12.

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

THE BIOT-SAVART LAW
1. Explain how to derive a magnetic field from an arbitrary current in line segment
To derive the magnetic field created by an arbitrary current in a line segment, you can follow these
steps:

1. Determine the Current Distribution

First, define the current distribution along the line segment. Typically, this can be represented as \( I \),
assuming the current is constant along the segment.

2. Choose a Coordinate System

Select a coordinate system that simplifies the calculation. For a line segment, it's often convenient to
use a Cartesian coordinate system where the line segment lies along the \( z \)-axis.

3. Apply Biot-Savart Law

The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point in space due to a current element \( d\mathbf{l} \) is given
by the Biot-Savart Law:

\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{r}}{r^3} \]

where:
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I \) is the current flowing through the element \( d\mathbf{l} \),
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is the infinitesimal vector element of the current-carrying conductor,
- \( \mathbf{r} \) is the vector from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point where the magnetic field is being
calculated,
- \( r \) is the magnitude of \( \mathbf{r} \).

4. Integrate Along the Line Segment

To find the total magnetic field at a point due to the entire line segment, integrate the expression for \(
d\mathbf{B} \) over the entire length of the segment \( L \):

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \int_{\text{segment}} \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times

\mathbf{r}}{r^3} \]

This integral sums up the contributions from all infinitesimal current elements along the line segment to
give the total magnetic field at point \( \mathbf{r} \).

Example: Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Straight Current-Carrying Wire

As a specific example, if you want to find the magnetic field on the axis of a straight wire carrying
current \( I \), located at a distance \( R \) from the wire, the integral would be set up as:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \int_{\text{wire}} \frac{\mu_0 I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \mathbf{r}}{4\pi r^3} \]

where \( \mathbf{r} \) is the vector from the current element \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point where you
are calculating the field.

Conclusion

Deriving the magnetic field from an arbitrary current in a line segment involves applying the Biot-Savart
Law and integrating over the length of the segment. The process is essential in understanding how
magnetic fields are generated by electric currents and is foundational in electromagnetism.

2. Calculate magnetic field from the Biot-Savart law in specific geometries, such as current in a
line and a current in a circular arc
Certainly! Let's calculate the magnetic field using the Biot-Savart law for two specific geometries:
current in a straight line segment and current in a circular arc.

1. Magnetic Field due to Current in a Straight Line Segment

Consider a straight line segment carrying a steady current \( I \) along the \( z \)-axis from \( z = -L/2 \) to
\( z = L/2 \).

# Setup:
- Current Element: \( d\mathbf{l} = dz \, \hat{z} \) (assuming current density \( J = I/L \) for uniform
current distribution)
- Point of Interest: Point at coordinates \( (x', y', z') \)

# Biot-Savart Law:
The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at point \( (x', y', z') \) is given by integrating over the length of the
segment:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \int_{-L/2}^{L/2} \frac{dz \, \hat{z} \times

\mathbf{r}}{r^3} \]

Here, \( \mathbf{r} = (x' - 0, y' - 0, z' - z) = (x', y', z' - z) \).

# Evaluation:
- \( \hat{z} \times \mathbf{r} = \begin{vmatrix} \hat{x} & \hat{y} & \hat{z} \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \\ x' & y' & z' - z
\end{vmatrix} = (-y', x', 0) \)
- \( r = \sqrt{x'^2 + y'^2 + (z' - z)^2} \)

After integration:
\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \frac{(-y' \hat{x} + x' \hat{y})}{\sqrt{x'^2 + y'^2 + (z' -
z)^2}} \]

2. Magnetic Field due to Current in a Circular Arc

Consider a circular arc of radius \( R \) carrying current \( I \) centered at the origin, lying in the \( xy \)-
plane from \( \theta = 0 \) to \( \theta = \phi \).

# Setup:
- Current Element: \( d\mathbf{l} = R d\theta \, (-\sin \theta \, \hat{x} + \cos \theta \, \hat{y}) \)
- Point of Interest: Point at coordinates \( (x', y', 0) \)

# Biot-Savart Law:
The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at point \( (x', y', 0) \) is given by integrating over the arc:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \int_{0}^{\phi} \frac{R d\theta \, (-\sin \theta \, \hat{x} +

\cos \theta \, \hat{y}) \times (x' \hat{x} + y' \hat{y})}{(R^2 + x'^2 + y'^2 - 2Rx' \cos \theta)^{3/2}} \]

# Evaluation:
- Simplify the cross product and integrate over \( \theta \) to find \( \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) \).

Conclusion:

These calculations illustrate how the Biot-Savart law can be applied to find the magnetic field at a point
due to specific current geometries. The integrals involve careful consideration of the geometry of the
current distribution and the position of the point where the magnetic field is being evaluated.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A THIN STRAIGHT WIRE

1. Explain how the Biot-Savart law is used to determine the magnetic field due to a thin, straight
wire
The Biot-Savart law is fundamental in determining the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point in space
due to a steady current \( I \) flowing through a thin, straight wire. Here’s a step-by-step explanation of
how it is applied:

1. Current Element Representation

Consider a thin, straight wire carrying a current \( I \) along the \( z \)-axis. The wire extends from \( z = -
L/2 \) to \( z = L/2 \).

2. Biot-Savart Law Formula

The Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point \( \mathbf{r} \) due to an
infinitesimal current element \( d\mathbf{l} \) is given by:
\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

where:
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I \) is the current flowing through the element \( d\mathbf{l} \),
- \( \mathbf{r} \) is the vector from the current element \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point where the
magnetic field is being calculated,
- \( r = |\mathbf{r}| \) is the magnitude of \( \mathbf{r} \),
- \( \hat{\mathbf{r}} = \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} \) is the unit vector in the direction of \( \mathbf{r} \).

3. Direction of \( d\mathbf{l} \) and \( \mathbf{r} \)

For a straight wire along the \( z \)-axis:

- \( d\mathbf{l} = dz \, \hat{z} \), where \( dz \) is an infinitesimal length along the wire,
- \( \mathbf{r} = (x, y, z) - (0, 0, z') = (x, y, z - z') \), where \( (x, y, z') \) is the point where the magnetic
field is being calculated.

4. Integrating over the Wire

To find the total magnetic field at \( (x, y, z') \) due to the entire length of the wire:
\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \int_{-L/2}^{L/2} \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, dz \, \hat{z} \times (x \hat{x} +
y \hat{y} + (z - z') \hat{z})}{((x^2 + y^2 + (z - z')^2)^{3/2})} \]

5. Symmetry and Simplification

Due to the symmetry of the problem and the cylindrical symmetry of the current distribution along the
wire, the resulting magnetic field typically simplifies to:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \frac{2 \pi R^2}{(R^2 + (z - z')^2)^{3/2}} \hat{z} \]

where \( R \) is the perpendicular distance from the point \( (x, y, z') \) to the wire.

Conclusion

The Biot-Savart law provides a systematic way to calculate the magnetic field at any point in space due
to a steady current flowing through a thin, straight wire. It involves integrating contributions from
infinitesimal current elements along the wire, taking into account the direction and magnitude of each
element relative to the point where the field is being evaluated. This law is essential in
electromagnetism and forms the basis for understanding magnetic fields generated by currents.

2. Determine the dependence of the magnetic field from thin, straight wire based on the
distance from it and the current flowing in the wire
The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) generated by a thin, straight wire carrying a steady current \( I \)
depends on both the distance \( r \) from the wire and the magnitude of the current \( I \). Here’s how
the dependence is determined:

Magnetic Field Dependence on Distance \( r \)

The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a distance \( r \) from the wire is inversely proportional to \( r \).
This is derived from the Biot-Savart law, which states:

\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

Integrating this expression over the entire length of the wire gives the total magnetic field at a point \(
\mathbf{r} \) from the wire:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \int \frac{d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

For a straight wire along the \( z \)-axis from \( z = -L/2 \) to \( z = L/2 \), the magnetic field at a point \(
(x, y, z') \) due to the wire simplifies to:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \frac{2 \pi R^2}{(R^2 + (z - z')^2)^{3/2}} \hat{z} \]

where \( R \) is the perpendicular distance from the point \( (x, y, z') \) to the wire.

Magnetic Field Dependence on Current \( I \)

The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) is directly proportional to the current \( I \) flowing through the wire.
This means that doubling the current \( I \) will double the magnetic field strength at a given distance \(
r \).

Combined Dependence

Combining these dependencies, the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) from a thin, straight wire at a
distance \( r \) is given by:

\[ \mathbf{B}(r) \propto \frac{I}{r} \]

This relationship shows that the magnetic field strength \( \mathbf{B} \) decreases with increasing
distance \( r \) from the wire and increases with increasing current \( I \) flowing through the wire.

Conclusion

Understanding the dependence of the magnetic field from a thin, straight wire on distance \( r \) and
current \( I \) is crucial in various applications of electromagnetism. The inverse proportionality to
distance and direct proportionality to current are fundamental characteristics derived from the Biot-
Savart law, which governs magnetic field calculations due to steady currents.

3. Sketch the magnetic field created from thin, straight wire by using the second right-hand rule.
To sketch the magnetic field created by a thin, straight wire using the second right-hand rule (also
known as the right-hand rule for current-carrying conductors), follow these steps:

Setup and Right-Hand Rule for Current-Carrying Conductors

1. Orientation of the Wire: Imagine a thin, straight wire carrying a current \( I \).
- Direction of Current: Determine the direction of the current flow in the wire. For this example, let's
assume the current flows upwards along the \( z \)-axis.

2. Second Right-Hand Rule: This rule helps determine the direction of the magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor:
- Thumb: Point your right thumb in the direction of the current (in this case, upwards along the \( z \)-
axis).
- Fingers: Your curled fingers around the wire will point in the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Sketching the Magnetic Field

Now, let's sketch the magnetic field around the wire:

- Orientation: Draw the thin, straight wire running vertically along the \( z \)-axis.
- Direction of Current: Indicate that the current flows upwards (out of the page in a 2D sketch or along
the \( z \)-axis).
- Magnetic Field Lines: Around the wire, draw circles or concentric loops to represent the magnetic field
lines.
- The circles should be perpendicular to the wire and centered on it.
- Use the right-hand rule: where your fingers curl around the wire (clockwise or counterclockwise),
indicating the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Example Sketch:

Here's a simplified sketch to illustrate:

```
^ B-field
|
| **************************
| * *
| * *
| * Magnetic Field Lines *
| * *
 | * *
| **************************
|
|------------------->
Wire (current flowing upwards)
```

- Explanation:
- The thin, straight wire is represented by the vertical line.
- The circles around the wire symbolize the magnetic field lines.
- The asterisks (*) indicate the direction of the magnetic field lines, following the right-hand rule.

Additional Tips:

- Ensure the magnetic field lines are evenly spaced and symmetric around the wire, reflecting the
cylindrical symmetry of the magnetic field created by a straight current-carrying conductor.
- The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire, following the \( 1/r \)
dependence.

This sketch and understanding help visualize how the magnetic field is structured around a straight
current-carrying wire, as determined by the second right-hand rule.

MAGNETIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS

1. Explain how parallel wires carrying currents can attract or repel each other
Parallel wires carrying currents can attract or repel each other due to the interaction of their magnetic
fields. This interaction is governed by the following principles:

1. Magnetic Field Produced by Current-Carrying Wires

Each wire carrying a steady electric current generates a magnetic field around it. According to the Biot-
Savart law, the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point due to a current \( I \) flowing through a wire
depends on the distance from the wire and the current magnitude. For a long straight wire, the
magnetic field at a perpendicular distance \( r \) is:

\[ B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r} \]

where \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space.

2. Direction of Magnetic Fields

The direction of the magnetic field around each wire is determined using the right-hand rule:
- Wrap your right-hand fingers around the wire in the direction of the current.
- Your thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field lines.
For two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction:
- The magnetic fields around each wire will have circular lines that surround the wire and extend
outward.

3. Interaction Between Parallel Wires

When two parallel wires carry currents in the same direction:

- Attractive Force: The magnetic fields produced by each wire reinforce each other between the wires.
This results in an attractive force between the wires.
- Repulsive Force: If the currents flow in opposite directions in the wires, their magnetic fields will
oppose each other between the wires, resulting in a repulsive force.

4. Quantitative Analysis

The force \( F \) per unit length between two parallel wires can be calculated using the formula derived
from the interaction of their magnetic fields:

\[ F = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2\pi r} \]

where:
- \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \) are the currents in the two wires,
- \( r \) is the distance between the wires,
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space.

- Attractive Force: If \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \) are in the same direction, the force is attractive.
- Repulsive Force: If \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \) are in opposite directions, the force is repulsive.

Conclusion

The attraction or repulsion of parallel wires carrying currents is a direct consequence of the interaction
between their magnetic fields. This phenomenon is essential in understanding electromagnetic
interactions and is utilized in various applications, including in electromagnets, transformers, and
electric motors.

2. Define the ampere and describe how it is related to current-carrying wires

An ampere (symbol: A) is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined in terms of the force of attraction or
repulsion between two parallel current-carrying conductors. Here's a detailed explanation:

Definition of Ampere

The ampere is formally defined as:

"One ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite
length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between
these conductors a force equal to \( 2 \times 10^{-7} \) newton per meter of length."

Practical Interpretation

In simpler terms, the ampere measures the amount of electric charge flowing through a point in a circuit
per unit time. It is a fundamental unit in electromagnetism and relates directly to the concept of
current-carrying wires.

Relationship to Current-Carrying Wires

1. Current Definition: The ampere defines the flow rate of electric charge. When a current of 1 ampere
flows through a wire, it means that 1 coulomb of electric charge passes through a cross-sectional area of
the wire per second.

2. Force Between Wires: As per the definition, the ampere is related to the force experienced between
two parallel current-carrying wires. If both wires carry the same current in the same direction, they
attract each other due to their magnetic fields. The strength of this force per unit length is directly
proportional to the product of the currents and inversely proportional to the distance between the
wires.

3. Applications: Ampere's law, a fundamental law in electromagnetism, relates the magnetic field
around a current-carrying conductor to the magnitude of the current. It is essential in understanding
and calculating the magnetic fields produced by wires, solenoids, and other current-carrying devices.

Practical Uses

- Measurement: Instruments such as ammeters measure current flow in circuits, which is crucial for
determining the operational state of electrical devices.

- Engineering: Designing circuits, transformers, motors, and other electrical devices involves calculating
and controlling currents, ensuring efficient and safe operation.

Conclusion

The ampere is a fundamental unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It defines
the flow of electric charge through conductors and is closely related to the magnetic fields produced by
current-carrying wires. Understanding the ampere and its implications helps in the design, analysis, and
operation of electrical systems and devices in various applications.

3. Calculate the force of attraction or repulsion between two current-carrying wires

To calculate the force of attraction or repulsion between two parallel current-carrying wires, we use
Ampère's law, which describes the magnetic force between the wires due to their respective magnetic
fields. Here’s how we approach the calculation:

Assumptions and Setup

Assume we have two parallel wires, each carrying a current \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \), separated by a
distance \( r \).

1. Magnetic Field Due to Each Wire: The magnetic field \( B_1 \) produced by the first wire at the
location of the second wire is given by:

\[ B_1 = \frac{\mu_0 I_1}{2 \pi r} \]

Similarly, the magnetic field \( B_2 \) produced by the second wire at the location of the first wire is:

\[ B_2 = \frac{\mu_0 I_2}{2 \pi r} \]

where \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 \approx 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A).

2. Force Between Wires: The force \( F \) per unit length between the two wires is given by:

\[ F = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi r} \]

This formula assumes the currents are in the same direction. If the currents are in opposite directions,
the force would be repulsive.

Direction of Force

- Attractive Force: If \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \) are in the same direction, the wires attract each other.
- Repulsive Force: If \( I_1 \) and \( I_2 \) are in opposite directions, the wires repel each other.

Calculation Example

Let's calculate the force between two wires:

- Wire 1 carries \( I_1 = 5 \) A
- Wire 2 carries \( I_2 = 3 \) A
- The wires are separated by \( r = 0.1 \) m

Using the formula:

\[ F = \frac{\mu_0 I_1 I_2}{2 \pi r} \]

Substitute the given values:

\[ F = \frac{4\pi \times 10^{-7} \cdot 5 \cdot 3}{2 \pi \cdot 0.1} \]

\[ F = \frac{6 \times 10^{-6}}{0.2} \]

\[ F = 3 \times 10^{-5} \text{ N/m} \]

Therefore, the force between the two wires is \( 3 \times 10^{-5} \) Newtons per meter of wire length.

Conclusion

The force between two current-carrying wires depends on the magnitudes of the currents \( I_1 \) and \(
I_2 \), their separation distance \( r \), and whether the currents are in the same or opposite directions.
This interaction is fundamental in electromagnetism and has practical applications in various electrical
and electronic devices.

MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CURRENT LOOP

1. Explain how the Biot-Savart law is used to determine the magnetic field due to the current in a
loop of wire at a point along a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop
The Biot-Savart law is fundamental in calculating the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) generated by a
current-carrying loop of wire at a point located along a line perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
Here’s a step-by-step explanation of how it is applied:

Setup

Consider a circular loop of radius \( R \) carrying a steady current \( I \) in the \( xy \)-plane, centered at
the origin \( (0, 0, 0) \). We want to find the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point \( P \) located
along the \( z \)-axis, perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

Biot-Savart Law

The Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point \( \mathbf{r} \) due to a
small current element \( d\mathbf{l} \) is given by:

\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

where:
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 = 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I \) is the current flowing through the loop,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is an infinitesimal segment of the current loop,
- \( \mathbf{r} \) is the vector from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point where the magnetic field is being
calculated,
- \( r \) is the magnitude of \( \mathbf{r} \),
- \( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \) is the unit vector in the direction of \( \mathbf{r} \).
Applying to a Current Loop

1. Current Element \( d\mathbf{l} \): For a circular loop in the \( xy \)-plane, \( d\mathbf{l} = R \, d\theta
\, (-\sin\theta \, \hat{x} + \cos\theta \, \hat{y}) \), where \( \theta \) is the angle around the loop.

2. Distance \( \mathbf{r} \): At point \( P \) on the \( z \)-axis, \( \mathbf{r} = (0, 0, z) \), where \( z \) is
the perpendicular distance from the center of the loop to point \( P \).

3. Integration: Integrate the contribution of \( d\mathbf{B} \) over the entire loop to find the total
magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at point \( P \):

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \int_{0}^{2\pi} \frac{R \, d\theta \, (-\sin\theta \,

\hat{x} + \cos\theta \, \hat{y}) \times (0, 0, z)}{z^2} \]

4. Simplification: The cross product simplifies to \( (-\cos\theta, -\sin\theta, 0) \). Therefore,

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I R^2}{4\pi z^3} \int_{0}^{2\pi} (-\cos\theta, -\sin\theta, 0) \,

d\theta \]

Evaluate the integral:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I R^2}{4\pi z^3} \left[ \int_{0}^{2\pi} -\cos\theta \, d\theta \,

\hat{x} - \int_{0}^{2\pi} \sin\theta \, d\theta \, \hat{y} \right] \]

Solving these integrals gives:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I R^2}{2 z^3} (-\hat{x} - \hat{y}) \]

Result

The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point \( P \) along the \( z \)-axis, perpendicular to the plane of
the current loop, is:

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 I R^2}{2 z^3} (-\hat{x} - \hat{y}) \]

This field is directed downwards along the \( z \)-axis and its magnitude decreases as \( \frac{1}{z^3} \),
where \( z \) is the distance from the center of the loop to point \( P \).

2. Determine the magnetic field of an arc of current.

To determine the magnetic field created by an arc of current, we can use the Biot-Savart law, which
describes the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point due to a current-carrying conductor. Here’s how
we approach calculating the magnetic field of an arc of current:
Setup and Assumptions

Consider an arc of wire carrying a current \( I \). Let's assume the arc is part of a circle of radius \( R \)
centered at the origin in the \( xy \)-plane. The arc spans from \( \theta = \theta_1 \) to \( \theta =
\theta_2 \).

Biot-Savart Law for an Arc

The differential magnetic field \( d\mathbf{B} \) at a point \( P \) due to a small segment \( d\mathbf{l} \)
of the arc is given by:

\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

where:
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space,
- \( I \) is the current flowing through the arc,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is the differential element of the arc,
- \( \mathbf{r} \) is the vector from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point \( P \),
- \( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \) is the unit vector in the direction of \( \mathbf{r} \),
- \( r \) is the magnitude of \( \mathbf{r} \).

Differential Element \( d\mathbf{l} \)

For an arc of radius \( R \) and small angular segment \( d\theta \), the differential element \(
d\mathbf{l} \) can be expressed as:

\[ d\mathbf{l} = R \, d\theta \, \hat{\theta} \]

where \( \hat{\theta} \) is the unit vector in the tangential direction of the arc.

Vector \( \mathbf{r} \)

The vector \( \mathbf{r} \) from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to point \( P \) is:

\[ \mathbf{r} = \mathbf{r}_P - \mathbf{r}_l \]

where \( \mathbf{r}_P \) is the position vector of point \( P \) and \( \mathbf{r}_l \) is the position vector
of \( d\mathbf{l} \).

Integration to Find Magnetic Field

To find the total magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at point \( P \) due to the entire arc, integrate \(
d\mathbf{B} \) over the arc:
\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}_P) = \frac{\mu_0 I}{4\pi} \int_{\theta_1}^{\theta_2} \frac{R \, d\theta \,
\hat{\theta} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

Simplification and Result

The calculation involves integrating the cross product over the range \( \theta_1 \) to \( \theta_2 \),
considering the direction of \( \hat{\theta} \) and \( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \). The resultant magnetic field \(
\mathbf{B} \) will have components in the \( x \)- and \( y \)-directions depending on the geometry and
position of \( \mathbf{r}_P \) relative to the arc.

Conclusion

The magnetic field produced by an arc of current can be determined using the Biot-Savart law by
considering the contributions from each infinitesimal segment of the arc. The direction and magnitude
of the magnetic field depend on the geometry of the arc, the radius \( R \), the current \( I \), and the
position \( \mathbf{r}_P \) where the field is being calculated. Integrating over the arc allows us to find
the total magnetic field at any point in space surrounding the arc.

AMPERES LAW
1. Explain how Ampere’s law relates the magnetic field produced by a current to the value of the
current
Ampère's law relates the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) produced by a steady electric current to the
value of the current itself. It is one of Maxwell's equations and is particularly useful in situations where
there is symmetry in the current distribution, such as in straight wires, solenoids, and toroids.

Ampère's Law Statement

Ampère's law states:

\[ \oint \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 I_{\text{enc}} \]

where:
- \( \mathbf{B} \) is the magnetic field,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is an infinitesimal element of length along the closed path \( C \) (often a circle around
the current),
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 \approx 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I_{\text{enc}} \) is the total current enclosed by the closed path \( C \).

How Ampère's Law Relates to Current

1. Current Distribution: Ampère's law assumes a symmetric current distribution, where the magnetic
field \( \mathbf{B} \) has cylindrical symmetry around the current-carrying element (such as a straight
wire).
2. Closed Loop Integration: The left-hand side of Ampère's law involves the line integral of \( \mathbf{B}
\) around a closed path \( C \). This path is chosen such that it encloses the current \( I_{\text{enc}} \).

3. Current Determination: By applying Ampère's law to a known geometry (e.g., a long straight wire),
one can determine the magnitude of the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) around the wire. Knowing \(
\mathbf{B} \) allows calculation of the current \( I_{\text{enc}} \) enclosed by the chosen path \( C \).

Application in Different Geometries

- Straight Wire: For a long straight wire, Ampère's law simplifies to \( B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r} \), where
\( r \) is the distance from the wire. This equation directly relates the magnetic field \( B \) to the current
\( I \) flowing through the wire.

- Solenoid: In a long solenoid, Ampère's law relates \( B \) to the total current \( I \) flowing through the
coils and the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.

- Toroid: In a toroidal coil, Ampère's law relates \( B \) to the current \( I \) flowing through the coils and
the number of turns of wire wrapped around the toroid.

Conclusion

Ampère's law is a powerful tool in electromagnetism that directly connects the magnetic field \(
\mathbf{B} \) around a current-carrying conductor to the magnitude of the current \( I \). By applying
this law in different geometries, one can calculate and predict the magnetic fields produced by various
configurations of current-carrying conductors, providing essential insights into electromagnetic
phenomena and facilitating the design of devices such as electromagnets, transformers, and electric
motors.

2. Calculate the magnetic field from a long straight wire, either thin or thick, by Ampere’s law
To calculate the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) produced by a long straight current-carrying wire using
Ampère's law, we follow these steps:

Setup and Assumptions

Let's consider a long straight wire carrying a steady current \( I \). We want to find the magnetic field at
a distance \( r \) from the wire using Ampère's law.

Ampère's Law for a Long Straight Wire

Ampère's law in its integral form states:

\[ \oint \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 I_{\text{enc}} \]

Where:
- \( \mathbf{B} \) is the magnetic field,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is an infinitesimal element of length along the closed path \( C \),
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 \approx 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I_{\text{enc}} \) is the total current enclosed by the closed path \( C \).

Applying Ampère's Law to a Long Straight Wire

1. Choosing the Amperian Loop: Choose a circular Amperian loop centered on the wire and at a distance
\( r \) from the wire. The magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) will be tangent to this loop.

2. Integration: Along the Amperian loop, the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) is constant in magnitude but
varies in direction. The line integral \( \oint \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{l} \) simplifies to \( B \cdot 2\pi r
\), where \( B \) is the magnitude of the magnetic field.

3. Current Enclosed: The current enclosed \( I_{\text{enc}} \) by the Amperian loop is simply \( I \), as the
loop surrounds the entire current flowing through the wire.

4. Applying Ampère's Law: Set up Ampère's law:

\[ B \cdot 2\pi r = \mu_0 I \]

5. Solve for \( B \):

\[ B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r} \]

Conclusion

The magnetic field \( B \) at a distance \( r \) from a long straight current-carrying wire is given by:

\[ \mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r} \hat{\mathbf{\phi}} \]

where \( \hat{\mathbf{\phi}} \) is the unit vector in the azimuthal direction around the wire
(perpendicular to the radial direction).

This result shows that the magnetic field strength \( B \) decreases inversely proportional to the distance
\( r \) from the wire and depends linearly on the current \( I \) flowing through the wire. This
relationship is crucial in understanding the magnetic fields produced by conductors and is fundamental
in electromagnetism and related applications.

SOLENOIDS AND TOROIDS

1. Establish the relationship foe how the magnetic field of a solenoid varies with distance and
current by using both the Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s law
To establish the relationship for how the magnetic field of a solenoid varies with distance and current,
we can utilize both the Biot-Savart law and Ampère's law. A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in the form
of a helix, typically with many turns, and it produces a magnetic field when a current flows through it.
Let's go through the process step by step:

Using Biot-Savart Law for a Solenoid

The Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) at a point due to a current element \(
d\mathbf{l} \) is:

\[ d\mathbf{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I \, d\mathbf{l} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}}{r^2} \]

where:
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 \approx 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I \) is the current flowing through the wire,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is the differential length element of the wire,
- \( \hat{\mathbf{r}} \) is the unit vector pointing from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point where the magnetic
field is being calculated,
- \( r \) is the distance from \( d\mathbf{l} \) to the point.

Magnetic Field of a Solenoid Using Biot-Savart Law

For a solenoid, which consists of \( N \) turns of wire per unit length, with total length \( L \), the
magnetic field inside the solenoid along its axis (assuming the solenoid is long enough that end effects
can be neglected) can be approximated by integrating the contributions from each turn of the coil.

1. Current Element \( d\mathbf{l} \): In a solenoid, each turn carries a current \( I \), so \( d\mathbf{l} =
dl \, \hat{\mathbf{z}} \), where \( dl \) is the differential length along the axis of the solenoid.

2. Distance \( r \): The distance \( r \) is measured along the axis of the solenoid.

3. Integration: Integrate over the length \( L \) of the solenoid to find the total magnetic field \(
\mathbf{B} \):

\[ \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{\mu_0 N I}{2} \hat{\mathbf{z}} \]

Here,
- \( \mathbf{r} \) is the distance along the axis of the solenoid,
- \( N \) is the number of turns per unit length (turns/m),
- \( I \) is the current flowing through each turn of the solenoid,
- \( \hat{\mathbf{z}} \) is the unit vector along the axis of the solenoid.

Using Ampère's Law for a Solenoid

Ampère's law in its integral form is:

\[ \oint \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 I_{\text{enc}} \]

where \( I_{\text{enc}} \) is the total enclosed current by the closed path \( C \).

Applying Ampère's Law to a Solenoid

For a solenoid, Ampère's law relates the magnetic field \( B \) around a closed loop encircling the
solenoid to the current \( I \) flowing through the turns of the solenoid. Consider a circular loop of radius
\( r \) encircling the solenoid along its axis:

\[ B \cdot 2\pi r = \mu_0 N I \]

Solving for \( B \):

\[ B = \mu_0 N I \]

This relationship shows that the magnetic field \( B \) inside a solenoid is directly proportional to the
product of the number of turns per unit length \( N \), the current \( I \) flowing through the solenoid,
and is independent of the distance \( r \) along the axis of the solenoid.

Summary

- Biot-Savart Law: Provides a detailed calculation of the magnetic field inside a solenoid by integrating
the contributions of each turn of the coil.
- Ampère's Law: Verifies the magnetic field inside the solenoid by considering the total current enclosed
by a circular path around the solenoid.

Together, these laws establish that the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) inside a solenoid is proportional
to \( N \cdot I \), where \( N \) is the number of turns per unit length and \( I \) is the current flowing
through the solenoid. This relationship holds true regardless of the distance along the axis of the
solenoid.

2. Establish a relationship for how the magnetic field of toroid varies with distance and current
by using Ampere’s law
To establish a relationship for how the magnetic field of a toroid varies with distance and current using
Ampère's law, we consider the configuration of a toroidal solenoid, which consists of a coil wound in the
shape of a torus.

Ampère's Law for a Toroid

Ampère's law states:

\[ \oint \mathbf{B} \cdot d\mathbf{l} = \mu_0 I_{\text{enc}} \]

where:
- \( \mathbf{B} \) is the magnetic field,
- \( d\mathbf{l} \) is an infinitesimal element of length along the closed path \( C \),
- \( \mu_0 \) is the permeability of free space (\( \mu_0 \approx 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \) T·m/A),
- \( I_{\text{enc}} \) is the total current enclosed by the closed path \( C \).

Magnetic Field of a Toroid Using Ampère's Law

Consider a toroid with \( N \) turns of wire wound uniformly around a toroidal core, carrying a current \(
I \).

1. Choice of Amperian Loop: Choose an Amperian loop that lies within the windings of the toroid,
encircling the toroidal core.

2. Magnetic Field Inside the Toroid: Inside the toroid, the magnetic field \( \mathbf{B} \) is uniform and
directed along the axis of symmetry of the toroid.

3. Applying Ampère's Law: For an Amperian loop encircling the toroid and lying within the windings,
Ampère's law simplifies to:

\[ B \cdot 2\pi r = \mu_0 N I \]

where:
- \( B \) is the magnetic field inside the toroid,
- \( r \) is the radius of the toroid,
- \( N \) is the total number of turns of wire in the toroid,
- \( I \) is the current flowing through each turn.

4. Solving for \( B \):

\[ B = \frac{\mu_0 N I}{2\pi r} \]

Here, \( r \) is the radius of the toroid.

Relationship for Magnetic Field with Distance and Current

From the equation \( B = \frac{\mu_0 N I}{2\pi r} \), we observe the following relationships:

- Magnetic Field \( B \): The magnetic field \( B \) inside the toroid is directly proportional to:
- \( N \): The total number of turns of wire in the toroid.
- \( I \): The current flowing through each turn of the toroid.
- \( \frac{1}{r} \): Inversely proportional to the radius \( r \) of the toroid.
- Distance \( r \): The magnetic field \( B \) decreases as \( \frac{1}{r} \), meaning it weakens with
increasing distance from the axis of the toroid.

- Current \( I \): Increasing the current \( I \) through the toroid increases the magnetic field \( B \).

Conclusion

The relationship derived from Ampère's law shows that the magnetic field \( B \) inside a toroid is
proportional to \( \frac{N \cdot I}{r} \), where \( N \) is the number of turns of wire in the toroid, \( I \) is
the current flowing through each turn, and \( r \) is the radius of the toroid. This relationship is
fundamental in understanding and designing toroidal devices such as transformers and inductors, where
controlling the magnetic field strength is crucial for their operation.

MAGNETISM IN MATTER
1. Classify magnetic materials as paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or ferromagnetic, based on their
response to a magnetic field
Magnetic materials can be classified into three main categories based on their response to an external
magnetic field: paramagnetic, diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic. These classifications depend on how the
atomic or molecular magnetic dipoles within the material interact with an applied magnetic field.

Paramagnetic Materials

Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons, which means they have a net magnetic dipole moment
even in the absence of an external magnetic field. When placed in an external magnetic field, these
materials align their magnetic dipoles with the field, resulting in a weak attraction to the magnetic field.
However, this alignment is temporary and disappears when the external field is removed.

Examples of paramagnetic materials: Aluminum, platinum, manganese, chromium, oxygen (in its
gaseous state), and most elements and compounds containing rare-earth ions.

Diamagnetic Materials

Diamagnetic materials have paired electrons, resulting in a net zero magnetic dipole moment in the
absence of an external magnetic field. When placed in an external magnetic field, diamagnetic materials
generate a small induced magnetic field in the direction opposite to that of the external field. This
induced magnetic field weakens the overall magnetic field within the material, causing a slight repulsion
from the magnetic field.

Examples of diamagnetic materials: Bismuth, copper, gold, silver, water, mercury, and most organic
compounds.

Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and exhibit spontaneous magnetization, meaning they
possess a permanent magnetic moment even without an external magnetic field. When placed in an
external magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials align their magnetic domains parallel to the applied
field, resulting in a strong attraction and significant enhancement of the external magnetic field. They
retain their magnetization after the external field is removed.

Examples of ferromagnetic materials: Iron, nickel, cobalt, gadolinium, and their alloys (e.g., steel).

Summary

- Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and are weakly attracted to magnetic fields.
- Diamagnetic materials have paired electrons and are weakly repelled by magnetic fields.
- Ferromagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and exhibit strong attraction and can retain
magnetization even after the external magnetic field is removed.

These classifications are essential for understanding the behavior of materials in various applications,
including magnetic storage, electronics, and medical imaging (e.g., MRI). The distinction between these
types of materials arises from their internal magnetic properties and how these properties interact with
external magnetic fields.

2. Sketch how magnetic dipoles align with the magnetic field in each type of substance
Let's sketch how magnetic dipoles align with the magnetic field in each type of substance: paramagnetic,
diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic.

Paramagnetic Materials

Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons, which possess a magnetic dipole moment. In the
absence of an external magnetic field, these dipoles are randomly oriented, resulting in no net magnetic
moment per unit volume. When an external magnetic field is applied, the dipoles align partially with the
field, as shown in the sketch below:

```
^
|
|
|
| | Magnetic Field (B)
|
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
 | | | |
| | | |
|___|__|__|______> Direction of Alignment of Magnetic Dipoles
```

Here, the magnetic dipoles (represented by arrows) align parallel to the external magnetic field (upward
direction). The alignment is not complete, resulting in a net weak magnetization parallel to the field.
When the external magnetic field is removed, the dipoles return to their random orientations, and the
material loses its magnetization.

Diamagnetic Materials

Diamagnetic materials have paired electrons, resulting in no net magnetic moment in the absence of an
external magnetic field. When an external magnetic field is applied, diamagnetic materials develop an
induced magnetic moment opposite to the direction of the external field. This results in a weak
repulsion from the external magnetic field, as shown in the sketch below:

```
^
|
|
|
| | Magnetic Field (B)
|
|
<----| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|___|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|______> Direction of Alignment of Magnetic Dipoles
```

Here, the magnetic dipoles align oppositely to the external magnetic field (downward direction). This
induced magnetic moment weakens the overall magnetic field within the material, causing a slight
repulsion.

Ferromagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials have unpaired electrons and exhibit spontaneous magnetization even in the
absence of an external magnetic field due to the alignment of magnetic domains. When an external
magnetic field is applied, these domains align further with the field, resulting in a strong attraction and
enhancement of the external magnetic field, as shown in the sketch below:

```
^
|
|
|
| | Magnetic Field (B)
|
|
<----|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|______> Direction of Alignment of Magnetic Domains
```

Here, the magnetic domains (represented by larger arrows) align strongly with the external magnetic
field (upward direction). This alignment results in a significant increase in the material's magnetization.
Even after the external magnetic field is removed, ferromagnetic materials can retain some
magnetization due to the alignment of domains.

Summary

- Paramagnetic materials: Dipoles align partially with the external magnetic field.
- Diamagnetic materials: Induce a magnetic moment opposite to the external magnetic field.
- Ferromagnetic materials: Domains align strongly with the external magnetic field, leading to a
significant enhancement of magnetization.

These sketches illustrate how different types of magnetic materials respond differently to an external
magnetic field based on their intrinsic magnetic properties. Understanding these responses is crucial for
various applications in physics, materials science, and engineering.

3. Define hysteresis and magnetic susceptibility, which determines the type of magnetic material
Sure, let's define hysteresis and magnetic susceptibility, which are important concepts in understanding
the behavior of magnetic materials.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis refers to the phenomenon where the magnetization of a material lags behind the applied
magnetic field. In simpler terms, when you subject a magnetic material to a changing magnetic field (like
cycling the field strength from high to low and back), the magnetization of the material doesn't
immediately follow the changes in the applied field. Instead, there is a delay or lag in how the material
magnetizes and demagnetizes.

Key Points about Hysteresis:

- Magnetic Hysteresis Loop: This is a graphical representation of the relationship between the magnetic
induction \( B \) (magnetic field) and the magnetizing force \( H \) (magnetic field strength) of a material.
It shows how the magnetic flux density \( B \) varies as the external magnetic field \( H \) is increased
and then decreased.

- Remanence: Also known as residual magnetization, it is the magnetic induction that remains in a
magnetic material after the removal of an external magnetic field.

- Coercivity: This is the measure of the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized. It indicates the
strength of the magnetic field required to reduce the material's magnetization to zero after the material
has been magnetized to saturation.

- Applications: Understanding hysteresis is crucial in designing magnetic materials for applications such
as magnetic memory devices, transformers, electric motors, and magnetic shielding.

Magnetic Susceptibility

Magnetic susceptibility (\( \chi \)) is a measure of how easily a material can be magnetized when placed
in an external magnetic field. It quantifies the degree of magnetization in response to an applied
magnetic field.

Key Points about Magnetic Susceptibility:

- Paramagnetic Materials: Have a positive magnetic susceptibility because they are weakly attracted to
magnetic fields.

- Diamagnetic Materials: Have a negative magnetic susceptibility because they are weakly repelled by
magnetic fields.

- Ferromagnetic Materials: Have a very high positive magnetic susceptibility due to their strong
attraction and ability to retain magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.

- Mathematical Definition: Magnetic susceptibility \( \chi \) is defined as the ratio of magnetization \( M

\) (magnetic moment per unit volume) to the applied magnetic field \( H \):

\[ \chi = \frac{M}{H} \]
- Dimensionless Quantity: Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity because both
magnetization \( M \) (A/m or emu/cm³) and magnetic field \( H \) (A/m) have the same units.

Determining the Type of Magnetic Material

The type of magnetic material (paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or ferromagnetic) is determined by its

magnetic susceptibility and its response to an external magnetic field:

- Paramagnetic Materials: Have a small positive magnetic susceptibility (\( \chi > 0 \)).

- Diamagnetic Materials: Have a small negative magnetic susceptibility (\( \chi < 0 \)).

- Ferromagnetic Materials: Have a very high positive magnetic susceptibility (\( \chi \) can be extremely
large).

Understanding hysteresis and magnetic susceptibility helps in characterizing and utilizing magnetic
materials effectively in various technological applications, from data storage and sensors to electrical
devices and medical equipment.