GRIN APPLE PUBLIC SCHOOL, HIMMATNAGAR

SUBJECT:-SCIENCE DATE – 25 /06/2024

CHAPTER -5 THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. Every living thing, from the
smallest bacteria to the largest animals and plants, is made up of cells. Here are
some key points about cells:

Discovery of Cells

Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 when he observed a slice of cork
under a microscope. He noticed that the cork was made up of tiny, box-like structures
which he called “cells.”

Cell Theory

The cell theory is a fundamental concept in biology and includes the following points:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Structural Organization of Cells

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Cells are broadly classified into two types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.

• Prokaryotic Cells: These cells are primitive and simple. They lack a
well-defined nucleus. Their genetic material is not enclosed within a
nuclear membrane. Examples of prokaryotic cells include bacteria and
archaea.
• Eukaryotic Cells: These cells are more advanced and complex. They
have a well-defined nucleus where the genetic material is enclosed
within a nuclear membrane. Eukaryotic cells also contain various
membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. Examples include plant and animal
cells.
Cell Structure in Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells have a detailed and organized structure that includes the following
components:

• Cell Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell that controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cell.
• Nucleus: The control center of the cell, containing DNA and
responsible for regulating various cellular activities. It is surrounded by
a nuclear membrane.
• Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance within the cell membrane that
contains all the organelles.
• Membrane-bound Organelles:
• Mitochondria: The powerhouse of the cell, responsible for
cellular respiration and energy production.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes
involved in protein and lipid synthesis. It can be rough (with
ribosomes) or smooth (without ribosomes).
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.
• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes to break down
waste materials and cellular debris.
• Chloroplasts: (in plant cells) Contain chlorophyll and are
responsible for photosynthesis.
Eukaryotic cells are characterized by their compartmentalization, which allows for
specialized functions to occur efficiently within different parts of the cell. This structural
complexity enables them to support the functions of multicellular organisms.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell. It serves as a protective barrier,
controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell. Here are some key
points about the cell membrane:

• Composition: It is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, which

provides flexibility and strength.
 • Selectively Permeable: This means it allows certain molecules to
pass through while blocking others.
• Fluid Mosaic Model: This model describes the cell membrane as a
dynamic and flexible structure with various proteins embedded in or
attached to the bilayer, resembling a mosaic.
Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area

of lower concentration. It is a passive process, meaning it does not require energy.
Examples include:

Gas Exchange: Carbon dioxide and oxygen move across the cell
•
membrane by diffusion.
Active and Passive Transport

Passive Transport: This involves the movement of substances across

•
the cell membrane without the use of energy. Examples include
diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
• Active Transport: This requires energy (usually in the form of ATP) to
move substances against their concentration gradient, from a region of
low concentration to a region of high concentration.
Osmosis in Selectively Permeable Membrane

Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that involves the movement of water molecules
across a selectively permeable membrane. Key points include:

•Selective Permeability: The membrane allows water molecules to

pass through but restricts many other molecules.
• Water Movement: Water moves from an area of low solute
concentration (high water concentration) to an area of high solute
concentration (low water concentration).
• Importance: Osmosis is crucial for maintaining cell turgor and
regulating the internal environment of cells.
Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions

• Isotonic Solutions: These have the same solute and pH concentration

as the surrounding body fluid or the cytoplasm of the cell. In isotonic
solutions, water moves in and out of the cell at an equal rate, so there
is no net change in cell volume.
• Hypotonic Solutions: These contain a lower solute concentration
compared to the surrounding fluid. In a hypotonic solution, water enters
the cell, causing it to swell and possibly burst due to the excess intake
of water.
• Hypertonic Solutions: These have a higher solute concentration
compared to the surrounding fluid. In a hypertonic solution, water
leaves the cell, causing it to shrink as it loses water.
Cell Walls in Plants

Plant cells differ from animal cells because they have a cell wall made of cellulose.
The cell wall provides the following functions:

• Structural Support: It gives rigidity and strength to the plant cell,

helping maintain its shape.
• Protection: It protects the cell from mechanical stress and physical
damage.
• Withstanding Changes: The cell wall allows plant cells to withstand
greater changes in their environment without bursting, especially in
hypotonic solutions.
Cell Organelles

Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bound organelles that perform specific

functions:

• Nucleus: Controls cell activities and contains genetic material.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Synthesizes proteins and lipids.
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes to digest cellular waste.
• Mitochondria: Produce energy through cellular respiration.
Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a process by which the cell membrane folds inward to bring substances
into the cell, forming a vesicle. This is particularly observed in single-celled organisms
like Amoeba.

Nucleus in Cells

The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing genetic material (DNA) and
regulating cell functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction:

• Nuclear Membrane: Double-layered and contains pores for material

exchange.
• Chromosomes: Contain DNA and proteins; visible as condensed
structures during cell division.
 Chromatin: The less condensed form of chromosomes during the
•
growth phase of the cell.
Chromosomes

Chromosomes are structures within the nucleus made of DNA and associated
proteins:

• DNA: Carries genetic information for inheritance.

• Chromatin: The thread-like form of chromosomes during the non-
dividing phase.
• Human Chromosomes: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46
in total).
Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell, providing a medium for chemical
reactions and housing cell organelles. It helps maintain cell structure and facilitates
the movement of materials within the cell.

Organelles

Organelles are specialized structures within the cytoplasm of a cell that perform
distinct functions essential for the cell’s survival and proper functioning.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubules within the

cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, playing a critical role in the synthesis, folding,
modification, and transport of proteins and lipids.

•Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, the rough ER is involved in

protein synthesis and modification. The ribosomes on the rough ER are
the sites where amino acids are assembled into proteins.
• Smooth ER: Lacking ribosomes, the smooth ER is involved in lipid
metabolism and the detoxification of harmful substances. It also plays a
role in carbohydrate metabolism and the storage of calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus, often referred to as the cell’s “post office,” is responsible for
packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations within
or outside the cell. It modifies products from the ER, adding carbohydrates or
phosphates, and sorts them for transport.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes. These

enzymes can break down macromolecules, old cell parts, and foreign invaders like
bacteria. Because they can digest the cell’s own components, they are sometimes
called “suicide bags.”

Mitochondria

Mitochondria, known as the powerhouse of the cell, generate energy in the form of
ATP through cellular respiration. They have their own DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomes,
allowing them to produce some of their own proteins independently of the cell’s nuclear
DNA, making them semi-autonomous.

Plastids

Plastids are organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. They are involved in the
synthesis and storage of food.

• Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and are the sites of photosynthesis.

• Leucoplasts: Involved in the storage of starch, oils, and proteins.
• Chromoplasts: Contain pigments that give flowers and fruits their
color.
Chloroplasts contain thylakoid membranes embedded in the stroma, where the light-
dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur. Plastids also contain their own DNA and
ribosomes.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are large, membrane-bound vesicles present in plant cells that store water,
nutrients, and waste products. They help maintain the structural integrity of the plant
cell by providing turgor pressure. In animal cells, vacuoles are either very small or
absent.

Comparison between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant Cells:

•Have a cell wall made of cellulose.

•Contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
•Have large central vacuoles for storage and maintaining cell rigidity.
•Nucleus is often located at the periphery due to the large central
vacuole.
Animal Cells:

• Lack a cell wall.

• Do not have chloroplasts.
• Have smaller vacuoles, if any.
• Nucleus is centrally located.