For-Bar Linkages

 The fixed link, that is, the member which the frame of reference is
attached, is called the base.
 The two members that are connected to the base by revolute joints are
called turning links.
 The link that is jointed to both turning links and has no direct
connection to base is called the coupler.
 A turning link which rotates completely as the linkage moves through
its motion cycle is called a crank.
 A turning links which does not perform full rotation but simply
oscillates between two limiting positions is not a crank; it is a
rocker.
 For-Bar Linkages

Coupler

Turning Link

Turning Link Base

Crank Rocker

[1]

1.41
 Grashof’s Rules
 Grashof distinguished two fundamentally different types of four-bar
linkage by means of the inequality: s+l<p+q. s is the length of the
shortest side, l is the length of the longest side, and p and q are the
lengths of the other two sides.

1.43 [1]
 Grashof’s Rules
 Grashof type 1: linkages that obey this inequality (s+l<p+q) have two
joints that perform complete rotations and two that oscillate between
motion limits. The two fully rotatable joints are those on either end of
the shortest link.
The behavior of a linkage that obeys the Grashof inequality (Grashof
type 1) is strongly dependent on the locations of the fully rotatable
joints relative to the base link. That is, it is dependent on the
inversion of the linkage.
 Grashof Type 1
 If the shortest link is jointed to the base, the linkage is a crank-rocker.

s+l<p+q

1.44

[1]
 Grashof Type 1
 If the shortest link is the base, the linkage is a double-crank, also
known as a drag-link.

s+l<p+q

1.45 [1]
 Grashof Type 1
 If the shortest link is the couple, the linkage is a type 1 double rocker.
Two floating joints rotate completely.
 Its behavior is different from that of type 2 double-rockers. The
angular motion of the couple of a type 2 double-rocker is an
oscillation relative to the base.
s+l<p+q

[2]
 Grashof Type 2
 Grashof type 2: linkages that do not obey the inequality have no fully
rotatable joints. All four joints then oscillate between motion
limits. Type 2 double-rocker (Triple Rocker Mechanism).

s+l>p+q

[2]
 Provision of Grashof inequality
assume a<d
from (b) a<c

d+a<b+c a<b

b<c+a+d
c<b+a+d a+d<b+c

from (c) a+b<c+d

d-a<b+c a+c<b+d

b<c+d-a
c<b+d-a s+l<p+q
[1]
 Grashof neutral Linkage

s+l=p+q
It leads to unpredictable
behavior and possibly
large loads on the
members and joints.

1.48
[1]
 Coupler-Driven Linkages
 The motion limit positions for a coupler drive are quite different
from those for a crank drive. They are the positions in which the
two rotating links become parallel. Elimination of these motion
limits produces a linkage whose coupler performs a complete
revolution relative to the base link.

1.49 Polycentric hinges for heavy doors or for

[1] automobile hood and trunk lids and oscillating fans.
 Slider-Crank Mechanism
 The limits for slider-crank mechanism can be determined
by considering the combinations of link lengths that will
cause the linkage to lock up.
 The limits positions of rotating link a are determined
when the coupler link is perpendicular to the direction of
slider travel.

1.50 [1]
 1.51 [1]

Unlimited
situations
b+a>c a-b<c b-a>c b-a>c

b-a>c
Criteria of slider-crank mechanism.
b>a
 Consider first the slider-crank mechanism
(A*AB):
Because (AB=2.26)>(A*A=1.14)
And (AB-A*A=1.12)>(c=1.09)
So, if the crank A*A can rotate for 3600, it
will not lock up in the intermediate position.
[1]

1.52 D
 Because of A*E>A*C, that means mechanism A*CDE can not be a
double crank mechanism.
Next consider the crank-rocker mechanism (A*CDE):
Because s+l<p+q  DE+CD<A*E+A*C
So DE+2.68<2.00+1.74  DE<1.06

A*C：1.74 in
2
A*E：2.00 in
3 CD：2.68 in
1

6
5

[1] 1.53 D
 極限位置(肘節位置)與死點位置
Limit positions (toggle positions) and dead center positions
極限位置(Limit position)與死點位置(Dead center position)乃是查驗機構是否
可做連續運動的要點。
四連桿組的主動桿(桿2)與連接桿(桿3)成一直線時，其輸出桿(桿4)位於極限位置。
如圖 5-6的aoa1b1bo和aoa2b2bo兩位置，輸出桿在極限位置(θ41和θ42)。由三角函數的餘弦
定理，可求得輸出桿(桿4)的極限位置41和42分別為︰

b1
41
r3-r2 r4
a0 
r1
b0
a1

 r3  r2   r12  r42  2r1r4 cos  r12  r42  2r1r4 cos   41 

2

 r12  r42  2r1r4 cos 41

 r2  r3 2  r12  r4 2 
 41  cos  1

 2 r r
1 4 
[2]
圖 5-6 極限位置與死點位置
 四連桿組的主動桿(桿2)與連接桿(桿3)成一直線時，其輸出桿(桿4)位於極限位置
。如圖5-6的aoa1b1bo和aoa2b2bo兩位置，輸出桿在極限位置(θ41和θ42)。由三角函數的
餘弦定理，可求得輸出桿(桿4)的極限位置41和42分別為︰

b2

r3

r4
a2
42
r2


a0 r1
b0

 r2  r3   r12  r42  2r1r4 cos   r12  r42  2r1r4 cos   42 

2

 r12  r42  2r1r4 cos 42

 r2  r3 2  r12  r4 2 
 42  cos  1

 2 r1r4 

圖 5-6 極限位置與死點位置 [2]

 極限位置又稱為肘節位置(Toggle position)，在此位置僅需極小之輸入扭矩即可產
生極大的輸出扭矩，機械利益(Mechanical advantage)為無窮大，此稱為肘節效應
(Toggle effect)。
圖 5-6所示的曲柄搖桿機構，若以搖桿(桿4)為主動桿，則當連接桿(桿3)與輸出桿
(桿2)共線時，即在aoa1b1bo和aoa2b2bo位置時，桿3作用於桿2的力量通過ao，力矩效應
為零，故無法驅動輸出桿，機構在此位置不能運動，如同結構一般，稱此機構位於死
點位置(Dead center position)。必須朝輸出桿(桿2)所欲運動的方向施加外力，以越過死
點位置。

搖桿無法再進一步移動之位置
若曲柄為主動桿稱為極限位置
(肘節位置)
若搖桿為主動桿稱為死點位置

[2]
圖 5-6 極限位置與死點位置
 傳力角 Transmission angles
圖 5-7(a)中，ta 為動軸樞b 相對於動軸樞 a 的運動方向，tb 為輸出桿(4)受驅動之點(
即動軸樞b)的運動方向，ta 和 tb 之夾角為機構的傳力角(Transmission angle，連接桿3
與輸出桿4之夾角)，以 µ 表示 。傳力角隨著機構的運動而改變，當傳力角為 90o 時，
傳力效果最好；當傳力角為0或180時，即死點位置時，機械利益為零。傳力角  為
：
tb
 r1  r2 - 2r1r2 cos 2  r3  r4 - 2r3r4 cos 
2 2 2 2

  r12  r2 2  r3 2  r4 2  2r1r2 cos 2 

ta    cos  1

 2 r r
3 4 
[2]
將上式對2微分可得知曲柄搖桿機構或雙曲柄
機構之傳力角在輸入桿的位置為 0o 時最小；在
圖 5-7 傳力角及其極限值
180o 時最大(輸入桿與地桿平行時) 。四連桿組的
轉速愈高或負荷愈大，傳力角愈接近 90o愈佳。
d
 0  0  2r1r2 sin  2  0  0  2r3r4 sin 
d 2
d r1r2 sin  2
 
d 2 r3r4 sin 
 2  0o或180o時，有極值
[例] 有一個偏位滑件曲柄機構，其曲柄長為 200 mm、連桿長為 600 mm、偏位量為
50 mm，試計算滑件的行程及滑件曲柄機構的最大與最小傳力角。
1. 若滑件的行程為滑件在兩極限位置間的距離，即：
行程  S2  S1  (600  200) 2  502  (600  200) 2  502  401.57 mm

600-200 600+200
50
50
S1 S2
2. 傳力角在輸入桿的位置為 270 時最小，在輸入桿的位置為 90 時最大。
200  50
 min  90  sin 1 ( )  65.38
600

圖 5-18 偏位滑件曲柄
200  50 機構最大與最小傳力角
 max  90  sin 1 ( )  104.48
600 [2]
 Revolute Joints
 The distribution of contact ideally over a surface distributes
and normally slows wear.
 A revolute joint that is in continuous, unidirectional rotation at
relatively high speeds can enter a regime called hydrodynamic
lubrication in which the relative movement of the bearing
elements acts to entrain lubricant and maintain a separation
between the solid journal elements.
 The crankshaft support bearings, and the bearings between the
crankshaft and the connecting rods of an automotive engine
are good examples
Lubrication

hydrodynamic lubrication

hydrostatic lubrication
 Revolute Joints
 Hydrostatic bearing can be used when the rotation speeds are
slow, or when the direction of rotation reverses.
 They do tend to be expensive, because close tolerances are
needed to minimize lubricant leakage out of the bearing and
because the need for a relatively high-capacity lubricant pump.
 When the speed of rotation is slow, or reverse, a greased
bushing or a solid contact bearing may be used. The grease
with high viscosity both promotes hydrostatic action and
diminishes leakage out the sides of the bearing. Frequent
lubrication is necessary for this type of bearing.
 Revolute Joints
 Solid contact bearings rely on the choice of contacting
materials to provide both low friction and wear resistance.
Teflon has a low coefficient of friction with most materials.
 Note that the same material should never be used for both
journal members of a solid bearing pairs because journals
with similar materials can weld together at small asperities
when driven under load, resulting in high friction and rapid
wear.
 Some materials should never be lubricated with petroleum-
based lubricants.
 Revolute Joints
 Yet another alternative for the support of rotary motion is
provided by rolling element bearing.
 This kind of lubrication action is called boundary lubrication.
The lubricant is squeezed to very high pressures between the
rolling element and journal and plays a role in distributing the
load over both elements.
 The principal failure mode of a rolling element bearing is fatigue
owing to the high contact, or Hertzian, stresses in the rolling
elements and journals.
 All rolling elements have finite life and relatively difficult to
predict failure.
 Prismatic Joints
 They are sensitive to the direction and manner of load
application.
 All prismatic joints experience motion reversals, which
precludes the use of fully established hydrodynamic
lubrication.
 If the friction force exceeds the component of the applied
force along the slider direction the joint will jam.
 Prismatic Joints
 If the angle between the axis of the connecting rod and the
normal to the joint direction is less than the friction angle
tan-1, the joint will jam, where  is the coefficient of
friction.

∵Fsin=N=Fcos
∴ =tan-1 (傳力角)

[1]
 Prismatic Joints
 The joint will jam is F<2N.
 Because aF=bN, the joint will jam if b<2a. (bN/a< 2N)

[1]
 Prismatic Joints
 If space allowed, increase b until it is greater than any
expected value of 2a should also avoid the jam problem.
 Reduce the effective coefficient of friction is effective in
either case. The best solution is to use a rolling contact
joint to minimize the effective coefficient of friction.
 Higher Pairs
 Pure rolling contact may not require any lubrication.
 Sliding contacts can result in very rapid wear, jamming,
and failure unless they are carefully designed and
lubricated.
 Combining rolling and sliding, as in a gear mesh or cam
and follower pairs, also requires careful attention to
lubrication at any but the lowest loads and speeds.
 Cams vs. Linkages
 Both are used to generate irregular motions. Most
experienced machine designers will seek a linkage
solution first, unless the problem is clearly better suited to
a cam.
 Cams are usually easier to design geometrically but much
harder to make work satisfactorily.
 Linkages are robust and inexpensive but do not allow as
much freedom to the designer as cams. Also, linkages
often consume more space than cam mechanisms.
 Reference
[1] K. J. Waldron, G. L. Kinzel, and S. K. Agrawal,
Kinematics, Dynamics, and Design of Machinery, 3rd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
[2]顏鴻森著，機構學， 東華書局， 1997。