UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

College of Arts and Sciences

Division of Physical Sciences and Mathematics

MATH 50: Applied Calculus

1st Semester AY 2023-2024

Module 1: Preliminaries

1 Relations
Definition 1.0.1. A relation R from a set X to set Y is a set of ordered pairs such that to each object in

s
X, there corresponds at least one object in Y .

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Relations can be represented by set of ordered pairs, equations, inequalities, or graphs.

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Example: The following are examples of relations:
1. A = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)}

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A relation from the set {1, 3, 5} to the set {2, 4, 6}.
2. c = 2d + 7
We can assign values for d and solve for a corresponding value for c. Thus, there is a relation from
h
the set of values of d to the set of values of c.
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3. x + y < 7
In this inequality, if we assign a value for x, there can be more than one corresponding value for y.
Thus, there is a relation from the set of values of x to the set of values of y.
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y
4. Each point in a graph is associated to an ordered
pair. Thus, there is a relation from the set of x-
values to the set of y-values.
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x
o
y

1.1 Domain and Range of a Relation

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Definition 1.1.1. The domain of relation R, denoted by domR, is the set that contains the first compo-
nents of all the ordered pairs in R.
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It is also defined as the set of independent variables in R.

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domR = {x ∈ X | ∃ y ∈ Y where (x, y) ∈ R}

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Definition 1.1.2. The range of relation R, denoted by ranR, is the set that contains the first components
of all the ordered pairs in R.

It is also defined as the set of dependent variables in R.

ranR = {y ∈ Y | ∃ x ∈ X where (x, y) ∈ R}

1.2 Kinds of Relations

1. One-to-One 2. One-to-Many
X Y X Y

1
 3. Many-to-One 4. Many-to-Many
X Y X Y

2 Functions

s
Definition 2.0.1. A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to each object in X exactly

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one object in a set Y . In symbols,
1. f : X → Y is a function if for any x ∈ X, there is exactly one y ∈ Y such that the ordered pair
(x, y) ∈ f .

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2. ALL elements of the first set must have unique partners in the second set. The set X is called the
domain of f and the set of assigned objects in Y is called the range of f . This means that given the

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function f : X → Y , domf = X while ranf ⊆ Y (the range is only a subset of Y ).

2.1 The Function Notation

If y is a function of x, we write
h y = f (x)
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where f is the symbol used as a name of the function, x is the independent variable, y is the dependent
variable, and f (x) is the value of the function f at x.

Example: Let f (x) = 2x2 − 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2. Evaluate the following:

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1. f (3) =
2. g(2x − 1) =
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2.2 Function vs Relation

o

• Functions can be represented as a set of ordered pairs, equation, or graph.

- Can inequalities represent a function? Why or why not?
y

• A function that is expressed as a set of ordered pairs (x, y) must NOT contain at least two ordered
pairs with a common x-component, called abscissa.
sit

• Using the vertical line test, a vertical line must intersect the graph of a function at exactly one point
only.
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y y
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x x
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Using the vertical line test, the graph on the left is a function, while the graph on the right is not.
• Going back to the kinds of relations, which are functions? not functions or mere relations?
• All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.

Example:

1. Let f : A → B.
If A = {a, b, c} and B = {2, 3, 5, 6}, then one function that we can define from A to B is

f = {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 6)}

2
 2. Let f : A → B. If A = R and B = R such that y = 3x + 5, then

f = {(x, y)|y = 3x + 5}

3. Let f : A → B. If A = R and B = R such that y > 3x + 2,

f = {(0, 3), (0, 4), (0, 5), . . . },

f is not a function.
4. Graph of y = 2x + 5

6
5

s
4

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3
2
1
x

pi
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2

✓ y should be present;
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Remarks. If a function is described using a defining equation, then
h
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✓ y has NO even exponent; and
✓ y has NO absolute value symbol.
SA he

Example: Determine whether the relation is a function.

1. f = {(9, 2), (2, 9), (1, 1), (0, 3), (3, 6), (6, 1)}
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2. g = {(x, y)|y 4 = 2 − x2 }

3. h = {(x, y)|x2 − y = 4}
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4. p = {(x, y)|y > 4x}

√
5. r = {(x, y)|6 = x − 2}
y
sit

2.3 Domain and Range of Functions

Definition 2.3.1. Let f : X → Y be a function.
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• The domain of f , denoted by domf , is defined as the set of all its x-coordinates (abscissa). In symbols,
domf = {x|(x, y) ∈ f }.
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• The range of f , denoted by ranf , is defined as the set of all its y-coordinates (ordinate). In symbols,
ranf = {y|(x, y) ∈ f }.
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Remarks. In finding the domain and range of a function, note that:

P
1. in any fraction , the denominator Q is never allowed to be zero.
Q
√
2. in n
a where n is even, it is required that a ≥ 0.

Example: Find the domain and range of the following functions.

1. f (x) = 4 − 3x
2. g(x) = {(q, s), (e, g), (w, d), (r, a)}
x
3. h(x) =
x+2

3
 2.4 Intercepts of Functions
Definition 2.4.1. The x-intercept (also known as the zero of the function) is the abscissa of the point
where the graph of the function crosses the x-axis and is obtained by setting y = 0 in the equation of the
function.
In simpler terms, the x-intercept is the value of x when y is zero.
Definition 2.4.2. The y-intercept is the ordinate of the point where the graph of the function crosses the
y-axis and is obtained by setting x = 0 in the equation of the function.
In simpler terms, the y-intercept is the value of y when x is zero.

Example: Find the intercepts of the given function.

1. f (x) = x2 + 2x + 1
2. g(x) = 2x − 7

s
3. s = {(1, 2), (3, 5), (6, 1), (0, 0), (9, 4), (8, 0)}
√

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4. y = x − 2
2x
5. h(x) =
3+x

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2.5 Odd or Even Functions

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Definition 2.5.1. Let f be a function. Suppose x and (−x) are in the domain of f . Then
1. f is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x), and
2. f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x).
h
Example: Determine which of the function is odd, even, or neither.
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1. f (x) = 3x2 − 2
2. f (x) = −x3 + 2x
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3. g(x) = x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 9
4. h(x) = x6 − x4 + x2 − 1
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2.5.1 Properties of the Graph of Odd and Even Functions

• The graph of an even function has a y-axis as its axis of symmetry.
o

y
y

f (−x) f (x)
sit

x
−x x
er
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Graph of f (x) = 3x2 − 2 in the preceding example.

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• The graph of an odd function has a 180-degree symmetry about the origin.
y

f (x)
equal distance

x
−x x

f (−x)

Graph of f (x) = −x3 + 2x in the preceding example.

4
 3 Special Types of Functions
3.1 Polynomial Functions
Definition 3.1.1. A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer.

The numbers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are called coefficients of the polynomial. The number a0 is called the
constant coefficient or constant term. The number an , the coefficient of the highest power, is the
leading coefficient, and the term an xn is the leading term.

Example: Which of the following represents a polynomial function?

s
1. f (x) = 5x4 − x2 + 1
√

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2. h(x) = x2 + x + 3
3. g(x) = 2x(x − 1)

pi
2
4. y = x3 − +5
x
x+3

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5. G(x) =
2
6. F (x) = 2

3.1.1
h
Constant Function, f (x) = a0
• Graph is a horizontal line passing through y = a0
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• Domain: R
• Range: {a0 }
SA he

• x-intercept: none if a0 ̸= 0; k or (k, 0) where k ∈ R if a0 = 0

• y-intercept: a0 or (0, a0 )
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Example: Find the domain, range, and intercepts of each function. Sketch the graph.
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1. f (x) = 2
2. g(x) = −3
y

3. f (x) = 0
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3.1.2 Linear Function, f (x) = a1 x + a0 = mx + b

• Graph is a line (increasing or decreasing). To graph, assign at least 2 values or obtain at least 2 points
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and connect them with a straight line.

• Domain: R
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• Range: R
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b b
• x-intercept: mx + b = 0 ⇔ x=− , or the ordered pair − ,0
m m
• y-intercept: b or (0, b)

Definition 3.1.2 (Slope). Consider y = f (x) = mx + b, m ̸= 0. The number m is called the slope of the
linear function f .
i. If m > 0 (m is positive), the graph of the linear function is increasing.
ii. If m < 0 (m is negative), the graph of the linear function is decreasing.
Given two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ),
y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1

Example: Find the domain, range, and intercepts of each function. Sketch the graph.
1. f (x) = 2x − 3
2. g(x) = −3x + 4

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 Forms of Equations of Lines
A. General Form of the Equation of a Line, Ax + By + C = 0
where A, B, and C are real numbers, A and B are not both zero.
B. Slope-Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line, y = mx + b
An equation of the line that has slope m and y-intercept b.
C. Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line, y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
An equation of the line that passes through the point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m.
 
y2 − y1
D. Two Point Form of the Equation of a Line, y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1
An equation of the line that passes through the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
x y
E. Intercept Form of the Equation of a Line, + = 1, where a, b ̸= 0
a b

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An equation of the line that has x-intercept a and y-intercept b.

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Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

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Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of nonvertical lines L1 and L2 . Then:
• L1 and L2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2 , while

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1
• L1 and L2 are perpendicular or orthogonal if and only if m1 = − or m1 · m2 = −1.
m2

Example:
h 1
1. Find the general equation of the line having x-intercept and y-intercept −3.
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2
2. Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 3y + 2x = 6.
3. Let L be the line 4x + 3y − 6 = 0. Find the general equation of the line L1 parallel to L through the
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point P (−1, 4).

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3.1.3 Quadratic Function, f (x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = ax2 + bx + c, a ̸= 0

• Graph is a parabola opening upward (a > 0) or downward (a < 0)
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b 4ac − b2
    
b b
• Vertex: − , f − or − ,
2a 2a 2a 4a
y

• Domain: R
sit

4ac − b2 4ac − b2
   
• Range: When a > 0: y|y ≥ or , +∞
4a  4a
4ac − b2 4ac − b2
  
a < 0: y|y ≤ or −∞,
4a 4a
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• x-intercept: ax2 + bx + c = 0 (solve for real values of x) √

−b ± b2 − 4ac
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You may also use the quadratic formula: x =

2a
• y-intercept: c or (0, c)
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• To graph, find the vertex, and assign values to the left and right of the vertex.
• The quadratic function has a minimum value at the vertex if its graph is opening upward (a > 0)
and a maximum value at the vertex if its graph is opening downward (a < 0).
y y

b 4ac − b2
 
− ,
2a 4a x

x
b 4ac − b2
 
− ,
2a 4a

a>0 a<0

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 Example: Find the domain, range, intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
1. g(x) = x2
2. f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6
3. g(x) = 4x − x2

4. y − 2 = 4(x + 1)2

3.2 Square Root Functions

Before we proceed to the different types and their respective properties, let us review the absolute value
equations and inequalities.

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Definition 3.2.1. For any positive real number c,

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• |x| = c ⇐⇒ x = ±c

• |x| ≥ c ⇐⇒ x ≥ c or x ≤ −c

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• |x| ≤ c ⇐⇒ −c ≤ x ≤ c

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√
3.2.1 Square Root Function of the form f (x) = a bx − c + d
• Graph is a half-parabola opening to the right (b > 0) or left (b < 0)
• Domain: Solve the inequality bx − c ≥ 0 (radicand must be nonnegative)
h
• Range: If a > 0: [d, +∞)
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a < 0: (−∞, d]
√
• x-intercept: a bx − c + d = 0 (solve for x)
• y-intercept: Let x = 0 and solve for y
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• Endpoint: (x∗ , y ∗ ) where x∗ is the bound of the domain and y ∗ is the bound of the range.
• To graph, assign values for points in the domain especially for the endpoint.
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Example: Find the domain, range, intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
o

√
1. g(x) = x
√
2. f (x) = 3x − 2 + 4
y

√
3. f (x) = x − 3
sit

p p
3.2.2 Square Root Function of the form f (x) = a2 − x2 + d or f (x) = − a2 − x2 + d
er

• Graph is a semi-circle with radius a

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• Domain: [−a, a]
p
• Range: [d, a + d] for y = a2p− x2 + d
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[−a + d, d] for y = − a2 − x2 + d
p p
• x-intercept(s): a and −a if d = 0; otherwise, solve for a2 − x2 + d = 0 or − a2 − x2 + d = 0
p
• y-intercept: When d = 0, a for y = ap 2 − x2 + d = 0, and

−a for y = − a2 − x2 + d = 0;
Otherwise, solve for y when x = 0

Example: Find the domain, range, intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
p
1. g(x) = 9 − x2
p
2. h(x) = 2 − x2
p
3. f (x) = − 4 − x2

7
 p p
3.2.3 Square Root Function of the form f (x) = x2 − a2 + d or f (x) = − x2 − a2 + d
• Graph is a half-hyperbola
• Domain: (−∞, −a] ∪ [a, +∞)
p
• Range: [d, ∞) for y = xp2 − a2 + d

(−∞, d] for y = − x2 − a2 + d
p p
• x-intercept(s): a and −a if d = 0; otherwise, solve for x2 − a2 + d = 0 or − x2 − a2 + d = 0
• y-intercept: None

Example: Find the domain, range, intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
p
1. f (x) = − x2 − 4

s
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p
2. f (x) = 2 + x2 − 4

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3.3 Absolute Value Function, f (x) = a|bx − c| + d
• Graph is a “V”-shaped (a > 0) or “∧”-shaped (a < 0)

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c 
• Vertex: ,d
b
• Domain: R h
• Range: a < 0: (−∞, d]
a > 0: [d, +∞)
YA P
• x-intercept: a|bx − c| + d = 0 (solve for x)
• y-intercept: Let x = 0, then solve for y
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• To graph, find the vertex (by letting bx − c = 0) and assign values to the left and right of the vertex;
plot the points and connect the vertex to the point to its left (right) with a straight ray.
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Example: Find the domain, range, intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
1. y = |x|
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2. y = |x − 1| − 2
3. y = −|3x − 5| − 1
y
sit

3.4 Rational Function

Definition 3.4.1. A rational function is a function of the form
er

P (x) an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

f (x) = =
Q(x) bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0
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where P (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +· · ·+a1 x+a0 and Q(x) = bm xm +bm−1 xm−1 +· · ·+b1 x+b0 are polynomials.
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The domain of rational function f is domf = {x|Q(x) ̸= 0}. For the range, solve for x in terms of y, and
H(y)
get g(y) = . Then, ranf = {J(y) ̸= 0}.
J(y)
P (x)
Definition 3.4.2 (Vertical Asymptote). For f (x) = , the line x = a is a vertical asymptote if
Q(x)
Q(a) = 0 but P (a) ̸= 0.
P (x) an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
Definition 3.4.3 (Horizontal Asymptote). For f (x) = = ,
Q(x) bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0
i. If n < m, then f has a horizontal asymptote y = 0.
an
ii. If n = m, then f has a horizontal asymptote y = .
bm
iii. If n > m, then f has no horizontal asymptote.

Example: Find the asymptotes if there is/are any of the following.

x−1
1. f (x) =
x

8
 2x − 3
2. g(x) =
x+1
x2 − 1
3. h(x) =
x2 − 4
1
4. r(x) =
x2 −9
x2
5. p(x) =
x−2
Example: Define the domain and range of the following.
x−1
1. f (x) =
x
2x − 3
2. g(x) =

s
x+1

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3.5 Piecewise Function

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Definition 3.5.1. Piecewise function (or split function) is a function that is defined by different expres-
sions on various positions of its domain.

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Example: Find the value of f (a).
(
x + 1, x < 1
1. f (x) =
x2 , x≥1
h
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a. f (−1) b. f (4) c. f (1)
√
 2 − x,
 x < −2
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2. f (x) = −2, −2 ≤ x < 1

9 − x2 ,

x≥3


a. f (2) b. f (−1) c. f (11)

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Example: Find the domain, range, and intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
o

(
x + 1, x < 1
1. f (x) =
x2 , x≥1
y

√
 2 − x,
 x < −2
sit

2. f (x) = −2, −2 ≤ x < 1

9 − x2 ,

x≥3

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3.5.1 Signum Function

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Definition 3.5.2. The signum function (or sign function), denoted by sgn(x), is a special type of piecewise
function given by 
−1, x < 0
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
f (x) = sgn(x) = 0, x = 0

1, x > 0


• domf = R
• ranf = {−1, 0, 1}

Example: Find the functional values of the following:

1. sgn(−1.5) 2. sgn(50) 3. sgn(4)

Example: If f (x) = sgn(x + 2), find

1. f (−5) 2. f (0) 3. f (−2)

Example: Find the domain, range, and intercepts of the given function. Sketch the graph.
1. f (x) = sgn(x + 2)
2. g(x) = sgn(3x + 2) − 3

9
 4 Operations on Functions
Let f and g be two functions of x, and Df and Dg be the domains of f and g, respectively. Then:
1. Sum: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
• dom(f + g) = Df ∩ Dg
2. Difference: (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
• dom(f − g) = Df ∩ Dg

3. Product: (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x)

• dom(f · g) = Df ∩ Dg
 
f f (x)
4. Quotient: (x) = where g(x) ̸= 0
g  g(x)

f
• dom = Df ∩ [Dg − {x|x ∈ Dg , g(x) = 0}]

s
g

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5. Composition of f by g: (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
• dom(f ◦ g) = {x|x ∈ Dg , g(x) ∈ Df }
• The domain of the composition is NOT simply the domain of the resulting function,

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say (f ◦ g)∗ , but the intersection of the domain of the resulting function and
the inner function g, i.e.,

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dom(f ◦ g) = Dg ∩ D(f ◦g)∗

• Read more
√
Example: Given that f (x) = 8x − 9 and g(x) =
h 2x − 1, find the functions listed below. Determine their
domain.
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a. (f + g)(x) d. (f ◦ g)(x)
b. (f · g)(x) e. (g ◦ f )(x)
 
f
SA he

c. (x)
g
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5 Inverse of a Function
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Definition 5.0.1 (One-to-One Function). A function f is said to be one-to-one if and only if for any
two numbers x1 and x2 , x1 ̸= x2 in the domain of f , then f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ). In another way, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
then x1 = x2 .
y

Example: Non-example:
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1. f (x) = 3x + 2 1. h(x) = |x|

2. g(x) = x3 2. m(x) = x2
er

Remarks.
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• This means that no two distinct elements/components in the domain of f must have the same function
value for the function to be one-to-one.
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• The contrapositive is also true: If the function values f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) are equal, then x1 and x2 must
be equal or the same.

Definition 5.0.2 (Horizontal Line Test). A function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line
intersects the graph of the function in no more than one point.
y y

One-to-one function Not one-to-one function

10
 Definition 5.0.3 (Inverse of a Function). If f is a one-to-one function defined by the set of ordered pairs
(x, y), then there is a function f −1 , called the inverse function of f , defined by the set of ordered pairs
(y, x); i.e.,
f −1 = {(y, x)|(x, y) ∈ f }.
In equation form,
x = f −1 (y) if and only if y = f (x)

5.1 Domain and Range of Inverse Functions

• domf −1 = ranf
• ranf −1 = domf

Remarks.

s
• The graph of f and f −1 is symmetric with respect to the line y = x, that is, the graph of f −1 is the

ne
reflection of the graph of f with respect to the line y = x.

y f

pi
x
=
y
f −1

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(a, 0) x
h (0, a)
YA P
SA he

• f f −1 (x) = x where x ∈ domf −1 , and f −1 (f (x)) = x where x ∈ domf

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Example: Let f (x) = 2x. Find f −1 (x), and evaluate f −1 (f (4)) and f f −1 (4) .


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5.2 How to Find the Inverse of a Function

1. Let y = f (x). Then we solve for x in terms of y.
y

2. Obtain x = f −1 (y).
sit

3. Interchange the variables x and y to retain x as the independent variable and y as the dependent
variable.
er

Example: Determine if the function is one-to-one. If the function is one-to-one, find the equation of its
inverse. Specify the domain and the range of the function and its inverse. Sketch the graph of the function
iv

together with its inverse.

1. f = {(a, 1), (b, 4), (c, 2), (d, 0)}

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2. f (x) = 2x
√
3. f (x) = x − 1

6 Exponents
6.1 Laws of Exponents
Given the constants m and n,

• a0 = 1 1
• a−m =
am
• am · an = am+n an
• = an−m
am
1 √
• (am )n = amn • an = n a

11
 Example: Evaluate the following:
1. 215 ÷ 29
134 × 13
2.
133
3. (32 y 5 z 4 )2
4. (456 y 3 π 420 a69 )0
5. (3−3 )2

6.2 Exponential Functions

Definition 6.2.1. A function of the form f (x) = ax where a > 0, is called an exponential function with
base a.

s
ne
6.2.1 The Natural Number e and the Natural Exponential Function
Definition 6.2.2 (Euler’s Number as the Natural Number). Among all the possible values for the
base of exponential functions, there exists a particular base that plays a special role in calculus. The base is

pi
referred to as the Euler’s Number, e. The value to six decimal places is given by the following:
e ≈ 2.718282

S ilip
Note that Euler’s Number an irrational number credited to Leonhard Euler in honor of recognizing the
mathematical importance of this constant.
Definition 6.2.3. The function f (x) = ex is called the natural exponential function. Sometimes, the
h
natural exponential function is denoted by exp(x), i.e.,
YA P
f (x) = ex = exp(x)

6.2.2 Properties of Exponential Functions

SA he

• The domain of the exponential function f (x) = ax is domf = R, and the range is ranf = R+ . This
means that functional values are always positive.
• The graph of the function passes through (0, 1) because a0 = 1.
VI f t

• The x-axis or the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

• The functional behavior depends on the value of a:
o

– If a > 1, the function is increasing.

– If 0 < a < 1, the function is decreasing.
y

– If a = 1, the function is constant. (Why?)

sit

 x
1
• The graph of y = is the reflection of y = ax about the y-axis. (Why?)
a
er

y
7 y = 2x
 x
1 6
y=
2
iv

4
Un

2
(0, 1)
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

7 The Logarithm
7.1 The Logarithm vis-à-vis the Exponent
The concept of logarithm is that it is an exponent. To be specific, if a > 0 and a ̸= 1, then for a positive
value of the expression
loga x
is read as the logarithm of x in the base a.
For example, we have log2 8 = 3 because 23 = 8. This means that the value of the logarithm is the
exponent where the base a needs to be raised in to get x.

12
 7.2 The Laws of Logarithms
1. loga a = 1
2. loga 1 = 0

3. loga (M r ) = r loga M (Power Rule for Logarithms)

4. loga (M N ) = loga M + loga N (Product Rule for Logarithms)
 
M
5. loga = loga M − loga N (Quotient Rule for Logarithms)
N
loga M
6. = logN M (Change of Base Formula)
loga N

Remarks

s
1. There is no corresponding rule for the logarithm of a sum or a difference, i.e.,

ne
loga (x + y) ̸= loga x + loga y

pi
2. Don’t improperly simplify quotients or powers of logarithms.
 
loga x x r
̸= loga and (loga x) ̸= r(loga x)

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loga y y

Example: h
1. Expand the logarithm in terms of sums and differences.
YA P
xy 5
a. log2 √
2
p
3 1
b. log a2 b− 4 c 3
SA he

2. Combine the expression into a single logarithm.

a. 5 log 2 + log 3 − log 8
VI f t

1
b. ln x − ln x2 − 1 + 2 ln(x + 3)


3
o

7.3 Logarithmic Functions

y

Definition 7.3.1. A function of the form f (x) = loga x such that a > 0 and a ̸= 1, is called a logarithmic
sit

function with base b.

7.3.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function

er

The function f (x) = loge x is called the natural logarithm function. This function is the inverse of the
natural exponential function f (x) = ex , and is often denoted by:
iv

f (x) = loge x = ln x
Un

7.3.2 The Common Logarithmic Function

A logarithmic function with base 10, called the common logarithm, is denoted by omitting the base, i.e.,

f (x) = log10 x = log x

7.3.3 Properties of Logarithmic Functions

• The domain of the logarithmic function f (x) = loga x is domf = R+ , and its range is ranf = R.
This means that functional arguments are always positive.

• The graph of the function passes through (1, 0) because loga 1 = 0.

• The y-axis or the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
• The functional behavior depends on the value of b:
– If b > 1, the function is increasing.
– If 0 < b < 1, the function is decreasing.
– If b = 1, it is not a function.

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 • The graph of y = log a1 x is the reflection of y = loga x about the x-axis.

y
4

3
y = log2 x
2

1
(1, 0) x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1

−2
y = log 12 x
−3

−4

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ne
pi
8 Relationship Between Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
From the previous discussion, the graph of y = ax such that a > 0 and a ̸= 1 passes the horizontal line

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test (it is a one-to-one function). Therefore, it has an inverse. From our discussion on inverses, we can
interchange x and y and solve for the value of y.
h x = ay

But the exponential and logarithmic forms dictate that this can be rewritten as:
YA P
y = loga x

We have shown that the exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other, thus
SA he

x = ay ⇐⇒ y = loga x

Example: The previous examples show the exponential and logarithmic forms of different equations.
VI f t

log10 100 = 2 because 102 = 100

1 1
log10 = −3 because 10−3 =
o

1000 1000
logb 1 = 0 because b0 = 1
log2 16 = 4 because 24 = 16
y

logb b = 1 because b1 = b
sit

8.1 Other Properties of Exponents and Logarithms (Cancellation Properties)

er

1. aloga x = x 3. eln x = x 5. 10log x = x

2. loga (ax ) = x 4. ln(ex ) = x 6. log(10x ) = x
iv

Example: Find the value(s) of x such that the following is true.

Un

1
1. log x =
2
2. ln(x + 1) = 1
3. 54x = 25x+2

9 Vertical and Horizontal Displacement of the Graph of Exponen-

tial and Logarithmic Functions
Consider the functions f (x) = ax−c + d and g(x) = loga (x − c) + d.

The value of c determines the horizontal displacement of the graph of f (x) = ax or g(x) = loga x.
When c > 0, the graph shifts |c| units to the right; when c < 0, the graph shift |c| units to the left.

Similarly, the value of d determines the vertical displacement of the graph of f (x) = ax or g(x) =
loga x. When d > 0, the graph shifts |d| units upward; when d < 0, the graph shift |d| units downward.

For example, let us sketch the graph of f (x) = 2x+1 − 3 and g(x) = ln(x − 1) + 2.

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 y y
7 f (x) = 2x
4
6
3
5
2
4 g(x) = ln x
1
3 (1, 0) x
2 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(0, 1) −1
1
−2
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −3
−1
−4
−2

Graph of f (x) = 2x . Graph of g(x) = log2 x.

s
ne
Now, we include the horizontal displacements.
y y

pi
7 f (x) = 2x
4
6
3

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5
2 g(x) = ln x
4 g(x) = ln(x − 1)
1
3 (2, 0) x
2 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h (−1, 1)
1
−1

f (x) = 2x+1 −2
YA P
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −3
−1
−4
−2
SA he

Graph of f (x) = 2x+1 . Graph of g(x) = ln(x − 1).

VI f t

Lastly, we include the vertical displacements.

y y
o

5 f (x) = 2x 4
g(x) = ln(x − 1) + 2
4 3
(2, 2)
y

3 2 g(x) = ln x
sit

2 1
x
1 f (x) = 2x+1 − 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
−1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
er

−1 −2
(−1, −2)
−2 −3
iv

−3 −4

−4
Un

Graph of f (x) = 2x+1 − 3. Graph of g(x) = ln(x − 1) + 2.

Example: Sketch the graph of the following functions in the same coordinate plane and determine their
domain and range.
 x
1
1. f (x) = + 1; g(x) = log 12 (x − 1)
2

2. 3x+1 − 1; g(x) = −1 + log3 (x + 1)

3. f (x) = −(ex + 2); g(x) = ln(−x − 2)

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