Module 3: Principles of Connected Devices

and Protocols in IoT

• RFID and NFC (Near-Field Communication),
• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) roles,
• LiFi ,
• WPAN std : 802.15 standards: Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15.4, Zigbee, Z-wave, Narrow Band IoT,
Internet Protocol and Transmission Control Protocol, 6LoWPAN, WLAN and WAN , IEEE 802.11,
Long-range Communication Systems and Protocols: Cellular Connectivity LTE, LTE-A, LoRa and
LoRaWAN.

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RFID: Radio frequency identification
• Radio frequency identification system (RFID) is an automatic
technology and aids machines or computers to identify objects,
record metadata or control individual target through radio waves.
• Connecting RFID reader to the terminal of Internet, the readers can
identify, track and monitor the objects attached with tags globally,
automatically, and in real time, if needed. This is the Internet of
Things (IOT).
• RFID is often seen as a prerequisite for the IOT.

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• A typically RFID system is consisted of tags (transmitters/ responders)
and readers (transmitters/receivers).
• The tag is a microchip connected with an antenna, which can be
attached to an object as the identifier of the object.
• The RFID reader communicates with the RFID tag using radio waves.
• The main advantage of RFID technology is the automated
identification and data capture that promises wholesale changes
across a broad spectrum of business activities and aims to reduce the
cost of the already used systems such as bar codes.

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4
• RFID System RFID systems are composed of three main components:
• RFID tags, reader, application system

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• RFID tags:
• also known as transponders (transmitter/ responder), are attached to the objects to count or identify.
• Tags could be either active or passive.
• Active tags are those that have partly or fully battery powered, have the capability to communicate with other
tags, and can initiate a dialogue of their own with the tag reader.
• Passive tags, on the other hand, do not need any internal power source but are powered up by the tag reader.
• Tags consist mainly of a coiled antenna and a microchip, with the main purpose of storing data.
• Reader:
• also known as transceiver (transmitter/receiver) made up of a radio frequency interface (RFI) module and
control unit.
• Its main functions are to activate the tags, structure the communication sequence with the tag, and transfer
data between the application software and tags.
• Application system:
• also called data processing system, which can be an application or database, depending on the application.
• The application software initiates all readers and tags activities.
• RFID provides a quick, flexible, and reliable way for electronically detecting, tracking and controlling a variety of
items.
• RFID systems use radio transmissions to send energy to a RFID tag while the tag emits a unique identification
code back to a data collection reader linked to an information management system.
• The data collected from the tag can then be sent either directly to a host computer, or stored in a portable
reader and up-loaded later to the host computer.

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APPLICATIONS OF RFID TECHNOLOGY
• The functions of RFID system generally include three aspects: monitoring, tracking, and
supervising.
• Monitoring generally means to be aware of the state of a system, by repeated observing
the particular conditions, especially to detect them and give warning of change.
• Tracking is the observing of persons or objects on the move and supplying a timely
ordered sequence of respective location data to a model.
• Supervising is the monitoring of the behaviors, activities, or other changing information,
usually of people. It is sometimes done in a secret or inconspicuous manner.
• Now RFID has been gradually and broadly used in the following fields.
Logistics and Supply, Manufacturing , Agriculture Management , Health Care and Medicine , Marine
Terminal Operation , Military and Defense , Payment Transactions , Environment Monitor and Disaster
Warning, Transportation and Retailing , Warehousing and Distribution Systems

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Near Field Communication (NFC)
• Near Field Communication (NFC) allows two devices to communicate
when brought within very short distances of each other - about 4 cm.
• It is a set of communication protocols that offer low speeds and simple
setup.
• There is a variety of NFC protocol stacks depending on the type and use
case.
• NFC uses electromagnetic communication between
the antennas of two devices that are located next to
each other. NFC is the technology used in
contactless payment at shops today..

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• It operates over radio frequency band 13.56 MHz, which is unlicensed and
globally available.
• There is usually a full NFC device, such as a smartphone, and an NFC tag,
such as a chip reader.
• All full NFC devices can operate in three modes:
• NFC peer-to-peer: Devices exchange information on the fly.
• NFC card emulation: Smartphones can act like smart cards in this mode, allowing
mobile payments or ticketing.
• NFC reader/writer: Full NFC devices can read information stored in inexpensive NFC
tags, such as the type used on posters or pamphlets. You have probably used this at
a conference to scan your attendee badge.
• NFC tags are usually read-only, but it is possible for them to be writeable.
• There is an initiator device and a target device in NFC communications.
• The initiator device creates an RF field that can power a target device.
• This means NFC tags do not need batteries in what is called passive mode.
• Unpowered NFC tag devices are very inexpensive, just a few pennies.

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• There is also an active mode where each device can communicate with the other
by alternatively generating its own field to read data, then turning it off to receive
data.
• This mode typically requires both the devices to have a power supply.
• For data records that eventually end up in an analytics dataset, the full NFC device
would act as a gateway, translate the message, and then communicate over a
different network protocol stack.
• In the case of a smartphone, it would take the NFC tag data and create its own
data message to send over 4G/LTE for a destination on the internet.
• Common use cases NFC is commonly used in the following applications:
Smartphone payments: Apple pay
• Host Card Emulation (HCE) - Android supported Smart posters
• Identification cards Event logging Triggering a programmable action

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Bluetooth Low Energy

• Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is a newer implementation that is not directly

compatible with Bluetooth classic (of mobile phone headset fame).
• It was designed for low power needs and a less frequent data exchange rate.
• The following chart represents the network protocol stack for BLE:
1) A BLE device is either a master or a slave in the network.
2) A master acts as an advertiser in the connection while the slave acts as receiver.
3) A master can have several slaves connected to it while a slave can link to only one
master.
4) The network group involving the slaves connected to a master is called a piconet.
5) To make data available for analytics, the master device passes it over the internet using
one of the data messaging protocols.

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Network Protocol Stack For BLE:

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6) There is typically a gateway device that is both part of the Bluetooth network
and also linked to the internet.
7) It translates data reported from BLE nodes into the appropriate format for
data messaging over the internet.
8) It is commonly an unconstrained device that does not need to worry much
about power.

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LiFi
Wi-Fi Li-Fi
Full Form Wireless Fidelity Light Fidelity

Invented By NCR corporation with AT & T Coined by Prof. Harald Haas in 2011
corporation on 1991
Operation It transmits data using radio waves using It transmits data using light by the help of
with router. LED bulbs.
Technology WLAN 802.11/b/g/n/ac/d standard Present IrDA compliant devices
compliant devices
Data Transfer Speed Ranges from 150 Mbps to maximum of 2 About 1 Gbps
Gbps.
Privacy Walls cannot block radio waves so we need Light is blocked by the walls hence provide
to employ more techniques to achieve more secure data transfer.
secure data transfer
Frequency of 2.4 Ghz, 4.9 Ghz and 5 Ghz 10,000 times frequency spectrum of the
operation radio
Coverage distance About 32 meters (Vary based on transmit About 10 meters 14
power and antenna type)
 Wi-Fi Li-Fi
Bare minimum Routers, Modems and access points LED bulbs, LED drive and photo detectore
components used
Applications Used for internet browsing with the help of Used in airlines, Undersea exploration
wifi hotspot

❖ LiFi can be effectively implemented in various domains such as medicine, life

sciences and healthcare since it does not cause an electromagnetic reaction, as
compared to WiFi.
❖ Moreover, LiFi is more secure since it cannot be interfered with, even across the
walls, which will ensure a secure data stream.
❖ The IoT devices can be made compatible and in-sync with LiFi, for a more
enhanced functioning. LiFi can conveniently accommodate multiple access
points, as is required by IoT connectivity, by using simple light bulbs as
terminals.
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WPAN Standard : 802.15 Standards
• A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a personal area network
in which the connections are wireless. IEEE 802.15 has produced
standards for several types of PANs operating in the ISM band
including Bluetooth.

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1) Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard IEEE 802.15.
• Bluetooth was developed as a way to exchange data over a short range without the need
for wires and for short-range (no more than 100 meters) communication.
• Bluetooth, often known as BLE, is a data communication layer that links sensors to
sensors or sensors to gateways.
• On the other hand, the network layer is in charge of routing or transporting packets
across the network using the best pathways possible. The session layer protocols allow
communication between different aspects of the IoT communication subsystem.
• Bluetooth technology is less expensive to implement than other communication
protocols such as RFID, NFC, WLAN, LoRa WAN, LTE-A, and WiFi-Direct.
• It also allows for wireless communication and the creation of an immediate Personal
Area Network (PAN) in areas where wireless infrastructure is lacking.
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Bluetooth IoT Applications :-
• Bluetooth IoT applications are used in industrial and enterprise solutions. These
include asset tracking, indoor locating, beacons, industrial automation sensors, tire
pressure monitors, electronic shelf labels, etc., which will reduce ownership and
maintenance costs because battery replacement is no longer needed.

Drawbacks of Bluetooth-enabled IoT :-

1) Security is one of Bluetooth's significant drawbacks. This is because it functions
on radio frequency, which allows it to pass through barriers.
2) In comparison to WiFi, the bandwidth is limited.
3) In comparison to when Bluetooth turns off, battery utilization is higher. Bluetooth
low energy or innovative Bluetooth technology is created to extend the battery
life.

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IEEE 802.15.4
• The IEEE 802.15. 4 standard specifies the MAC and PHY layers of
Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs) [1]. The IEEE
802.15. 4 MAC and PHY layers provide the basis of other higher-layer
standards, such as ZigBee, WirelessHart®, 6LoWPAN and MiWi.

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1) ZigBee
❖ ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4.

❖ It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created

for controlling and sensing the network.

❖ As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area Network of task group 4 so it is

based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.

❖ ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of
Low power devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.

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❖ Types of ZigBee Devices:
i. Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
ii. Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
iii. Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

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❖General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:
1) Low Power Consumption

2) Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)

3) Short-Range (75-100 meters)

4) Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)

5) Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240
devices (Practically))

6) Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)

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2) Z - Wave

• Z-Wave is a wireless communications protocol mostly found in

modern smart devices. It is primarily used in home automation
technology. It has become a communications standard for the
Internet of Things (IoT).
• Full mesh networks are supported by Z-Wave, allowing several
Z-Wave devices to interact with each other simultaneously.
• Z-Wave allows for secure and low power-consuming communication
between approved Z-Wave devices.

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• Controllers (one primary controller and several secondary controllers)
and slaves make up the Z-Wave network. The controller devices in a
Z-Wave network are the nodes that begin control commands. It also
broadcasts commands to other nodes.
• The slave devices are the nodes that respond to orders and carry out
the directives. The commands are also sent to other nodes in the
network by slave nodes. This allows the controller to communicate
with nodes that are not in the same radio frequency band as it is.

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❖ Z – wave Protocol Stack :

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1) Physical Layer
• In Z-Wave, the physical layer serves a variety of purposes. Modulation and coding are
vital, as is the insertion of a known pattern, called a preamble, for synchronization at
the receiver.
2) MAC Layer
• As the name implies, the MAC layer controls media access between slave nodes using
collision avoidance and backoff techniques. It manages network operations using the
Z-Wave frame's HomeID, NodeID, and other information.
3) Transport Layer
• Retransmission, packet acknowledgement, waking up low-power network nodes, and
packet origin authentication are all handled by the Z-Wave transport layer. It is used to
communicate commands across the network.
4) Network Layer
• The Z-Wave network layer controls the frame routing from one node to another.
5) Application Layer
• In a Z-Wave network, the application layer is in charge of decoding and executing
order
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Narrow Band IoT

• Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT) is a type of Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) radio

technology that connects devices to the Internet of Things (IoT). It was
developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
• Narrowband refers to a communication in which channel bandwidth lies
within the coherent band of frequency channel.
• Bandwidth is narrow in comparison to Broadband.
• LPWAN supports a large no. of devices over wide areas in comparision
with cellular services.

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❖ Modes of operation of NB-IoT :-

1) In-band operation :
• Uses single resource block within LTE carrier

2) Guard band operation:-

• Uses free resource block within LTE guardband.

3) Standalone operation :-
• Uses GSM frequency at a bandwidth of 200 KHz carrier. 28
❖ Advanteges :
▪ Long range
▪ Low Power
▪ Low Bandwidth
▪ High interference Resistance, Long battery lives.

❖ Disadvantages :
▪ High performing filters are required to pass desired signal without attenuation and
attenuate all other undesired noise.
▪ Low data.

❖ Characteristics :
▪ NBIOT uses Quadrature phase shift keying modulation
▪ Uses licensed LTE frequency bands.
▪ It has 200 KHz bandwidth
▪ Maximum data rate of 200 Kbps
▪ The range of NBIoT is 1 km (Urban areas ) & 10 km (Rural areas)
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❖Applications :

1) Smart Metering
2) Agriculture / Environment
▪ Land Monitoring
▪ Animal tracking
3) Smart cities
▪ Streetlights
▪ Parking
▪ Waste Managements
4) Smart Building
▪ Alarm Systems
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Internet Protocol and Transmission Control Protocol
❖ Internet Protocol :-
Internet protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of
data over the internet. Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in
order to communicate the data.
Working :- The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into
small pieces called packets. Each large data sent between two network devices is divided
into smaller packets by the underlying hardware and software. Each network protocol
defines the rule for how its data packets must be organized in specific ways according to
the protocols network supports.

In network Layer, we have

1) IPv4
( Used in TCP / IP Protocol )
2) IPv6
3) 6LoWPAN (Used in IoT Protocol stack )
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6LoWPAN
(Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network )
• It combines the latest version of internet protocol [IPv6] and low power
wireless personal area networks.
• Therefore 6LoWPAN allows for the smallest devices with limited
processing ability to transmit information wirelessly using internet protocol
IPv6.
• 6LoWPAN is low cost, short range, low memory usage, low bit rate and
comprises of edge router and sensor nodes.
• Using 6LoWPAN, the smallest of IoT device can also be a part of network
and can talk to the outside world. [ Example : LED Streetlights].
• It is a technology that makes the individual nodes IP enabled.
• 6LoWPAN can interact with 802.15.4 devices and also other types of
devices on an IP network.
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 Computer
Nodes with IPv6 address IP enabled devices

Internet
Edge Router Cloud

Sensor

• Basic requirement for 6LoWPAN are :

1) The device must have sleep mode in order to support battery saving.
2) Minimal memory requirements
3) Routing overhead should be lower.

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• 6LoWPAN Protocol Layers and stack :-

HTTP , COAP,
Application Layer
MQTT, Websocket

UDP, TCP
Transport Layer
(Security TLS / DTLS )
IPv6, RPL Network Layer

IEEE 802.15.4 MAC Link Layer

IEEE 802.15.4 Physical Layer

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1) Physical Layer
• It converts data bits into the signals which are transmitted and received over the air.

2) Data Link Layer

• It provides reliable link between two connected nodes by detecting / correcting errors
occurred during transmission / reception.
• It includes CSMA / CA MAC functionality and handles data framing.

3) Network Layer
• It addresses and routes data through the network

4) Transport Layer
• It generates communication session between applications.

5) Application Layer
• It is responsible for data formatting . 35
❖ Advantages :
1) It is a mesh network which are robust, scalable and self healing.
2) It delivers Low cost and secure communication in IoT devices.
3) It uses IPv6 protocol and hence can be routed directly to cloud platform.
4) It offers one to many and many to one routing.
5) Works efficiently with open IP standards like UDP, TCP, COAP, HTTP, MQTT and
web sockets.

❖ Disadvantages :
1) Less secure than ZigBee
2) It has less immunity to interference than Wi-Fi or Bluetooth devices
3) It supports short range without mesh topology.

❖ Applications :
1) Smart meters, smart grid
2) Used in home automation
3) Used in smart agriculture
4) Industrial monitoring
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Difference between WLAN and WAN
Sr. No. WLAN WAN
1) WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network WAN stands for Wide Area Network
2) WLAN can cover only a small organization at WAN covers a wide geographical area
most.
3) WLAN connections are completely wireless WAN connections can include wired and wireless
technologies
4) It has excellent speed & performance Very low speed & Performance
5) Less secured It uses 128-bit encryption
high secured technique
6) WLAN is very cheap WAN upgrades higher cost
7) WLAN has 802.11 standards GPRS & CDMA are the standards of LAN
8) Applications : Applications :
1) Inventory Management 1) Field Service
2) Internet access from hotspot 2) Field sales
3) Mobile Managing
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IEEE 802.11,
Long range communication systems
and protocols

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Cellular connectivity – LTE, LTE – A

The high level network of cellular connectivity is LTE [Long

Term Evolution].
• It represents the 4th generation of mobile networks
• It offers peak data rates of 800 Mbps.
• The main components of LTE architecture is
1) The user equipment (UE)

2) The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)

[ UMTS means Universal Mobile Telecommunication System]

3) The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

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•Architecture of LTE :-

1) The User Equipment (UE) :

• The user equipment is actually a mobile equipment (ME). The modules of ME are :
a) Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
b) Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
c) Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE
equipment's. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module
(USIM).
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• USIM keeps information about the user's phone number, home network identity and
security keys etc.

2) The E – UTRAN :
The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has
been illustrated below.

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 • The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved
packet core and just has one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB.
• Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The base station
that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
• The functions of eNB are :-
i. Sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analog and digital signal
processing functions of the LTE air interface.
ii. They controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them some handover
commands.

3) The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) :-

• The EPC communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such as
internet, private corporate networks or IP multimedia system.
• The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been illustrated below.

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1) The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) contains information about all the network
operator's subscribers.
2) The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the
outside world
3) The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the
base station and the PDN gateway.
4) The mobility management entity (MME) sends signalling messages.
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Difference between LTE and LTE-A (Advanced)
1) The main difference between these two is Carrier Aggregation, a technique that allows
LTE-A networks to increase total carrier bandwidth by combining multiple carriers
channels.
The aggregation of upto 5 carriers, allowing LTE-A to offer bandwidth of 100 MHz,
Where as LTE supports maximum of 20 MHZ.
2) Both the technologies uses MIMO (Multiple Input & Multiple output) for spatial
multiplexing to improve data rates and signal quality. But LTE-A use higher number of
antenna elements.
3) LTE technology employs Quadrature Phase Shift Keying. LTE uses 16 QAM , 64 QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) where as LTE-A uses 256 QAM, a higher order
modulation than LTE.
4) The maximum download speed of LTE is 300 Mbps & LTE-A is 1 Gbps.
Average speed of LTE is 15 to 20 Mbps.
Average speed of LTE-A is 60 to 80 Mbps.
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LoRa (Long Range)
• LoRa is a physical layer or wireless modulation scheme utilized to create
long distance communication.
• This LoRa is based on Chirp Spread Spectrum modulation which
increases communication range significantly.
• This chirp spectrum uses its entire allocated bandwidth to broadcast a
signal and can also operates at a very low power.
• The advantage of LoRa is Long range capability, Low power
consumption than LAN and cellular networks, a single gateway or base
station can provide service to an entire city or hundreds of square
kilometers.

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Architecture of LoRa :-

Network Application
End Points Gateways
Servers Server

LoRa network consists of several elements.

• LoRa Nodes / End Points: These are sensors which are placed remotely where
sensing and control takes place.
• LoRa Gateways: LoRa nodes are associated with a specific gateway. Instead, any
data transmitted by the node is sent to all gateways and each gateway which receives
a signal transmits it to a cloud based network server. These gateways and network
servers are connected via some backhaul (cellular, Wi-Fi, ethernet or satellite).
• Network Servers: It filters the duplicate packets from different gateways, does
security check, send ACKs to the gateways. Also sends the packet to the specific
application server.
• Application Server: piece of software running on a server that is responsible for
securely processing application data.
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LoRaWAN

• LoRaWAN is Low Power Wide Area Network developed to connect

internet of things / devices and sensors for mass deployment.
• Characteristics of LoRaWAN :
1. Long Battery life – 10 years
2. Supports smart metering applications.
3. Low cost chipsets and networks.
4. Limited data communication throughput capacitancy.
5. The bandwidth offered is 50 – 125 KHz.

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•Architecture of LoRaWAN :-
• The LoRaWAN defines the communication protocol and the system
architecture.

Application

LoRa MAC

MAC options

Class A Class B Class C

LoRa Modulation

Regional ISM band

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 ▪ The LoRaWAN uses star topology as it increases battery life time when long range
connectivity is used.
▪ The LoRaWAN operates in sub-gega-hertz frequency bands.
▪ The LoRaWAN enables devices to communicate wirelessly with LoRa.
▪ It also incorporates node authentication and data encryption for security.

❖ LoRa device class :

• The end nodes in LoRaWAN network can have different device classes.
• These device classes are trade off between network downlink communication
latency Vs. battery life.

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Class A • Most Suitable for battery power sensors.
• Most energy efficient.
• Have years of battery life.
• Downlink available only after sensor transmit something.

Class B • End devices with scheduled receive slots.

• Open extra receive slots at schedule time.
• Receives time synchronized beacon from gateway.

Class C • End device with maximal receive slots.

• Continuously open receive window.
• Receiving is closed only when device is transmitting.

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