of cell division observed in
only certain categories of organisms. It is special because of its simplicity and directness. Unlike
other forms of cell division that involve complex steps and precise chromosome separation,
amitosis occurs through a relatively straightforward process. The parent cell simply divides
directly into two or more daughter cells “without the involvement of elaborate machinery or
intricate genetic reorganization”.

So, what does that mean to us?

This simplicity in amitosis can be fascinating as it highlights an alternative mechanism for cell
division that ‘bypasses the intricate processes’ like:

 Chromosome duplication

 Spindle formation

 Precise chromosome segregation

These processes are otherwise integral to other types of cell division like mitosis or meiosis.
While amitosis is less common and primarily observed in simpler organisms or specific cells
within multicellular organisms, it serves as a reminder of the diverse strategies that living
organisms have developed to ensure their survival and reproduction. Amitosis primarily
contributes to the growth or asexual reproduction in simpler organisms.

Additionally, amitosis can offer insights into the unique characteristics and capabilities of the
organisms or cells in which it occurs. By directly dividing and producing daughter cells with
identical genetic material, amitosis can contribute to rapid growth and asexual reproduction in
certain organisms, allowing them to adapt and thrive in their specific environments.
Amitosis thus serves as a remarkable example of the diversity and adaptability of cell division
mechanisms in the natural world, shedding light on the wide range of strategies employed by
living organisms to perpetuate their existence.

BIOMOLECULES IN LIVING THINGS

Biomolecules are all the carbon-containing compounds (organic compounds) present in the
living entities. They are organic molecules present in living cells and are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms.

There are four major classes of Biomolecules –

1. Carbohydrates.

2. Proteins.

3. Nucleic acids.

4. Lipids.

Every biomolecule is essential for body functions and is manufactured by the body. It can vary in
nature, type, structure and functions. Biomolecules are made up of functional groups. Some of
the Biomolecules are straight chains; others may be cyclic rings or both. Moreover, they can
vary in their physical properties such as water solubility and melting points.

In a living cell, the functional group of biomolecules is as follows:

Amino acids

Amino acids are carbon-containing compounds with a carboxylic acid group and the amino
group found at the two ends. Each of these amino acids comprises one central carbon enclosed
by four substituents. These substituents are a carboxylic acid group, amino group, hydrogen, and
a variable group indicated by R. The variable group determines the type and nature of amino
acid.

Lipids
Lipids are a group of water-insoluble compounds that include fats, steroids, phospholipids and
oils, etc. Depending upon constituents, lipids can be classified into different types. Fatty acids
are simple lipids, composed of a variable group, R and a carboxyl group. These can either be
unsaturated or saturated fatty acids. Glycerols are trihydroxy propane that combines with fatty
acids to produce triglycerides. Several lipids comprise a phosphorus group having the organic
chain and are known as phospholipids, which are the essentials of the plasma membrane.

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are the genetic materials present in an organism, which include DNA and RNA.
They are polymeric molecules made of nucleotide monomers. They are the combination
materials of nitrogenous bases, sugar molecules and phosphate groups linked by different bonds
in a series of steps. Our body consists of heterocyclic compounds like pyrimidines and purines.
These are nitrogenous compounds like adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil. When
these bases bond with ribose sugar, they form nucleosides. Nucleosides, in turn, bond with the
phosphate group to give nucleotides like DNA and RNA.

Analysis of chemical composition

The elemental analysis of a cell shows that it is composed of various elements such as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, Sulphur, phosphorus, etc.

But what do these elements constitute? What are the properties of the compounds formed by
these elements?

Only a chemical analysis can answer these questions.

Analytical techniques provide information regarding different compounds (organic and

inorganic), their molecular formula and structures. They also help us to isolate and purify one
compound from another.
 FOOD CHAIN

Introduction

A food chain explains which organism eats another organism in the environment. The food chain
is a linear sequence of organisms where nutrients and energy are transferred from one organism
to the other. This occurs when one organism consumes another organism. It begins with the
producer organism, follows the chain and ends with the decomposer organism. After
understanding the food chain, we realize how one organism is dependent upon another organism
for survival.

A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.

The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.
Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the
bottom, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is
known as a trophic level.
The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything on the
planet.

Producers: The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as phytoplankton,
cyanobacteria, algae, and green plants. This is the first stage in a food chain. The producers make
up the first level of a food chain. The producers utilize the energy from the sun to make food.
Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make their own food. Producers are any plant or
other organisms that produce their own nutrients through photosynthesis.

Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other organisms for
food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living organisms. It includes
herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which are animals that eat other animals,
parasites that live on other organisms by harming them and lastly the scavengers, which are
animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.

Here, herbivores are known as primary consumers and carnivores are secondary consumers. The
second trophic level includes organisms that eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers or
herbivores are organisms in the second trophic level.
Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic material.
This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a food chain, as they
convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials, which enriches the soil or land with
nutrients.

Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as they provide nutrients
to soil or oceans, that can be utilized by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food
chain

Food Web:

Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is similar to a food chain, but
the food web is comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single organism is
consumed by many predators or it consumes several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic
levels get interconnected. The food chain fails to showcase the flow of energy in the right way.
But the food web is able to show the proper representation of energy flow, as it displays the
interactions between different organisms. When there are more cross-interactions between
different food chains, the food web gets more complex. This complexity in a food web leads to a
more sustainable ecosystem.

Types of Food Chain

There are two types of food chains, namely the detritus food chain and the grazing food chain.
Let’s look at them more closely:

Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants
like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The detritus food chain
begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into decomposers and detritivores,
which are further eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become
a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria,
protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on detritus.

Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with green plants,
passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain, energy in the lowest
trophic level is acquired from photosynthesis.

In this type of food chain, the first energy transfer is from plants to herbivores. This type of food
chain depends on the flow of energy from autotrophs to herbivores. As autotrophs are the base
for all ecosystems on Earth, most ecosystems in the environment follow this kind of food chain.

Conclusion

Understanding food chains is vital, as they explain the intimate relationships in an ecosystem. A
food chain shows us how every living organism is dependent on other organisms for survival.
The food chain explains the path of energy flow inside an ecosystem