6.

GAUSS’S LAW
6.1ELECTRIC FLUX
1. Define the concept of flux
In physics and mathematics, flux generally refers to the flow or movement of something through a
surface. More specifically:

1. Physics (Electromagnetism): In the context of electromagnetism, flux typically refers to the quantity of
an electric or magnetic field passing through a given area. For magnetic flux, it is defined as the total
magnetic field passing through a given area. For electric flux, it is defined as the total electric field
passing through a given area.

2. Fluid Dynamics: In fluid dynamics, flux refers to the rate of flow of a fluid, often through a specified
area.

3. Mathematics (Vector Calculus): In vector calculus, flux can refer to the flow of a vector field through a
surface. This is commonly expressed through the surface integral of the dot product of the vector field
and the surface's normal vector.

In all these contexts, flux describes the quantity of something (electric field, magnetic field, fluid, etc.)
passing through a surface or a specified area, often in terms of a rate of flow or the total amount.
2. Describe electric flux
Electric flux is a concept used in physics, particularly in electromagnetism, to quantify the strength of an
electric field passing through a given area or surface. It is defined as the electric field strength multiplied
by the area through which the field lines pass. Here’s a more detailed description:

1. Definition: Electric flux (\(\Phi_E\)) through a surface is defined as the electric field (\(\vec{E}\))
passing through that surface multiplied by the area (\(A\)) of the surface and the cosine of the angle
(\(\theta\)) between the electric field vector and the normal to the surface:

\[
\Phi_E = \vec{E} \cdot \vec{A} = E \cdot A \cdot \cos(\theta)
\]

- \(\vec{E}\) is the electric field vector.

- \(\vec{A}\) is the area vector of the surface.
- \(E\) is the magnitude of the electric field.
- \(A\) is the magnitude of the area.
- \(\theta\) is the angle between the electric field vector and the normal to the surface.

2. Units: The SI unit of electric flux is volt-meters (V·m), which is equivalent to newton·meter² per
coulomb (N·m²/C).

3. Direction: Electric flux can be positive or negative depending on the orientation of the electric field
relative to the surface normal:
 - Positive flux (\(\Phi_E > 0\)) occurs when the electric field and the normal vector point in the same
direction.
- Negative flux (\(\Phi_E < 0\)) occurs when they point in opposite directions.

4. Relation to Gauss's Law: In the context of Gauss's Law in electromagnetism, electric flux is crucial.
Gauss's Law states that the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by that surface (divided by the permittivity of the medium).

Electric flux is a fundamental concept in understanding how electric fields interact with surfaces and is
essential in various areas of physics and engineering, such as circuit theory, electromagnetic theory, and
electrostatics.
3. Calculate electric flux for a given situation
Sure, let's work through another example to calculate electric flux for a given situation.

Example:

Suppose we have an electric field \(\vec{E} = 200 \, \text{N/C}\) directed perpendicular to a surface with
an area \(A = 0.1 \, \text{m}^2\).

1. Magnitude of the electric field: \(E = 200 \, \text{N/C}\).

2. Magnitude of the area: \(A = 0.1 \, \text{m}^2\).

3. Angle between \(\vec{E}\) and \(\vec{A}\): Since the electric field is perpendicular to the surface,
\(\theta = 0^\circ\) (or \(180^\circ\)).

Now, calculate the electric flux (\(\Phi_E\)):

\[
\Phi_E = E \cdot A \cdot \cos(\theta)
\]

For perpendicular orientation (\(\theta = 0^\circ\)):

\[
\cos(0^\circ) = 1
\]

So,

\[
\Phi_E = E \cdot A \cdot 1
\]
\[
\Phi_E = 200 \, \text{N/C} \cdot 0.1 \, \text{m}^2
\]

\[
\Phi_E = 20 \, \text{V·m}
\]

Therefore, the electric flux through the given area, with the specified electric field perpendicular to the
surface, is \(20 \, \text{V·m}\).

This example demonstrates how electric flux is calculated when the electric field is perpendicular to the
surface, simplifying the calculation of the cosine term to 1.
6.2EXPLAINING GAUSS’S LAW
1. State Gauss’s law
Gauss's law is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism that relates the distribution of electric
charge to the electric field. It states:

Gauss's Law: The total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric charge
enclosed by that surface.

Mathematically, Gauss's law is expressed as:

\[
\oint_{\text{closed surface}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{Q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\epsilon_0}
\]

Where:
- \(\oint_{\text{closed surface}}\) denotes the closed surface integral, meaning the surface integral is
taken over a closed surface.
- \(\vec{E}\) is the electric field vector.
- \(d\vec{A}\) is a differential vector element of the surface area, pointing outward from the closed
surface.
- \(Q_{\text{enclosed}}\) is the total electric charge enclosed by the closed surface.
- \(\epsilon_0\) is the permittivity of free space (\(\epsilon_0 \approx 8.85 \times 10^{-12} \,
\text{F/m}\)).

Key Points:
- Gauss's law is a consequence of the principles of electrostatics and provides a powerful tool for
calculating electric fields in symmetric charge distributions.
- The law states that the net electric flux (the integral of the electric field over a closed surface) is
directly proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within that surface.
- It applies to static electric fields (time-independent situations) and plays a crucial role in simplifying
calculations involving symmetric charge distributions, such as spherical, cylindrical, or planar
geometries.

Gauss's law forms the basis for understanding and analyzing electric fields produced by static charge
distributions and is a cornerstone of electromagnetism alongside other fundamental laws like Coulomb's
law and Ampère's law.
2. Explain the conditions under which Gauss’s law may be used
Gauss's law is a powerful tool in electromagnetism that simplifies the calculation of electric fields in
situations with high symmetry. However, there are specific conditions under which Gauss's law can be
applied effectively:

1. Charge Distribution Symmetry: Gauss's law is most straightforwardly applied to situations where the
distribution of electric charge exhibits symmetry, such as:
- Spherical Symmetry: The charge distribution is radially symmetric around a point, like a uniformly
charged sphere or a point charge.
- Cylindrical Symmetry: The charge distribution is symmetric around an axis, like a uniformly charged
cylinder.
- Planar Symmetry: The charge distribution is uniform on an infinite plane.

In these cases, the electric field can be assumed to have the same magnitude and direction at all
points on a closed surface (Gaussian surface) chosen to enclose the charge distribution.

2. Steady-State (Static) Fields: Gauss's law applies to static electric fields where the distribution of
charges does not change over time. In dynamic or time-varying situations, Gauss's law is not directly
applicable because it does not account for changing electric flux due to moving charges.

3. Closed Surface Requirement: Gauss's law requires that the electric flux be calculated through a closed
surface (Gaussian surface). This surface must enclose all the charge that contributes to the electric field
being studied. The electric flux through the closed surface is proportional to the total charge enclosed by
that surface divided by the permittivity of free space (\(\epsilon_0\)).

4. Uniform Electric Field: While Gauss's law can handle non-uniform charge distributions, it assumes that
the electric field over the surface is uniform. This assumption holds well for symmetric charge
distributions where the electric field lines are evenly distributed.

5. Absence of Magnetic Fields (for Electrostatics): Gauss's law applies in the absence of time-varying
magnetic fields (in electrostatics). In electromagnetic situations involving changing magnetic fields
(electrodynamics), Gauss's law must be supplemented by Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction
(Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition).

In summary, Gauss's law is most suitable and reliable in situations with highly symmetric charge
distributions where the electric field can be assumed uniform over a closed surface. It provides an
efficient method for calculating electric fields and understanding the relationship between charge
distribution and electric flux in electrostatics.
3. Apply Gauss’s law in appropriate systems
Let's apply Gauss's law in a couple of appropriate systems where its use is justified due to the
symmetry of the charge distribution:

Example 1: Electric Field of a Uniformly Charged Sphere

Consider a uniformly charged sphere with total charge \( Q \) and radius \( R \). We want to find the
electric field at a point outside the sphere.

Step-by-Step Application:

1. Choose a Gaussian Surface:

- Select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius \( r \) centered at the center of the sphere.

2. Apply Gauss's Law:

- Gauss's law states:
\[
\oint_{\text{sphere}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{Q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\epsilon_0}
\]
Where \( Q_{\text{enclosed}} \) is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, and \( \epsilon_0 \)
is the permittivity of free space.

3. Calculate the Electric Flux:

- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) is radially outward and uniform on the Gaussian surface.
- The area element \( d\vec{A} \) is also outward and perpendicular to \( \vec{E} \).

\[
\oint_{\text{sphere}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = E \cdot 4\pi r^2
\]

4. Determine the Enclosed Charge:

- For a uniformly charged sphere, the charge enclosed within a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
\( r \) is:
\[
Q_{\text{enclosed}} = \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3 \cdot \rho
\]
where \( \rho \) is the charge density (\( \rho = \frac{Q}{\frac{4}{3} \pi R^3} \)).

5. Relate to Gauss's Law:

- Equating and solving for the electric field \( E \):
\[
E \cdot 4\pi r^2 = \frac{Q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\epsilon_0}
 \]
\[
E \cdot 4\pi r^2 = \frac{\rho \cdot \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3}{\epsilon_0}
\]
\[
E = \frac{\rho \cdot r}{3 \epsilon_0}
\]

6. Result:
- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) outside a uniformly charged sphere is \( \vec{E} = \frac{\rho \cdot
\vec{r}}{3 \epsilon_0} \), where \( \vec{r} \) is the radial vector from the center of the sphere to the
point of interest.

Example 2: Electric Field of an Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge

Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge with uniform surface charge density \( \sigma \). We want
to find the electric field near and parallel to the sheet.

Step-by-Step Application:

1. Choose a Gaussian Surface:

- Choose a rectangular Gaussian surface with two faces parallel to the plane and one perpendicular.

2. Apply Gauss's Law:

- Gauss's law states:
\[
\oint_{\text{plane}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{Q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\epsilon_0}
\]

3. Calculate the Electric Flux:

- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) is uniform and perpendicular to the plane within the Gaussian
surface.

\[
\oint_{\text{plane}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = E \cdot A
\]
where \( A \) is the area of one face of the Gaussian surface.

4. Determine the Enclosed Charge:

- The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is the charge density times the area of the Gaussian
surface.

\[
Q_{\text{enclosed}} = \sigma \cdot A
 \]

5. Relate to Gauss's Law:

- Equate and solve for the electric field \( E \):

\[
E \cdot A = \frac{\sigma \cdot A}{\epsilon_0}
\]

\[
E = \frac{\sigma}{\epsilon_0}
\]

6. Result:
- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) near an infinite plane sheet of charge with uniform surface charge
density \( \sigma \) is \( \vec{E} = \frac{\sigma}{\epsilon_0} \), directed away from the sheet.

In both examples, Gauss's law is applied to systems with symmetrical charge distributions, allowing
for straightforward calculation of the electric field using the concept of electric flux through
appropriately chosen Gaussian surfaces.
6.3APPLYING GAUSS’S LAW
1. Explain what spherical, cylindrical, and planar symmetry are
Spherical, cylindrical, and planar symmetry are terms used in physics to describe the spatial distribution
of objects or fields in a way that exhibits specific geometric properties. These symmetries are crucial in
various physical contexts, especially in electromagnetism and fluid dynamics, where they simplify
calculations and provide insights into the behavior of systems.

1. Spherical Symmetry:

Definition: Spherical symmetry refers to a situation where an object or a field is symmetric around a
point, often referred to as the center of symmetry.

- Characteristics:
- The object or field looks the same from all directions when viewed from the center.
- Mathematically, if you rotate the object or the coordinate system around the center, its appearance
or properties remain unchanged.

- Examples:
- A uniformly charged sphere: The electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere is spherically
symmetric around its center.
- A star or planet: From a distance, stars and planets appear symmetric because their gravitational and
electromagnetic fields exhibit spherical symmetry around their centers.

2. Cylindrical Symmetry:
Definition: Cylindrical symmetry occurs when an object or a field is symmetric around an axis, typically
referred to as the cylindrical axis.

- Characteristics:
- The object or field looks the same when rotated around the axis of symmetry.
- In practical terms, this means that if you rotate the object or the coordinate system around the axis,
its properties or appearance do not change.

- Examples:
- An infinitely long straight wire carrying a uniform current: The magnetic field around such a wire has
cylindrical symmetry along the axis of the wire.
- Flow inside a long cylindrical pipe: Fluid flow in a long cylindrical pipe can exhibit cylindrical symmetry
if conditions are steady and the pipe is uniform.

3. Planar Symmetry:

Definition: Planar symmetry describes a situation where an object or a field has symmetry in one plane,
often an infinite plane.

- Characteristics:
- The object or field looks the same on either side of the plane of symmetry.
- This symmetry is usually associated with objects or fields that extend infinitely in one or more
directions.

- Examples:
- An infinite plane sheet of charge: The electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is uniform
and perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.
- Reflection symmetry in crystal structures: Crystal structures often exhibit planar symmetry in certain
planes due to the regular arrangement of atoms or molecules.

Importance in Physics:

- Simplification of Calculations: Systems exhibiting spherical, cylindrical, or planar symmetry allow for
the use of symmetry arguments and mathematical techniques that significantly simplify the calculation
of fields (such as electric, magnetic, or gravitational) or the analysis of fluid dynamics.

- Insights into Physical Systems: Symmetry considerations provide insights into the behavior and
properties of physical systems, aiding in the development of physical theories and models.

In summary, spherical, cylindrical, and planar symmetry are fundamental concepts in physics that
describe the geometric properties of objects or fields and play a crucial role in simplifying and
understanding complex physical phenomena.
2. Recognize whether or not a given system possesses one of these symmetries
Recognizing whether a given system possesses spherical, cylindrical, or planar symmetry involves
analyzing the geometry and distribution of objects or fields within that system. Here are some guidelines
to help identify each type of symmetry:

1. Spherical Symmetry:

Characteristics:
- The system or object looks the same from all directions when viewed from a central point.
- It is invariant under rotations around the central point.

Examples:
- Uniformly charged sphere: The electric field around a uniformly charged sphere is spherically
symmetric because the field strength and direction are the same at any given distance from the center,
regardless of the direction.

Recognition:
- Check if the system or object has a center point from which it appears symmetrical in all directions.
- Confirm if the properties (e.g., electric field, gravitational field) remain unchanged under rotations
around this central point.

2. Cylindrical Symmetry:

Characteristics:
- The system or object looks the same when viewed along the axis of symmetry.
- It is invariant under rotations around the axis of symmetry.

Examples:
- Infinitely long straight wire with uniform current: The magnetic field around such a wire is cylindrically
symmetric because it is the same at any point along the length of the wire and around the wire.

Recognition:
- Identify if the system or object has a defined axis (typically extending infinitely) around which
properties (e.g., field strength, flow pattern) are consistent.
- Confirm if the properties remain unchanged when viewed from different angles around this axis.

3. Planar Symmetry:

Characteristics:
- The system or object exhibits symmetry across a plane.
- Properties are invariant under reflections across this plane.

Examples:
- Infinite plane sheet of charge: The electric field above and below the plane is uniform and
perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.
Recognition:
- Determine if the system or object extends infinitely in one or more directions, establishing a flat
surface or plane.
- Check if properties (e.g., electric field, density distribution) are uniform and identical on either side of
this plane.

Steps to Recognize Symmetry:

1. Visual Inspection: Look at the geometry of the system or object. Identify any obvious symmetry axes,
centers, or planes.

2. Properties Analysis: Examine how properties such as electric field, magnetic field, gravitational
potential, or fluid flow vary with position and direction relative to symmetry axes or planes.

3. Mathematical Analysis: Apply symmetry arguments to equations governing the system (e.g., Gauss's
law, Maxwell's equations) to check if they simplify under assumptions of symmetry.

4. Experimental Observations: Compare experimental results or simulations with expected behaviors

under symmetrical conditions.

By applying these steps and understanding the defining characteristics of spherical, cylindrical, and
planar symmetry, one can effectively recognize which type of symmetry (if any) a given physical system
possesses.
3. Apply Gauss’s law to determine the electric field of a system with one of these symmetries
Let's apply Gauss's law to determine the electric field of a system with spherical symmetry. Specifically,
we'll consider the electric field outside a uniformly charged sphere.

Applying Gauss's Law to a Uniformly Charged Sphere:

Problem Statement: Determine the electric field (\(\vec{E}\)) outside a uniformly charged sphere of
radius \(R\) and total charge \(Q\).

Steps to Solution:

1. Choose a Gaussian Surface:

- Select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius \(r > R\) centered at the center of the charged sphere.

2. Apply Gauss's Law:

- Gauss's law states:
\[
\oint_{\text{sphere}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = \frac{Q_{\text{enclosed}}}{\epsilon_0}
\]
 Where \( Q_{\text{enclosed}} \) is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, and \( \epsilon_0 \) is
the permittivity of free space.

3. Calculate the Electric Flux:

- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) is radially outward and uniform on the Gaussian surface.
- The area element \( d\vec{A} \) is also outward and perpendicular to \( \vec{E} \).

\[
\oint_{\text{sphere}} \vec{E} \cdot d\vec{A} = E \cdot 4\pi r^2
\]

4. Determine the Enclosed Charge:

- For a uniformly charged sphere, the charge enclosed within a spherical Gaussian surface of radius \( r
\) is \( Q_{\text{enclosed}} = Q \).

5. Relate to Gauss's Law:

- Equate and solve for the electric field \( E \):

\[
E \cdot 4\pi r^2 = \frac{Q}{\epsilon_0}
\]

\[
E = \frac{Q}{4\pi \epsilon_0 r^2}
\]

6. Result:
- The electric field \( \vec{E} \) outside a uniformly charged sphere is \( \vec{E} = \frac{Q}{4\pi
\epsilon_0 r^2} \, \hat{r} \), where \( \hat{r} \) is the unit vector in the radial direction from the center of
the sphere.

Interpretation:
- This result shows that the electric field outside a uniformly charged sphere behaves as if all the charge
were concentrated at the sphere's center.
- The electric field magnitude decreases with the square of the distance \( r \) from the center of the
sphere, consistent with the inverse-square law.

Verification of Spherical Symmetry:

- The calculation assumes spherical symmetry, where the electric field is radially symmetric around the
center of the sphere.
- This symmetry simplifies the application of Gauss's law, as the electric field magnitude and direction
are uniform over the Gaussian surface.
By following these steps and applying Gauss's law under the assumption of spherical symmetry, we
successfully determine the electric field outside a uniformly charged sphere. This approach can be
adapted similarly for systems exhibiting cylindrical or planar symmetry, adjusting the choice of Gaussian
surface and the application of Gauss's law accordingly.
6.4CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
1. Describe the electric field within a conductor at equilibrium
The electric field within a conductor at equilibrium is zero. This fundamental principle arises from the
nature of conductors and the behavior of electric fields inside them:

Understanding Electric Field in a Conductor:

1. Conductor Properties:
- Conductors are materials that allow electric charges to move freely in response to an applied electric
field.
- In equilibrium, the charges within a conductor redistribute themselves in such a way that cancels any
electric field inside the conductor.

2. Electrostatic Equilibrium:
- When a conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium, the electric potential throughout the conductor is
constant (uniform).
- Charges distribute themselves on the surface of the conductor in such a way that the electric field
inside the conductor becomes zero.

3. Gauss's Law and Conductors:

- Gauss's law states that the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge
enclosed by that surface.
- For a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, if there were an electric field inside the conductor,
charges would move in response until the electric field cancels out, ensuring the net electric flux
through any closed surface within the conductor is zero.

Key Points:

- Electric Field is Zero: Inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field is exactly zero
everywhere.
- Surface Charge Distribution: Charges accumulate on the surface of the conductor to cancel any
external electric fields.
- Uniform Potential: The electric potential is constant throughout the conductor in equilibrium.
- Electrostatic Shielding: Conductors shield the interior from external electric fields, ensuring the
absence of electric fields inside.

Practical Implications:

- This property of conductors forms the basis for Faraday cages, which are conductive enclosures that
protect sensitive equipment from external electromagnetic interference.
- In electronics, conductors are used to ensure that electrical circuits and components operate in a
controlled environment where electric fields are negligible inside the conductors themselves.

In summary, the electric field within a conductor at equilibrium is zero due to the redistribution of
charges on its surface, ensuring electrostatic equilibrium and canceling any internal electric fields. This
fundamental property of conductors plays a crucial role in various applications across physics and
engineering.
2. Describe the electric field immediately outside the surface of a charged conductor at
equilibrium
The electric field immediately outside the surface of a charged conductor at equilibrium is perpendicular
to the surface and directed outward (away from the surface). Here’s a detailed description of the
electric field in this scenario:

Electric Field Outside a Charged Conductor:

1. Surface Charge Distribution:

- When a conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium and has a net charge \( Q \), the charge redistributes
itself on the surface of the conductor.
- This redistribution ensures that the electric potential on the surface is constant (uniform) and the
electric field just outside the surface is perpendicular to it.

2. Gauss's Law and Electric Field:

- Gauss's law applied to the surface of the conductor (considering a small Gaussian surface just outside
the conductor) relates the electric field \( \vec{E} \) to the surface charge density \( \sigma \):
\[
\vec{E}_{\text{outside}} = \frac{\sigma}{\epsilon_0} \hat{n}
\]
where \( \sigma \) is the surface charge density (charge per unit area) on the conductor's surface, \(
\epsilon_0 \) is the permittivity of free space (\( \epsilon_0 \approx 8.85 \times 10^{-12} \, \text{F/m}
\)), and \( \hat{n} \) is the unit normal vector pointing outward from the surface.

3. Direction and Magnitude:

- Direction: The electric field \( \vec{E}_{\text{outside}} \) is perpendicular to the surface of the
conductor and points away from the surface.
- Magnitude: The magnitude of the electric field just outside the surface is directly proportional to the
surface charge density \( \sigma \).

4. Surface Charge Density:

- \( \sigma \) depends on the total charge \( Q \) and the geometry of the conductor’s surface. For a
spherical conductor of radius \( R \), \( \sigma = \frac{Q}{4\pi R^2} \).

5. Practical Implications:
- The electric field outside a charged conductor influences the behavior of nearby objects and can
induce charges on nearby conductors or insulators.
 - This understanding is crucial in designing electrostatic shielding and in controlling electric fields in
various applications.

Summary:

At equilibrium, a charged conductor exhibits a uniform electric field immediately outside its surface. This
electric field is perpendicular to the surface and directed outward, with its magnitude determined by the
surface charge density. Understanding the behavior of the electric field outside a conductor helps in
various practical applications involving electrostatics and electromagnetic interactions.
3. Explain why the field is not as described in the first two objectives, the conductor is not at
equilibrium
If a conductor is not at equilibrium, the electric field characteristics described in the previous objectives
may not hold true. Here’s an explanation of why this is the case:

Electric Field Characteristics in a Non-Equilibrium Conductor:

1. Internal Electric Field:

- In a non-equilibrium conductor, charges may not have redistributed themselves to cancel out internal
electric fields.
- This means there can be regions within the conductor where an electric field exists, contrary to the
principle that in equilibrium, the electric field inside a conductor is zero.

2. Surface Electric Field:

- Outside the surface of a non-equilibrium conductor, the electric field may not be perpendicular or
uniform.
- Charges may accumulate unevenly on the surface or may be in the process of redistributing, leading
to non-uniform surface charge densities and consequently non-uniform electric fields outside the
conductor.

3. Consequences of Non-Equilibrium:
- Charge Redistribution: Charges inside the conductor may be in motion, trying to reach equilibrium.
During this process, the electric field inside the conductor may vary spatially and temporally.
- Surface Effects: The electric field just outside the surface may exhibit fluctuations or non-uniformity
due to ongoing charge redistributions or external influences.

Causes of Non-Equilibrium:

- Recent Charging or Discharging: If a conductor has been recently charged or discharged, it may not
have had enough time to reach electrostatic equilibrium.
- External Influences: Presence of nearby electric fields, electromagnetic radiation, or transient currents
can disturb the equilibrium state of a conductor.
- Non-Stationary Conditions: Conductors in dynamic environments or subjected to changing external
conditions may not maintain equilibrium.
Practical Scenarios:

- Charging or Discharging Events: For example, when a conductor is being charged or discharged by an
external source, it temporarily deviates from equilibrium.
- Induced Fields: Nearby objects or varying fields can induce currents or charge redistributions in the
conductor, affecting its equilibrium state.

Conclusion:

In summary, the electric field characteristics described for conductors in equilibrium (zero electric field
inside, uniform field outside) do not apply to conductors that are not at equilibrium. In non-equilibrium
situations, internal and external electric fields can vary, reflecting ongoing charge redistributions or
external influences. Understanding these dynamics is essential for accurately modeling and predicting
the behavior of conductors in various physical and practical contexts.