Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis,

Fourth Edition

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Joint Structure and Function:

A Comprehensive Analysis
Fourth Edition

Pamela K. Levangie, PT, DSc

Professor
Physical Therapy Program
Sacred Heart University
Fairfield, CT

Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD

Former Director and Associate Professor
School of Physical Therapy
Ohio University
Athens, OH

F. A. Davis Company • Philadelphia

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Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis.

F. A. Davis Company
1915 Arch Street
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Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis Company. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Acquisitions Editor: Margaret M. Biblis

Development Editor: Jennifer Pine
Design Manager: Carolyn O’Brien

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no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of the book. Any practice described in this book should
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Levangie, Pamela K.
Joint structure and function : a comprehensive analysis / Pamela K. Levangie, Cindy Norkin.— 4th ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0–8036–1191–9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Human mechanics. 2. Joints.
[DNLM: 1. Joints—anatomy & histology. 2. Joints—physiology. WE 399 L655j 2005] I.Norkin, Cynthia C. II. Title.
QP303.N59 2005
612.7′5—dc22
2004021449

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has been arranged. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is: 8036–1191–9/05 0 ⫹ $.10.
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Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis.

Dedication for
the Fourth Edition

For more than 20 years, we have been privileged to contribute to the professional development
of students and practitioners . The four editions of Joint Structure and Function have been shaped
as much by the faculty and students who use this text as by the changes in evidence and tech-
nology. Therefore , we dedicate this 4th edition of Joint Structure and Function to the faculty, the
students, and the health care professionals who are both our consumers and our partners.
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Preface to the
Fourth Edition

With the 4th edition of Joint Structure and Function, we chapters in best evidence and in clinical relevance. A
continue a tradition of excellence in education that key change in our educational approach is in use of
began more than 20 years ago. Although we entered patient cases, not as adjuncts to the text but as inte-
the market when there were few resource options for grated elements within the text of each chapter. Patient
our readers, we are now in an era of increasingly cases (in both highlighted Patient Case and Patient
numerous choices in a variety of media. We continue Application boxes) substantially facilitate an under-
with this edition to respond to the ever-accelerating standing of the continuum between normal and
changes taking place in media and research technology impaired function, making use of emerging case-based
as well as in the education of individuals who assess and problem-based learning educational strategies. We
human function. In the move toward what many have maintained highlighted summary boxes (now
believe will be a “paperless” society, the role of text- called Concept Cornerstones) while also adding high-
books is evolving rapidly; learners demand changes but lighted Continuing Exploration boxes that provide the
are not ready to give up the textbook as an educational reader or the instructor additional flexibility in setting
modality. With the 4th edition, we attempt to meet the learning objectives.
challenges before us and our learners by taking advan- What is unchanged in this edition of Joint Structure
tage of new technologies, current evidence, the exper- and Function is our commitment to maintaining a text
tise of colleagues, and a more integrated approach to that provides a strong foundation in the principles that
preparing those who wish to understand human kinesi- underlie an understanding of human structure and
ology and pathokinesiology. function while also being readable and as concise as
Use of digital imaging technology allows us to sub- possible. We hope that our years of experience in con-
stantially change the visual support for our readers. tributing to the education of health care professionals
Line drawings (many taking advantage of our two-color allow us to strike a unique balance. We cannot fail to
format) have been added or modified because these recognize the increased educational demands placed
often work best to display complex concepts. However, on many entry-level health care professionals and hope
we now include in this edition a greater variety of image that the changes to the 4th edition help students meet
options, including photographs, medical imaging, and that demand. However, Joint Structure and Function,
three-dimensional computer output that should better while growing with its readers, continues to recognize
support learning and better prepare the reader for that the new reader requires elementary and inter-
negotiating published research. Changes in size, layout, linked building blocks that lay a strong but flexible
and two-color format provide a more reader-friendly foundation to best support continued learning and
page and enhance the reader’s ability to move around growth in a complex and changing world.
within each chapter. We continue to appreciate our opportunity to con-
Recognizing the increasing challenge of remaining tribute to health care by assisting in the professional
current in published research across many areas, we development of the students and practitioners who are
now take advantage of the expertise of a greater num- our readers.
ber of respected colleagues as chapter contributors.
Our contributors straddle the environs largely of Pamela K. Levangie
research, practice, and teaching—grounding their Cynthia C. Norkin

vii
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Acknowledgments

No endeavor as labor-intensive as updating a science Publisher, brought new energy and a contemporary
and research-based textbook such as Joint Structure and vision to this project; Jennifer Pine, Developmental
Function can be accomplished without the expertise and Editor, managed the project in a manner that merged
support of many committed individuals. We appreciate Margaret’s vision with Jennifer’s own unique contribu-
the very considerable investment of our continuing tions. We credit our artist, Anne Raines, with many new
contributors, as well as the willingness of our new group clear images that appear in the book. We are grateful to
of clinical and academic professionals to also lend their artists Joe Farnum and Timothy Malone, whose creative
names and expertise to this project. Our thanks, there- contributions to previous editions also appear in the
fore, to Drs. Borstad, Chleboun, Curwin, Hoover, 4th edition.
Lewik, Ludewig, Mueller, Olney, Ritzline, and Snyder- Of course, none of us would be able to would be
Mackler as well as to Mss. Austin, Dalton, and Starr. All able to make such large investment of time and energy
brought from their various institutions, states, and to a project like this without the support of our col-
countries their enthusiasm and a wealth of new knowl- leagues and the ongoing loving support of families. We
edge and ideas. We also would like to thank the review- can only thank them for giving up countless hours of
ers, listed on pages xiii and xiv, who provided us with our time and attention to yet another edition of Joint
many helpful suggestions for improving the text. Structure and Function.
We further extend our gratitude to FA Davis for
their investment in this book’s future. Margaret Biblis,

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Contributors

Noelle M. Austin, PT, MS, CHT Paula M. Ludewig, PT, PhD

CJ Education and Consulting, LLC Associate Professor
Woodbridge CT Program in Physical Therapy
cj-education.com & University of Minnesota
The Orthopaedic Group Minneapolis, Minnesota
Hamden, Connecticut
Michael J. Mueller, PT, PhD, FAPTA
John D. Borstead, PT, PhD Associate Professor
Assistant Professor Program in Physical Therapy
Physical Therapy Division Washington University School of Medicine
Ohio State University St. Louis, Missouri
Columbus, Ohio
Sandra J. Olney, PT, OT, PhD
Gary Chleboun, PT, PhD Director, School of Rehabilitation Therapy
Professor Associate Dean of Health Sciences
School of Physical Therapy Queens University
Ohio University Kingston, Ontario
Athens, Ohio Canada

Sandra Curwin, PT, PhD Pamela Ritzline, PT, EdD

Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Physical Therapy Krannert School of Physical Therapy
University of Alberta University of Indianapolis
Edmonton, Alberta Indianapolis, Indiana
Canada
Lynn Snyder-Macker, PT, ScD, SCS, ATC, FAPTA
Diane Dalton, PT, MS, OCS Professor
Clinical Assistant Professor of Physical Therapy Department of Physical Therapy
Physical Therapy Program University of Delaware
Boston University Newark, Delaware
Boston, Massachusetts
Julie Starr, PT, MS, CCS
Don Hoover, PT, PhD Clinical Associate Professor of Physical Therapy
Assistant Professor Physical Therapy Program
Krannert School of Physical Therapy Boston University
University of Indianapolis Boston, Massachusetts
Indianapolis, Indiana

Michael Lewek, PT, PhD

Post Doctoral Fellow, Sensory Motor Performance
Program
Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago
Northwestern University
Chicago, Illinois

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Reviewers

Thomas Abelew, PhD Ricardo Fernandez, PT, MHS, OCS, CSCS

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor/Clinician
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine Department of Physical Therapy and Human
Emory University Movement Sciences
Atlanta, Georgia Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine
Chicago, Illinois
Gordon Alderink, PT, PhD
Assistant Professor Jason Gauvin, PT, SCS, ATC, CSCS
Physical Therapy Department Physical Therapist
Grand Valley State University Departments of Occupational Therapy and Physical
Allendale, Michigan Therapy
Duke University
Mary Brown, PT, MEd Durham, North Carolina
Physical Therapist
Department of Rehabilitation Barbara Hahn, PT, MA
Morristown Memorial Hospital, Atlantic Health System Director, Physical Therapist Assistant Program
West Orange, New Jersey University of Evansville
Evansville, Indiana
John A. Buford, PT, PhD
Assistant Professor of Physical Therapy John Hollman, PT, PhD
Division of Physical Therapy Assistant Professor and Director
School of Allied Medical Professions Program in Physical Therapy
The Ohio State University Mayo School of Health Sciences
Columbus, Ohio Rochester, MN

Margaret Carton, MSPT Birgid Hopkins, MS, L.ATC

Assistant Professor Director
Allied Health, Nursing, and HPE Department Department of Sports Medicine
Black Hawk College Merrimack College
Moline, Illinois North Andover, Massachusetts

Gary Chleboun, PT, PhD Edmund Kosmahl, PT, EdD

Professor Professor
School of Physical Therapy Department of Physical Therapy
Ohio University University of Scranton
Athens, Ohio Scranton, Pennsylvania

Deborah Edmondson, PT, EdD Gary Lentell, PT, MS, DPT

Assistant Professor/Academic Coordinator of Clinical Professor
Education Department of Physical Therapy
Department of Physical Therapy University of California, Fresno
Tennessee State University Fresno, California
Nashville, Tennessee

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xiv ■ Reviewers

Robin Marcus, PT, PhD, OCS Suzanne Reese, PT, MS

Clinical Associate Professor Director, Physical Therapist Assistant Program
Division of Physical Therapy Allied Health Department
University of Utah Tulsa Community College
Salt Lake City, Utah Tulsa, Oklahoma

R. Daniel Martin, EdD, ATC Claire Safran-Norton, PT, PhD-ABD, MS, MS, OCS
Associate Professor and Director, Athletic Training Assistant Professor
Program Department of Physical Therapy
Exercise Science, Sport, and Recreation Simmons College
Marshall University Boston, Massachusetts
Huntingdon, West Virginia

Matthew C. Morrissey, PT, ScD

Department of Physiotherapy
King’s College London, KCL
London, England
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Contents

SECTION 1 Joint Structure and Angular Acceleration and Angular Equilibrium 37

Parallel Force Systems 38
Function: Foundational Concepts 2 Meeting the Three Conditions for Equilibrium 41
Chapter 1 Biomechanical Applications Muscle Forces 42
to Joint Structure and Function 3 Total Muscle Force Vector 42

Pamela K. Levangie, PT, DSc Torque Revisited 44

Changes to Moment Arm of a Force 45
Introduction 4 Angular Acceleration with Changing Torques 46
Patient Case 4 Moment Arm and Angle of Application
of a Force 46
Part 1: Kinematics and Introduction
to Kinetics 5 Lever Systems, or Classes of Levers 48
Muscles in Third-Class Lever Systems 50
Descriptions of Motion 5 Muscles in Second-Class Lever Systems 50
Types of Displacement 5 Muscles in First-Class Lever Systems 51
Location of Displacement in Space 7 Mechanical Advantage 51
Direction of Displacement 9 Trade-Offs of Mechanical Advantage 52
Magnitude of Displacement 9 Limitations to Analysis of Forces by
Rate of Displacement 10 Lever Systems 53
Introduction to Forces 10 Force Components 53
Definition of Forces 10 Resolving Forces into Perpendicular and Parallel
Force Vectors 12 Components 54
Force of Gravity 15 Perpendicular and Parallel Force Effects 54
Introduction to Statics and Dynamics 19 Translatory Effects of Force Components 60
Newton’s Law of Inertia 19 Rotatory Effects of Force Components 61
Newton’s Law of Acceleration 20
Total Rotation Produced by a Force 62
Translatory Motion in Linear and Concurrent Multisegment (Closed-Chain) Force
Force Systems 20 Analysis 63
Linear Force System 21
Determining Resultant Forces in a Linear Force Summary 66
System 21
Concurrent Force System 22 Chapter 2 Joint Structure and
Newton’s Law of Reaction 24 Function 69
Additional Linear Force Considerations 25 Sandra Curwin, PT, PhD
Tensile Forces 26
Joint Distraction 28 Introduction 70
Revisting Newton’s Law of Inertia 31 Joint Design 70
Shear and Friction Forces 32 Materials Used in Human Joints 71
Part 2: Kinetics – Considering Rotatory and Structure of Connective Tissue 72
Translatory Forces and Motion 35 Specific Connective Tissue Structures 77
Torque, or Moment of Force 35 General Properties of Connective Tissue 83

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xvi ■ Contents

Mechanical Behavior 83 General Structure and Function 142

Viscoelasticity 87 Structure 142
Time-Dependent and Rate-Dependent Function 150
Properties 87 Regional Structure and Function 156
Properties of Specific Tissues 89 Structure of the Cervical Region 156
Complexities of Human Joint Design 91 Function of the Cervical Region 161
Synarthroses 91 Structure of the Thoracic Region 164
Diarthroses 93 Function of the Thoracic Region 165
Joint Function 98 Structure of the Lumbar Region 166
Kinematic Chains 98 Function of the Lumbar Region 170
Joint Motion 99 Structure of the Sacral Region 173
Function of the Sacral Region 174
General Changes with Disease, Injury,
Immobilization, Exercise, and Muscles of the Vertebral Column 176
Overuse 102 The Craniocervical / Upper Thoracic
Disease 102 Regions 176
Injury 102 Lower Thoracic / Lumbopelvic Regions 180
Immobilization (Stress Deprivation) 103 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 186
Exercise 104 Effects of Aging 187
Overuse 106 Summary 188
Summary 107
Chapter 5 The Thorax and Chest
Chapter 3 Muscle Structure and
Wall 193
Function 113
Julie Starr, PT, MS, CCS
Gary Chleboun, PT, PhD
Diane Dalton, PT, MS, OCS
Introduction 113
Introduction 193
Patient Case 114
Patient Case 193
Elements of Muscle Structure 114
Composition of a Muscle Fiber 114 General Structure and Function 193
The Contractile Unit 115 Rib Cage 193
The Motor Unit 117 Muscles Associated With the Rib Cage 200
Muscle Structure 119 Coordination and Integration of Ventilatory
Muscular Connective Tissue 121 Motions 208
Muscle Function 123 Developmental Aspects of Structure and
Muscle Tension 123 Function 209
Classification of Muscles 129 Differences Associated with the Neonate 209
Factors Affecting Muscle Function 132 Differences Associated with the Elderly 210
Effects of Immobilization, Injury, and Pathological Changes in Structure and
Aging 135 Function 210
Immobilization 135 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 210
Injury 135
Summary 212
Aging 136
Summary 136
Chapter 6 The Temporomandibular
Joint 215
SECTION 2 Axial Skeletal Joint Don Hoover, PT, PhD
Complexes 140
Pamela Ritzline, PT, EdD
Chapter 4 The Vertebral Column 141
Patient Case 215
Diane Dalton, PT, MS, OCS
Introduction 215
Introduction 142 Structure 216
Patient Case 142 Articular Surfaces 216
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Contents ■ xvii

Articular Disk 217 Chapter 8 The Elbow Complex 273

Capsule and Ligaments 218
Upper and Lower Temporomandibular Joints 219
Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
Function 219 Introduction 273
Mandibular Motions 219 Patient Case 274
Muscular Control of the Temporomandibular
Structure: Elbow Joint (Humeroulnar and
Joint 222
Humeroradial Articulations) 274
Relationship with the Cervical Spine 223
Articulating Surfaces on the Humerus 274
Dentition 225
Articulating Surfaces on the Radius and
Age-Related Changes in the Ulna 275
Temporomandibular Joint 225 Articulation 276
Dysfunctions 226 Joint Capsule 276
Inflammatory Conditions 226 Ligaments 278
Capsular Fibrosis 226 Muscles 280
Osseous Mobility Conditions 226 Function: Elbow Joint (Humeroulnar and
Articular Disk Displacement 227 Humeroradial Articulations) 282
Degenerative Conditions 227 Axis of Motion 282
Summary 228 Range of Motion 284
Muscle Action 286
Structure: Superior and Inferior
SECTION 3 Upper Extremity Joint Articulations 289
Complexes 232 Superior Radioulnar Joint 289
Inferior Radioulnar Joint 289
Chapter 7 The Shoulder Complex 233 Radioulnar Articulation 290
Paula M. Ludewig, PT, PhD Ligaments 290
John D. Borstead, PT, PhD Muscles 292
Function: Radioulnar Joints 292
Introduction 233 Axis of Motion 292
Patient Case 234 Range of Motion 293
Components of the Shoulder Complex 234 Muscle Action 293
Sternoclavicular Joint 234 Stability 294
Acromioclavicular Joint 237 Mobility and Stability: Elbow Complex 295
Scapulothoracic Joint 242 Functional Activities 295
Glenohumeral Joint 246 Relationship to the Hand and Wrist 295
Integrated Function of the Shoulder Effects of Age and Injury 296
Complex 259 Age 296
Scapulothoracic and Glenohumeral Injury 297
Contributions 259 Summary 300
Sternoclavicular and Acromioclavicular
Contributions 260
Structural Dysfunction 262
Chapter 9 The Wrist and Hand
Muscles of Elevation 263 Complex 305
Deltoid Muscle Function 263 Noelle M. Austin, PT, MS, CHT
Supraspinatus Muscle Function 264
Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, and Subscapularis Introduction 305
Muscle Function 264 The Wrist Complex 305
Upper and Lower Trapezius and Serratus Anterior Radiocarpal Joint Structure 306
Muscle Function 264 Midcarpal Joint Structure 310
Rhomboid Muscle Function 266 Function of the Wrist Complex 311
Muscles of Depression 266 The Hand Complex 319
Latissimus Dorsi and Pectoral Muscle Carpometacarpal Joints of the Fingers 319
Function 266 Metacarpophalangeal Joints of the Fingers 321
Teres Major and Rhomboid Muscle Function 266 Interphalangeal Joints of the Fingers 324
Summary 267 Extrinsic Finger Flexors 325
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xviii ■ Contents

Extrinsic Finger Extensors 328 Tibiofemoral Alignment and Weight-Bearing

Extensor Mechanism 329 Forces 395
Intrinsic Finger Musculature 333 Menisci 397
Structure of the Thumb 337 Joint Capsule 399
Thumb Musculature 339 Ligaments 402
Prehension 340 Iliotibial Band 407
Power Grip 341 Bursae 408
Precision Handling 344 Tibiofemoral Joint Function 409
Functional Position of the Wrist and Hand 346 Joint Kinematics 409
Muscles 413
Summary 346 Stabilizers of the Knee 419
Patellofemoral Joint 420
SECTION 4 Hip Joint 354 Patellofemoral Articular Surfaces and Joint
Congruence 421
Chapter 10 The Hip Complex 355 Motions of the Patella 422
Patellofemoral Joint Stress 423
Pamela K. Levangie, PT, DSc Frontal Plane Patellofemoral Joint Stability 425
Introduction 355 Weight-Bearing vs. Non–Weight-Bearing Exercises
with Patellofemoral Pain 428
Patient Case 356
Effects of Injury and Disease 429
Structure of the Hip Joint 356 Tibiofemoral Joint 429
Proximal Articular Surface 356
Patellofemoral Joint 430
Distal Articular Surface 358
Articular Congruence 361 Summary 431
Hip Joint Capsule and Ligaments 362
Structural Adaptations to Weight-Bearing 365 Chapter 12 The Ankle and Foot
Function of the Hip Joint 366 Complex 437
Motion of the Femur on the Acetabulum 366
Motion of the Pelvis on the Femur 368 Michael J. Mueller, PT, PhD, FAPTA
Coordinated Motions of the Femur, Pelvis, and Introduction 437
Lumbar Spine 371
Hip Joint Musculature 373 Patient Case 438
Hip Joint Forces and Muscle Function in Definitions of Motions 438
Stance 378 Ankle Joint 440
Bilateral Stance 378 Ankle Joint Structure 440
Unilateral Stance 379 Ankle Joint Function 443
Reduction of Muscle Forces in Unilateral The Subtalar Joint 445
Stance 381 Subtalar Joint Structure 445
Hip Joint Pathology 385 Subtalar Joint Function 447
Arthrosis 386
Transverse Tarsal Joint 452
Fracture 386
Transverse Tarsal Joint Structure 452
Bony Abnormalities of the Femur 387
Transverse Tarsal Joint Function 454
Summary 388 Tarsometatarsal Joints 458
Tarsometatarsal Joint Structure 458
Chapter 11 The Knee Tarsometatarsal Joint Function 459
Lynn Snyder-Macker, PT, ScD, SCS, ATC, FAPTA Metatarsophalangeal Joints 460
Michael Lewek, PT, PhD Metatarsophalangeal Joint Structure 460
Metatarsophalangeal Joint Function 461
Introduction 393 Interphalangeal Joints 464
Patient Case 394 Plantar Arches 464
Structure of the Tibiofemoral Joint 394 Structure of the Arches 464
Femur 394 Function of the Arches 465
Tibia 395 Muscular Contribution to the Arches 468
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Contents ■ xix

Muscles of the Ankle and Foot 468 Chapter 14 Gait 517

Extrinsic Musculature 468
Sandra J. Olney, PT, OT, PhD
Intrinsic Musculature 472
Deviations from Normal Structure and Introduction 517
Function 472 General Features 518
Summary 474 Patient Case 518
Kinematics 519
Phases of the Gait Cycle 519
SECTION 5 Integrated Function 478 Gait Terminology 522
Joint Motion 524
Chapter 13 Posture 479 Saunders’ “Determinants” of Gait 527
Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD Kinetics 527
Introduction 479 Ground Reaction Force 527
Center of Pressure 528
Patient Case 480 Kinetic Analysis 528
Static and Dynamic Postures 480 Internal and External Forces, Moments, and
Postural Control 481 Conventions 530
Major Goals and Basic Elements of Control 481 Energy Requirements 534
Kinetics and Kinematics of Posture 484 Mechanical Energy of Walking 534
Inertial and Gravitational Forces 485 Mechanical Energy: Kinematic Approach 534
Ground Reaction Forces 485 Mechanical Power and Work 537
Coincident Action Lines 485 Muscle Activity 543
Sagittal Plane 486 Ground Reaction Force: Sagittal Plane
Analysis 547
Optimal Posture 487
Kinematics and Kinetics of the Trunk and
Analysis of Standing Posture 487 Upper Extremities 551
Sagittal Plane Alignment and Analysis 488 Trunk 551
Deviations from Optimal Alignment in the Upper Extremities 553
Sagittal Plane 493
Frontal Plane Optimal Alignment and Analysis 498 Stair and Running Gaits 553
Deviations from Optimal Alignment in the Frontal Stair Gait 553
Plane 498 Running Gait 555
Summary 558
Analysis of Sitting Postures 503
Muscle Activity 504 Effects of Age, Gender, Assistive Devices, and
Interdiskal Pressures and Compressive Loads on Orthoses 559
the Spine 505 Age 559
Seat Interface Pressures 506 Gender 560
Assistive Devices 561
Analysis of Lying Postures 508 Orthoses 561
Interdiskal Pressures 508
Surface Interface Pressures 508 Abnormal Gait 561
Structural Impairment 562
Effects of Age, Pregnancy, Occupation, and Functional Impairment 562
Recreation on Posture 509
Age 509 Summary 564
Pregnancy 511 Index 569
Occupation and Recreation 511
Summary 512
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Joint Structure and Function:

A Comprehensive Analysis
Fourth Edition
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Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis.

Section 1

Joint Structure
and Function:
Foundational
Concepts
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Copyright © 2005 by F. A. Davis.

Chapter 1
Biomechanical Applications to
Joint Structure and Function
Pamela K. Levangie, PT, DSc

“HUMANS HAVE THE CAPACITY TO PRODUCE A NEARLY INFINITE VARIETY OF POSTURES AND MOVEMENTS THAT REQUIRE THE TISSUES
OF THE BODY TO BOTH GENERATE AND RESPOND TO FORCES THAT PRODUCE AND CONTROL MOVEMENT.”

Introduction Newton’s Law of Reaction

Gravitational and Contact Forces
PART 1: Kinematics and Introduction to Additional Linear Force Considerations
Kinetics Tensile Forces
Tensile Forces and Their Reaction Forces
Descriptions of Motion
Joint Distraction
Types of Displacement
Distraction Forces
Translatory Motion
Joint Compression and Joint Reaction Forces
Rotatory Motion
Revisiting Newton’s Law of Inertia
General Motion
Vertical and Horizontal Linear Force Systems
Location of Displacement in Space
Shear and Friction Forces
Direction of Displacement
Static Friction and Kinetic Friction
Magnitude of Displacement
Considering Vertical and Horizontal Linear
Introduction to Forces Equilibrium
Definition of Forces
Force Vectors PART 2: Kinetics—Considering Rotatory and
Force of Gravity Translatory Forces and Motion
Segmental Centers of Mass and Composition of
Gravitational Forces Torque, or Moment of Force
Center of Mass of the Human Body Angular Acceleration and Angular Equilibrium
Center of Mass, Line of Gravity, and Stability Parallel Force Systems
Alterations in Mass of an Object or Segment Determining Resultant Forces in a Parallel Force System
Bending Moments and Torsional Moments
Introduction to Statics and Dynamics
Identifying the Joint Axis about which Body Segments
Newton’s Law of Inertia
Rotate
Newton’s Law of Acceleration
Meeting the Three Conditions for Equilibrium
Translatory Motion in Linear and Concurrent Force
Muscle Forces
Systems
Total Muscle Force Vector
Linear Force System
Anatomic Pulleys
Determining Resultant Forces in a Linear Force System
Anatomic Pulleys, Action Lines, and Moment Arms
Concurrent Force System
Determining Resultant Forces in a Concurrent Force Torque Revisited
System Changes to Moment Arm of a Force