Chan (2020) - To Read or Not To Read
Chan (2020) - To Read or Not To Read
ro
Social Sciences and Education Research Review
Venus CHAN
Abstract
Reading is considered to be an important language skill in teaching and learning,
and there has been a great deal of interest in extensive reading (ER) in English as
a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts over
the past few decades. While numerous researchers have generally advocated for
the benefits of ER, it has not been widely implemented, and teachers sometimes
encounter various obstacles and hindrances to successfully and consistently
implementing it. This paper aims to evaluate the effectiveness of ER from three
aspects: (1) motivation towards reading in a second or foreign language, (2)
improvement of reading skills and (3) development of second or foreign language
proficiency with reference to both conceptual literature and empirical research.
After providing a critical review of the previous literature, this paper will make
suggestions on what factors should be considered and how ER can be
implemented effectively.
Keywords: EFL; ESL; extensive reading; language proficiency; motivation; reading skills
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Introduction
Reading is considered to be an important skill in second language (L2) and
foreign language (FL) teaching and learning, and there has been a great deal of
interest in extensive reading (ER) over the past few decades. ER has generally
been defined as reading a wide range of easy texts in large quantities that are
within students’ linguistic competence (Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Hafiz & Tudo,
1989). It implies that students should be given autonomy and a wide range of
materials that they are interested in to read independently for the purpose of
pleasure (Bamford & Day, 2004). It is also called ‘free voluntary reading’,
‘pleasure reading’ and ‘sustained silent reading’. The effectiveness of ER in
English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL)
contexts has been examined by numerous studies. In general, empirical research
has indicated that ER is more effective for increasing student’s motivation to
read, improving reading skills and developing general L2 language proficiency
than other approaches, such as intensive reading (IR) and traditional translation
procedures (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009; Beglar, Hunt, & Kite, 2012; Miliner,
2019; Robb & Susser, 1989). However, from the practical side, it appears that ER
has not been widely implemented (Grabe, 2009), and teachers sometimes have
trouble implementing this approach successfully and consistently (Lituanas,
Jacobs, & Renandya, 1999; Shen, 2008; Susser & Robb, 1990). There are also
some doubts about its effectiveness because ER is influenced by various
mediating factors (e.g. students’ needs and institutional constraints) that L2
reading teachers should take into consideration. This paper aims to evaluate the
impact of ER from three aspects: (1) motivation for reading in a second or
foreign language, (2) improvement of reading skills and (3) development of
second or foreign language proficiency with reference to both conceptual
literature and empirical research. After providing a critical review of the previous
49
literature, this paper will make suggestions on the factors that teachers should
consider and how they can implement ER effectively
Impact on reading motivation
Motivation broadly refers to frequent pleasure reading, while positive attitudes
are general perceptions that reading is good. Briggs and Walter (2016) analysed
30 evidence-based studies of ER and young L2 students’ motivation and attitudes
and found that ER made a positive difference in the motivation to read and
attitudes of 11–18-year-old learners. A positive impact on L2 reading motivation
has been reported in various geographical and pedagogical contexts, such as
Japan (Leung, 2002; Powell, 2005; Tanaka & Stapleton, 2007), Korea (Lee,
Schallert, & Kim, 2015), Malaysia (Sani & Zain, 2011), Germany (Kreft &
Viebrock, 2014), the United States of America (Pilgreen & Krashen, 1993) and
the United Arab Emirates (Alsheik & Elhoweris, 2011). This increase in reading
motivation might, in turn, lead to an increase in general language learning
motivation because reading motivation closely resembles general motivational
constructs (Mori, 2002; Nishono, 2005). Nevertheless, some studies have shown
no significant differences or even a negative impact on motivation toward L2
reading (Sheu, 2003; 2004). Schon, Hopkins, and Vojir’s (1985) research, for
instance, indicated that there was no significant difference in motivation between
ER and non-ER bilingual learners.
These inconsistent results may be due to a number of mediating factors.
Various influencing factors may affect the impacts of ER on L2 reading
motivation, such as one’s general level of proficiency, the difficulty of the texts,
L2 reading proficiency and pre-programme motivation (Briggs & Walter, 2016).
First, empirical evidence has suggested that higher proficiency L2 readers tend to
benefit more from ER in terms of positive changes in motivation in comparison
to students with low-level L2 reading abilities (Fujita & Noro, 2009; Sani & Zain,
2011). Advanced students’ intrinsic reading motivation increases more
significantly than learners with a lower proficiency who are less likely to prefer
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teacher-independent ER. In addition, the reading materials that are used for ER
activities may affect the efficacy. Some studies have demonstrated that reading
motivation interplays with the difficulty of the text and the students’ L2 reading
proficiency (Briggs & Walter, 2016). Sheu (2003; 2004), for example, postulated
that students might be less motivated to read because there could be a lack of
proper reading strategies or activities to encourage reading. These results
highlight the importance of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and
their selection of texts that align with the students’ L2 reading proficiency.
Furthermore, some researchers (e.g. Alsheik & Elhoweris, 2011; Takase, 2003;
2007) argued that students’ pre-programme motivations might be a strong
influential predictor that determined their engagement in L2 reading, in-
programme behaviours and post-programme motivations.
Among the various mediating factors that are mentioned above, the
reading material is regarded as the most significant factor that makes a difference
on L2 reading motivation. A wealth of evidence (Judge, 2011; Mante-Estacio,
2012; Nishono, 2007; Takase, 2003) has found that a wide range of easy and
interesting reading materials, as well as self-selected texts, are more preferred by
L2 readers. It is also observed that students’ preferences for reading materials
vary according to different variables, such as race, discipline and gender (Kreft &
Viebrock, 2014). Moreover, autonomy is another important factor that positively
contributes to L2 reading motivation (Takase, 2003). Lee, Schallert, and Kim
(2015) stated that L2 readers preferred teacher-independent ER and an
autonomous approach. Aside from students’ perspectives, Wilson, Carroll and
Werno (2014) investigated teachers’ beliefs and found that teachers perceived
that autonomy over the selection of reading materials were positively related to
students’ reading motivation.
In general, ER is gaining credibility as an effective way of boosting
students’ L2 reading motivation. In fact, various mediating factors may influence
its efficacy. However, it is worth noticing that some factors may lead to negative
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impacts and demotivate students, such as external pressures of homework,
assignments, exams, time constraints, extracurricular study and activities (Haider
& Akhter, 2012; Huang, 2015; Powell, 2005). For example, the washback effects
of exam-driven education may hinder the implementation of ER. Other crucial
and practical factors include the availability of resources and students’
socioeconomic status – especially for students from developing countries.
Schools in rural areas have a lack of resources, and poor students have to work
to support their families. Hence, a well-equipped library, easy access to books or
e-books, encouragement and time to read are key factors for increasing students’
reading motivation and satisfaction (Ro, 2013; Rodrigo, Greenberg & Segal,
2014). In order to properly implement ER, it is important for teachers to help
students develop effective reading strategies by providing activities that
encourage reading and giving them materials that are relevant to their reading
levels and interests.
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found that ER had a greater impact in EFL than in ESL contexts, and web-based
stories had a greater impact than paper books.
In EFL settings, numerous studies have been conducted with Japanese
students. In general, this empirical evidence has demonstrated that ER
significantly improves students’ reading rates and reading comprehension. For
example, Robb and Susser (1989) compared the effectiveness of ER and skills
building with 125 EFL university students in Japan. The ER group read an
average of 641 pages over two semesters. The pre-test and post-test showed that
the ER group’s reading rate increased from 79.21 to 86.56 words in the first
minute. In a study that used a student self-reporting assessment, Manson and
Krashen (1997) also found that there was a significant gain in reading speed.
Iwahori (2008) examined the impact of ER on reading speed of a seven-week ER
programme, in which 33 EFL Japanese high school students read graded readers
or comic books. The findings of the pre- and post-tests revealed that the
students’ reading rates improved significantly from a mean of 84.18 to 112.82
words per minute (wpm). Taguchi, Takayasu-Maass, and Gorsuch (2004)
compared ER and assisted repeated reading with 20 university freshmen in Japan
and showed that both approaches were equally effective for developing reading
fluency.
Similar positive impacts were also reported in empirical studies that were
conducted in other contexts. Bell (2001) compared the effects of ER and IR with
26 students from the Yemen Arab Republic at the beginner’s level of English
proficiency. The findings indicated that the ER group’s mean difference of their
reading rate increased from 68.10 to 127.53 wpm. The ER group achieved
significantly higher reading comprehension scores and faster reading rates than
the IR group. Similarly, Al-Homoud and Schmitt (2009) compared the impacts
of ER and IR on Arabic young adult learners’ reading abilities, vocabulary
development and attitudes with 70 male EFL university students. The pre- and
post-tests demonstrated that the ER group had significantly larger improvements
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in their reading speed, while there were not any significant differences between
both groups in terms of improved reading. In the context of a vocational high
school in Korea, Cha (2009) indicated that ER led to statistically significant
growth in L2 reading rates without impairing text comprehension. In line with
these studies, Sheu (2003) conducted a study with 98 Taiwanese EFL high school
students and found that the ER group’s reading rate increased from 57.7 to 95.8
wpm, which was significantly higher than the IR group. Similarly, Chang and
Millett (2015) also reported that audio-assisted ER improved Taiwanese
secondary students’ reading rates and comprehension levels.
Thanks to the advancement of technologies, online or mobile ER is
increasingly gaining currency. There is growing research on technology-assisted
ER (Pino-Silva, 2005). Arnold (2009), for instance, reported that online ER
increased advanced EFL students’ reading abilities and strategies, motivation to
read and self-confidence. Chen, Chen, Chen, & Wey (2013) conducted an
experimental study and investigated the effects of the ER of e-books on EFL
undergraduate students in China. The findings indicated that the experimental
group showed significantly better reading comprehension, reading attitudes and
vocabulary than the control group. Milliner (2019) compared ER to extensive
reading-while-listening (RWL) on smartphones and found that RWL contributed
to significant improvements in reading, vocabulary and listening. Similarly,
Hendriwanto and Kurniati (2019) found that mobile-assisted ER outperformed
learners’ reading fluency. Ni’mah and Umamah (2020) recently found that the
practicality, portability, flexibility, accessibility and affordability of e-books
helped learners to apply digital reading and ER successfully, and ER allowed
Indonesian learners to not only develop their reading abilities and habits but also
other skills in English.
However, some research has shown that ER does not have a significant
impact on reading comprehension. de Morgado (2009), for example, found that
reading comprehension performance was essentially the same with or without
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adopting ER. Nakanishi and Ueda (2011) observed that ER improved learners’
reading comprehension; however, there was no difference between the ER and
control groups. Additionally, it is worth noticing that although empirical evidence
shows positive effects of ER on both reading rates and reading comprehension,
ER’s benefits appear to be more significant on reading rates than on reading
comprehension. Moreover, while prior studies have generally demonstrated that
ER improves L2 reading skills, some of the research designs and methodological
issues raise questions about these asserted benefits (Suk, 2016), such as
insufficient information on the exact amount of reading that was done in Bell’s
(2001) research, the lack of an objective measurement in Manson and Krashen’s
(1997) study and the lack of a control group in Iwahori’s (2008) research.
Furthermore, it is observed that despite its advantages of developing learners’
reading skills, ER has not been commonly used because fluent reading is not
always regarded as a crucial curriculum objective, and the power of implicit
learning is often overlooked (Suk, 2017). In the view of different perceptions and
expectations of various stakeholders (e.g. teachers, students, school
administrators and parents), to conduct effective reading instruction, it is
important to consider the needs of L2 readers and how to balance the benefits
and constraints.
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be manifested more quickly in general reading skills than in micro-level linguistic
abilities, such as morphosyntax, vocabulary and spelling.
In terms of writing, listening and speaking skills, Hafiz and Tudor (1989)
demonstrated that ER enhanced the reading and writing skills of male secondary
ESL students in Pakistan. Elley (1991) found that ER improved primary students’
reading and listening comprehension. Moreover, Lai (1993) also showed that an
ER summer programme helped ESL students in Hong Kong develop writing
skills, as well as reading comprehension and speed. Similar results were reported
in Mason and Krashen’s (1997) study, in which ER improved both writing and
reading speeds of EFL learners in Japan. Fujimori (2007) also indicated that
Japanese high school students improved both listening and reading
comprehension through the ER programme. Among the few studies on the
impact of ER on speaking, Cho and Krashen (1994) observed that ER improved
learners’ oral and aural skills over time. Recently, Hamrayevna and Rashidovna
(2019) argued that ER contributed to students’ speaking skills via vocabulary
development.
Vocabulary acquisition is important for developing various language
skills. A growing body of research has demonstrated the positive impacts of ER
on vocabulary acquisition (Chun, Choi, & Kim, 2012; Grabe & Stoller, 1997;
Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Horst, 2005; Kweon & Kim, 2008; Lee, 2007; Webb &
Chang, 2015; Yamamoto, 2011). For instance, Horst’s (2005) measurement study
with 21 Japanese EFL students revealed that ER helped students develop a more
rapid recognition of frequent words and increased the speed of lexical access. In
a similar context, Leung (2002) found that ER improved Japanese students’
vocabulary development, attitudes and reading comprehension. Similar findings
of the positive effects on vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension and
reading rates were also reported in Suk’s (2017) quasi-experimental research with
Korean university students. Highlighting the influence of student proficiency,
Park, Isaacs, and Woodfield (2018) reported that students’ improvements in
56
vocabulary knowledge was significantly higher in ER than in IR – especially for
advanced and intermediate-level learners. With respect to students of French,
Pigada and Schmitt’s (2006) case study indicated that ER improved vocabulary
knowledge in terms of word meaning, spelling and grammatical knowledge.
Recently, Boutorwick, Macalister and Elgort (2019) also supported ER’s
facilitative effects on L2 vocabulary development via incidental learning.
Conversely, Nakanishi’s (2015) meta-analysis found that the impact on
vocabulary acquisition for pre–post contrasts was small. Regarding technology-
assisted ER, Brooke et al. (2018) showed that students’ vocabulary grew
significantly with the help of an online library (graded readers). Milliner (2019)
compared ER with RWL on smartphones and found that RWL contributed to
significant improvements in vocabulary, listening and reading.
ER’s impact on grammar knowledge has received relatively less attention.
Among the limited studies, Sheu (2003) found that ER contributed to significant
improvements in Taiwanese EFL students’ grammar knowledge. Yang’s (2001)
study with EFL students in Hong Kong also revealed that ER benefited their
grammar acquisition. Positive gains in grammar knowledge were also found in
Lee Schallert, and Kim ’s (2015) research. In contrast, Rodrigo, Krashen, and
Gribbons (2004) showed that there were no significant differences among the
groups in grammar knowledge, while Yamashita (2008) found that ER was not
always positively linked to improving learners’ grammar knowledge.
While most empirical studies have suggested that ER has a positive
impact on L2 language proficiency, some reviews of the research on ER (e.g.
Mori, 2015; Nakanishi, 2015; Waring & McLean 2015) have argued for more
refinement in research methodology and design, so that ER research can be more
accurately interpreted. Thus, it is suggested that researchers and teachers should
pay attention to some areas of disconnect, such as how ER should be
implemented and how reading skills are interrelated to other English skills and
general L2 proficiency.
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Factors to consider
The potential positive effects of ER on L2 reading motivation, reading skills and
general L2 proficiency are only conditional. Due to the various constraints that
were mentioned above, it appears that ER has not been widely adopted (Grabe,
2009). Its success largely depends on whether teachers and schools can overcome
the difficulties (especially in underdeveloped or poor areas), such as a scarcity of
reading materials, inadequate skills and teacher training, pressures to cover the
entire syllabus and textbooks (leaving no time for programmes such as ER), exam
pressure, the inflexibility of compulsory assessment activities and the fact that
part-to-whole instruction is still a broadly held belief as the means to attain
literacy and lifelong skills (de Morgado, 2009).
In fact, as stated by Cha (2009), it is not a problem of ER itself, but it is
rather how ER is implemented. Prior literature has generally suggested that ER
shows a greater effect when it is a part of the curriculum and is accompanied by
interactive classroom activities, such as discussion and interactive vocabulary
instruction. Several researchers have also made some pedagogical suggestions.
Day and Bamford (2002), for instance, proposed the top ten principles for
teaching ER. In brief, reading should be easy, interesting, fast, silent, pleasurable,
extensive, individual and self-selected. Elley (1991) suggested that the success of
ER attributes to five factors: 1) extensive input of meaningful texts, 2) incidental
learning, 3) integration of oral and written activities, 4) focus on meaning rather
than form and 5) high intrinsic motivation.
ER may not be a panacea for all reading difficulties and appropriate for
all students in every context. Hence, teachers should adopt proper ER instruction
depending on various students’ backgrounds, needs, proficiency and perceptions.
Besides student variables, teachers should consider a number of interrelated
factors that were found in empirical studies, such as material selection, text
difficulty, autonomy, peer cooperation, teacher’s roles, implementation and
classroom activities. Depending on the students and contextual factors, Day
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(2015) suggested that ER can be implemented flexibly within a continuum from
pure ER to fringe ER and in various forms, such as: (1) supervised (or instructed)
ER (i.e. ER is the main focus of a reading course combined with a variety of
follow-up activities), (2) blended ER and IR (i.e. ER is an addition to an ongoing
reading course where students read books that they select for homework) and (3)
independent (non-instructed) ER (ER is an extracurricular activity where the
teacher guides and encourages students whose fondness of reading has been
developed and who regularly meet to discuss them). Other researchers (e.g. Day
& Bamford, 2002; Macalister, 2015; Yulia, 2018) have also proposed a number
of principles for teaching, which cover the nature of reading, the nature of the
reading materials, what the teachers do and what the learners do. As there is no
one-size-fits-all reading pedagogy, it is important to facilitate teachers’
understanding of the nature of ER and the conditions and practices that are
necessary for its success. Teachers should develop professional PCK in order to
implement the best practices of L2 reading by choosing appropriate texts and
teaching methodologies according to various contextual factors and needs of the
students.
Conclusion
In summary, empirical evidence has generally suggested that ER improves
motivation toward reading in a second or foreign language, improves reading
skills and helps develop language proficiency in general. Although the three
aspects of motivation, reading skills and general language proficiency are
discussed separately in this paper, they are highly interrelated. Vocabulary
acquisition, for example, enhances reading comprehension and reading rates
(Tozcu & Coady, 2004). Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that due to limitations
in methodologies or curricula, ER’s effectiveness needs to be given careful (Suk,
2017). Moreover, the limitations of prior studies (e.g., short time span, small
sample size, lack of replication studies and a control group, etc.) cannot be
59
ignored. It is hard to assess the effects because intervening factors might have
played a role. Thus, more large-scale replication and longitudinal studies are
needed to evaluate the effectiveness across different educational contexts.
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