CTORCALCULUS

Mathematical Physics
lT Vù 0, then the liquid is incompressible. For
Field conservative electric field
Gradientof:Scalar
I gradientof a continuously differentiableas scalar V-=0
For solenoidal field
The may be mathematically defined
y,z)
r grad V.ù=0
aton
#=î+£ôg " Curl of a Vector Field
oy ôz
is defined
I Ais any vector, then curl of a vector field
as
grad On
curl 4 = VxÅ
gradient.ofa scalar at any point in a scalar field is a
The magnitude offwhich is equal to the maximum rate
the scalar functionfat that point. Its direction is
fincrease off
tothe level surface at that point. |Ox ôy oz
thenormal
2 Line Integrals |4, A, A
Physical Significance :
Mline integralf.dr represents the limit of sumof When curl ù (where ù velocity vector)
is non-zero, the
circulation.
products of f and dr (all path segments) taken vector field must have region, there will be nocirculation
tescalar B and dr >0 When curl j =0in some
to
aer thepath running from A or rotation at all in that region.
the region.
Surface Integral The vector field v is then called irrotational in
infinitesimal element
LetSbe any surface, divided into 1.5 Important Vector Identity
integral may be
gOresented as a vector dS . Surface V(py) = Vy+y
aROuntered as
div (Å+ B) = div Å+ div B

UVolume Integral grad( A- B)=Åx(VxB) +(Ä:V)B

Let dV = dxdydz ’ element of volume. +B× (Vx A) +(B-V)A
Volume integral is
+A-grad
div(pA) = gdiv A
Divergence of a Vector Function " div curl A=0
Ihe divergence of p or div ù is defined as " curl grad =0
div(4xB)= B curl A¢-¢- curl B
oy oz
Bdiv
Physical Significance of Divergence
is the net
curl(Ax B)=(B-V)A-(4: V)B+ÄdivB
The divergence ofofaa vectorfunction attapoint
second evaluated at
that
curl curl A =grad div AV'A
outflow per
point.
unit volume per
6.1
 T JAM Physic

1.6 Gauss Divergence Theorem 2.2 Triangular and Sealar Matrices

62,
The flux ofa vector field A over any closed surface S is (i) Upper Triangular Matrix
cqual to the volurme integral of the divergence of the vector A= (a,} such that a, =0 ifi>j
ficldover the volume enclosed by surface S i.e., +0 if i<j
Example:
|I 2 4 2]
L.7Stoke's Theorem ) 3 -1 1 [2 -9 0
A= B=0 1
The flux of the curl of' a vector function A over surface 0 0 2 1
Sofany shape isequal to the line integral of the vector field 00 0 8 0 0 1|
A over the boundary Cof the surface i.e., (ii) Lower Triangular Matrix
A= (a,} such that a, = 0 ifi<j
f, curlA-ds -|,A-dr +0 ifi>j
2. MATRICES Example :
0 0
Definition - Asystem of any m, nnumbers arranged in a
rectangular array ofm rows and n columns is called a matrix 0
of order m x n or m x n matrix (which is read as m by n
matrix) (iji) Scalar Matrix A diagonal
Amatrix may be represented by the symbol [a,] matrix whose diagon.
elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.
simple capital letter A. Each ofthe number constituting aormatrix
by a
is called an element of the matrix.
S=0 k 0
2.1 Special Matrices
|0 0 k
) Square Matrix :- When m = n, i.e. the number of
2.3 Transpose of a Matrix
rowsand columns of arrayare equal, then the matrix is
called a square matrix, otherwise it is known as LetA= lamn
rectangular matrix. The n Xmmatrix obtained from 4 by
into changing its rows
columns and its column into rows is called
(ii) Row and Column Matrix :- If in a Matrix, there is the transDOse
ofA and is denoted by the symbol 4".
onlyone row it is called a row matrix. If there is only
onecolumn it is called a column matrix. Example:
(ii) Null Matrix:-If allthe elements of an m × n |I 2 3 4
matrix
are zero, then it is called a null or zero matrix and denoted A=|2 3 4 1
by O., or simply 0. 3 4 2 1J3x4
(iv) Unit Matrix :-Asquare matrix which has
every |1 2 3
element of the main diagonal equal to one and all other
2 3 4
elements equal to zero. A =
It is also known as identity matrix and it is 3 4 2
denoted as I.
(v) Equal Matrix :-Two matrices are said to be 4 1 Ix3
equal if
(a) They are of same order 2.4 Conjugate of a Matrix
(b) Theelements inthe The matrix obtained from any given matrix Aon
corresponding positions of the its elements by the
two matrices are equal replac1ng
corresponding
(vi) Diagonal Matrix :- As square matrix in which all iscalled the conjugate of Aand isconjugate complex numa
denoted by A
elements except those in the main diagonal are zero is Example :
known as a diagonal matrix. |2+3i 4-7i 8
If
vii) Singular Matrix :-A square matrix whose A=
is zero is called singular, all determinant -i 6 9+i

also called singular. non-square matrices are | |2-3i 4+7i 8

then
i 9-i
 63

Transposed Conjugate of a
5The transpose of the Matrix
l conjugate
sAnsposed of4conjugate of a
and is denoted matrix A is
called Skew Hermitian
Matrix
Mathematical Physics
by A. called Skew -A matrix such that a,=-a, 1s
Example: Hermitian
Example : Matrix.
1+2i 2-3i 3+4:1
A=|4-5i 5+ 6i 6-7i -2-i1
|2-i 0
7+8j Every
either zerodiagonal element of a Skew Hermitian matrix is
7
or purely
2.8 Adjoint of a imaginary number.
1+2i 4- 5i
Let A=[a, Square
then A =2-3i 5+ 6i 7+8; Matrix
3+4i 6-7i the matrix be any n x n matrix. The B of
7 transpose
1-2i 4+Si 8 B= 4 ijnxn

A'A =(4)' =|2+3i 5-6i 7-8j where A,’cofactor of theelement a, in the

A|, is called the adjoint of matrix A and is determinant
and

3-4i 6+7i 7 symbol adj4. denoted by the

2.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetrice Matrices 2.9 Invertible Matrices
Asquare matrix A = a] is said to be Inverse or reciprocal of a matrices - Let A be any n
symmetric if its rowed square matrix,
element Is the same as its (j, iyh then a matrix B, if it exists, such that
forall i,j
element i.e., a, = a, AB =BA =1,
is called the inverse of A.
Example:
IfAbe an invertible matrix then the inverse of A is
1 -2i|
2 41
-2 4 Adj A;
|4 2 |A|
-2i 4 3
Non Singular and Singular Matrices -A square
Skew Symmetric Matrix matrix A
is said to be non-singular or singular according
Asquare matrix 4 = [a] is said to be skew symmetric if as

the (i, j)h element of Ais the negative of the (j, iyh element of |A|#0 or |4|=0
die., 2.10 Unitary and Orthogonal Matrices
a, =-a, A square matrix is said to be unitary if itsinverse is equal
to its conjugate transpose i.e.

-h
A'= 4 or (A) =4!
Thus for amatrixA to be unitary
l-g -f 0
AA =AA=I
Each diagonal elements of a Skew Symmetric matrix IS Areal unitary matrix is said to be orthogonal
matrix.
zero. For real A, above condition become
2.7 Hermitian and Skew Hermitian Matrices AA'= AA=I
nermitian Matrix :-A square matrix A= [a] is said to be 2.11 Trace of Matrix
ofAis equal tothe conjugate algebraic sum of its elements
Hermitian ifthe (i,j)th element In any square matrix the
called its trace.
Complex of the (i, i)h element of Ai.e., along principal diagonal is
Example :
a, =a, If A=
b+icl
...U,n
b-ic matrix must be at..... ta,mn
Hermitian The trace of A= 4,,+
Teal Every diagonal
element of a
 IIT JAM Paysics 64
Nilpotent Matrix-Asquare matrix "A" is said
nilpotent, if"4= 0" where **" is called the i to
matrix and it it the positive integer. index ofthbee
The trace ofa product of two matrices is independent of Characteristic Equation of A
the order of multiplication 2.16
TAB) = TrBA) |4-l=0
theorem
Also trA + B) = rA) + ir(B) 2.17 The Cayley-Hamilton
satisties its characteristic
2.12 Idempotent and Involutory Matrices Every square matrix
ASquare matr1x .A is called idempotent provided it satisfies ie iffor a square matrix Aof order n equation
the relation.
4=A
J4a1 =(-1)'|2* +a2 ta,"*.ta)
Asquare matrix Ais called involutory provided it satisfies then the matrix equation
0
the relation. X + a,d+ a,h + ah t ... + al =
A'=1 is satisfied by X=A
or (/+ d)(I A) = 0 i.e., A" + a4= + a,4"* +.... +al= 0
Eigenvalues
where I is the identity matrix. 2.18 Characteristic Roots or
(a) For a given square matrix A, A-2I matrixKis called
2.13 Rank of a Matrix
A number r is said to be the rank of amatrix Aif it possesses the characteristic matrix, where 1 is scalar am.
is the unit matrix.
the following two properties:
(b) Characteristic Polynomial - The
(i) There is at least one square sub-matrix of A of order r
whose determinant is not equal to zero
determinant
|4-1| when expanded | will give a polynomial.
(ü) Ifthe matrix Acontains any square sub-matrix of order which we call as characteristic polynomial of matriy
r+1, then the determinant of everysquare sub-matrix A
ofA of order r + 1should be zero or we have, that the [4-1 4 2
rank of a matrix is the order of any highest order non 6-2 2
e.g.
vanishing minor of the matrix.
2 4 4-2
" The rank ofevery non-singular matrix of order n is
11. - (4-2) (24 -101+1'-8)
The rank of the transpose ofa matrix is the same -4 (8-22- 4) + (8- 12-24)
as that of the original matrix. =-+142 -681+ 40
" If4and B be two equivalent matrices,
(c) Characteristic Equation - The equation
then rank A=rank B
4-Al=0 is called the characteristic equation of
2.14 Linear Equations
Suppose we have m equations in n unknowns. the matrix A e.g.
Coeficient matrixA willbe of the type m x n. -7 +14-681+ 40 =0
Let r = rank of the matriX or A+144-681 +40=0
(i) Ifr =n, then equation will have n-n, i.e., no linearly (d) Characteristic Roots -The roots of characteristic
independent solutions. equation |4-2|=0 are called characteristic roots
(ii) Ifr<n, we have n-r linearly independent solutions. of matrixAand also known as eigen values.
(ii) Suppose m <n, i.e., number of equation is less than the
number of unknowns. 2.19 Properties of Eigenvalues
The number of solution of the equation willbe infinite. (1) Any square matrix Aand its transpose 'A' have the
same eigen values.
2.15 Periodic Matrix
The sum of the elements on the principal diagonal
A square matrix 'A' is said to be periodic, if 4l = A, of a matrix is called the trace of the matrix.
vhere k is a positive integer. If k is the least positive integer (2) The sum of the eigen values of amatrix is equal l
or which Al=A, then A is said to be of period k. the trace of the matrix.
 MathematicalPhysics

product ofthe eigen values of a matrix Ais

The determinant of 4. Solution of this equation
tothe
equal y= CF+ PI
The 4,a,arethe eigen values of A, then the CF=Complementary function.
( 4ejgen
) valuesof Pl= Particular integral Function
are ki,, kl,y.ki, 3.1 Determination of Complementary
(a) kA Write equation (1) as a]y =0
(b)A* are (D.+a,D +aD2 + .... t
equation
1 Using y=e, we have auxiliary +a =0 ... (2)
(c) A are m"t a,ml + distinct.
auxiliary equation are
(i) Ifall the roots of the general solution
are distinctthen
Important Points to Remember i.e., ,... ,
Some More
+...+ c,e"
0
IfAand B be twosquare
invertible matrices, then y= ce**+ c,e"having equal roots, general
(1) B4 have the same characteristic roots. (") auxiliary equation tworoots are equal]
ABand solution for this willbe [if
andB be two n rowed square matrices, and if +....tce"
(2)IfAinvertible, then matrices AB and BA-! have y=(c,x +t c,)e* +c,e
Ais characteristic roots
the same If three roots are equal +c,"+....tc,e
cr)e"*
thecharacteristicroot of?a matrix, if and only if, y= (c t c t
(3) Ois singular. equation have complex roots a tiß
the matrix is (üi) Ifauxiliary
Characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just t c,sinßx)
(4)
the diagonal elements of
thematrix. y =e" (c,cosBxrepeated, suppose it occurs
are
Ifimaginary roots
twice Bx]
0
=e" [(c,+ c,r)cos Bx+ (c,+ cr)sin
A= 0
y
e.g Integral (PI)
3.2 Particular
Particular Integral of the equation 1
characteristic equation is 4-2/=0 F(D)y = will be
0
4, - of thefrom e ,where a is any constant
0 (i) When is
=0
0 and F(a) #0.
-p=
Pl = F(a)
U3 F(D)
On expansion, it gives 1
(a,, - )a,, -Ma,,- )= 0 -e = -e
(a,, -2) (D-a)' r!
sin ax or cos ax and
form
Hermitian matrix are (ii) When O is of the
(5) The characteristic roots ofa F(-a') ÷ 0
allreal. of aSkew Hermitian
matrix Then
characteristic roots 1
(6) The imaginary. sin ax = -sinax
is either zero or purely F(D') F(-a)
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1 1 -COS ax
-COS axY=
the dependent variables and its F(D') F(-a)
Iis an equation in which is of theform x,
where m is a positive
kerivatives appear only in the first degree (iüi) When
1e. integer
d"y -+....ta,_ d-+a,y=0 1
d'y dy d
-x"
+a, .1) (D-a)
1 1 1 -m(m-)xm2
constants and +

where ays a, are all

a,, a, function ofx alone is known as
Qis either constant or
coefficient.
linear differentiallequation with constanttco
 IIT JAM Physics
The function must have afinite number ofe
To find Pl, when Q=enV, where V'is any function
ofx

FD)
(e")=e F(D+ a)
in a period of one
oscillations.
Two Particular Cases
Case L. If f(r) is an even function ofx,
i.e.. f-)=f(r). then
discotini s,
3.3 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations
Adifferentialequation of the form
d'y dt..ta,.j+a,y= 0
d" dx
Q is either a constant or a function of x is called
homogeneous linear differential equation. Snx dr
To solve such equation, we introduce anew independent
variables z such that and b, = 0
X=e or log x=z and Fourier series
d 1d f(r) =4, +a, cos nx
Sothat
dx
Case II. If f(x) is an odd function ofx
d f(-r)=f);
dz-=D
i.e.,
dx then Fourier series
d
Put x=D,, dD(D-1)and so on. f()=b, sin nx
dx
3.4 Complimentary Function (CE)
(1) m,, m, ...n, are the roots of the auxiliary equation with b,=f)sinnxd
y=ce" t c,e" +....t c,e' and = 0; a, =0
[roots are distinct] Change of interval from (- I, N)to (-1. D
Fourier series will be
Or V=Gr" +C,r+.....+cx
nTN
(ii) rroots are alike, equal to m and rest all are different f()=4, +a, cos"+,sin "
CF =+c, log x+...+c, (logx) |" n=l n=l

tc,t..c,r" with
(ii) roots are imaginary
CF =cr cos(ßlog.xtC,) Similarly
4. FOURIER SERIES
The Fourier series for a periodicand piece wise continuous
function is 4.2 Fourier Series in the Interval (0, )
f(r)=a, +)a, cos nr+>b,sin nx Half Range Series
n=l nTX
then f(r)=a, tXa, cos
n=l
where
2T
where

a,-jfivosnd -dx
Sine Series - If f(r) is odd function of x;
and
then fr)=>6, sin
4.1 Dirichlet Conditions
The function must have finite number of maxima and where
minima.
 Mathematleal Physit
DERIVATIVES

ntinuie WamogencousFFunetions
which every termIS of he sae dcyree
functions, Thus Then calculate r
IIrs' 0 nd r is ncuative. f(x. v) s maximuin at
functio ofx andy of degree n, This can V b,, Ifrt-'>0and ris positive, f(x, v) is miimum
alxa,,y b,. Ifr-< 0, f(x, y) is neither maximum nor
minimUm atx
Ifr-s' 0, the case is doubttul and further investigation
ora7(W),wherefv)is some fuction of (v/x). will be required to decide it. We shall leave this case.
whether a 6.2 Working Rule for Findíng theMaxima and Minima
tcst given lunction (x,v) is
Note1.
To
not we put tx forx and ty for yin it. Suppose/(x,y,z) is a given function ofthree independent
|f'we get/(, ) variables X,yand z.Find Of / Ox,0f lôy and 0f / 0z and solve
f(r, y), the tunction f(, v) is the simultaneous cquations af l Ox 0, f /oy = 0 and
homogenCOUsof
honogeneOUUSlunction
degree n; otherwise f(, 0/ /0z 0. All triads (a, b, c) of the values of x, y
) is not a and z
oblained on solving these cquations will give thestationary
is homogencous function of xand yof degree values off(x, y, z) the function
i.c., willl give the points at which
a
Nate2.Il and
u/er Qu lOy are also homogeneous functions y, z) may be a maximum or a minimum.
then
n
andy cach being of degree n To discuss the maximum or minimum off(x, y, z) at any
oft
2
Euler' Theoremn on Homogeneous Functions point(a, b, c) obtaincd onsolving thecquations 0f lôx = 0,
values at this point of
Wuis a
homogencoUs function ofx and y of
degree n, Of 1oy =(0 and f /Oz =0, we find the
then
the six partial derivatives of second order off(x, y, z)
symbolically denoted as follows:
+y
B= C=
Note. Euler's theorem can be extended to a homogencous
n of any number of variables. Thusf (r, X,
finction. ,,) if
homogeneous function of. X Xz .., , of F= of G= of and H
be a degree n, Oy 0z 0z Ox Ox Ôy
then.
If the expressions
f
= nf A H G
B F|
MAXIMAAND MINIMA H B |G F C|
6 Working Rule for Maxima and Minima be allpositive, we shallhave a minimum off(x, y, z) at
Supposef(x. y) is agiven function ofx and y. Find @f /ox (a, b, c) and if these expressions be alternately negative and
and Ùf lôy and solve the simultaneous equations f l ôx =0 positive, we shallhave a maximum off(x, y, z) at (a,general
b, c),
Conditions are not satisfied, we shall in
and f ly =0. In order to solve these cquations. In the lalter WnilSt 11 these
case cach factor of the first equation must be solved in (a. have neither a maximum nor a minimum of f(x, y, z) at
b. c).
conjunction with cach factor of the second equation. SuppOse
solving these equations we get the pairs of values of xand y 7. JACOBIANS
as (a, b,). (a, b,) etc. Then all these pairs of roots will give 7.1 Definition
stationary values off(r, y).
To discuss the maximum or minimum atx = 4,, y= b,, If u,, , .., , are functions of n independent variables
we should find X Xy ., X then the determinant
 IT JAM Physics
functions of y, , and
Ou, Theorem. If u,, u, are
: : functions of x,, X, then
@x,
:
O(x,,x) O )
ôx,
of the above Formula,
7.3 Generalization
functions of y
are
ôu, ou, If u,, u, ..., , y,
X, then
y,, J,y.., ), are functions of x, X , * ,a
is called the Jacobian of u,, u,, .., u with respect to x,,
O(y,} y.)
X,, ..., x, and is denoted either by O(u,,u,,.,4,) or by Functions.
O(x,,*,,.A) 74 Jacobian of Implicit
instead OT being Div
u, 1nstead
Theorem. Suppose u,, U,s .....,, U, A
Ju,, u,, ..., u). The second notation is used when there is
n

no doubt asregards the independent variables. explicitly in terms of x,, X .., X are connected with
Ifu, vand ware functions of three independent variables equations such as
x, y and z, we have F(u,, u, ., x, , x) =0
au ôu ôu
x) = 0
Gx ôy
ô(u, v, w)_ ov = Ju, v, w) Then, we have
o(x,y, z) ax y
O(F,F .,. )
| ôx &y ôz
7.2 Case of Function of Function.
We shall establish the formula for twovariables and the d(4,,u,,4,)
variable and the result can be easily extended to any number
of variables.